Information Systems and Databases

Information Systems
Characteristics
● the organisation of data to produce information for end-users
● end-users analyse of information to give knowledge
● information systems come in different types depending on purposes, including:
- process transaction (Transaction Processing systems)
- provide users with information about an organisation
- help decision-making (Decision Support systems)
- manage information used within an organisation (Database Information Systems)

Environment • Everything that influences and is influenced by the information system.

• Any organisation, business or individual that supplies and/or receives data to or from
the system

Physical, Social, Technological, Economic, Political, Legal

Boundary • The limit between the system and the environment

User • A person who views or uses the information output from the system

Purpose • Who or what the information system is for (individuals and/or organisations).
• The aim or objective of the system and the reason it exists

Processes • Computer-based and non-computer based activities

Collecting, Organising, Analysing, Storing and Retrieving, Processing, Transmitting

and Receiving, Displaying

Participants A special type of user who carries out 1+ processing within the system

Data/Information → Data = Raw words and characters inputted into system

→ Information = output displayed by the system, meaning assigned to raw data.

Information Hardware and Software used in the system

Technology

System Resources Participants, Data/Information and Information Technology

Database Information Systems

School Databases (timetable system)
➔ Environment - school community, Board of Studies (DET), Education system
➔ Purpose - Administration of school activities
➔ Data/Information - Staff/student personal/academic details, times tables and resources
➔ Participants - Administrative and teaching staff. Students who enter data (swiping
student cards for library loans). ICT personnel such as database administrators.
 ➔ Processes
◆ COLLECTING – Enrolment forms, attendance and marklists, purchase of
resources
◆ ORGANISING – Organising information in neat categories within database
◆ STORING AND RETRIEVING – Storing information in the database for retrieval
(from staff administrators, like the office ladies, etc)
◆ ANALYSING – Creating student lists, timetables, reports, financial reports and
records, to be able to interpret and figure out what to do within the year/month
◆ PROCESSING – Changing pre-existing records every year to up-to-date
◆ TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING – Sending relevant data to Board of Studies,
DET or a government education department.
◆ DISPLAYING – Displaying information in monitors or printouts
➔ Information Technology - PCs, networks and servers. Internet connections, barcode
readers. Associated software needed to run the school database.

Roads and Traffic Authority

➔ Environment - Drivers, instructors and examiners; vehicle owners and inspectors;
Department of Transport and legislative bodies; Police and courts.
➔ Purpose - Manage registration of drivers and motor vehicles in NSW. Provide information
to government and police
➔ Data/Information - Personal and licence details; Driver’s history; vehicle details;
insurance and history; GST records
➔ Participants - Staff at RTA motor registries and vehicle inspection stations. Police
personnel; ICT personnel such as data entry clerks, system managers
➔ Processes
◆ COLLECTING – via forms for registration, licenses, inspections and tests
◆ ORGANISING – Information into relevant categories within database
◆ STORING AND RETRIEVING – Storing information in the database for retrieval
(from Staff at RTA motor registries, examiners etc)
◆ ANALYSING – Statistics on vehicles and drivers to interpret relevant information
◆ PROCESSING – Certain information may have to be updated
◆ TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING – Renewal forms sent to vehicle and licence
owners, data sent to police, vehicle inspection reports and insurance details sent
to RTA.
◆ DISPLAYING – Displaying information in monitors or printouts
➔ Information Technology - Data entry and display terminals, EFTPOS machines, barcode
scanners, networks; Associated software: DRIVES integrated driver licensing, vehicle
registration software system

Video Stores
➔ Environment - Video hire market, video suppliers
➔ Purpose - Keep records of stock, customers and loans
➔ Data/Information - Customer details, loan details, video details, business and GST
records
 ➔ Participants - Store staff, head office staff, business managers. Customers
➔ Processes
◆ COLLECTING – From membership applications, rentals, arrival of new products,
relevant information surrounding these
◆ ORGANISING – Information is sorted into relevant categories within
product/customer database
◆ STORING AND RETRIEVING – Storing information in the database for retrieval
(from Staff at Video Rental Stores, receipts from users etc)
◆ ANALYSING – Providing statistics on customers, rentals and non-returns
◆ PROCESSING – Certain entries may be removed completely, summary details
are revised, prices can be changed etc.
◆ TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING – Transmitting data to head-office/tax-office
◆ DISPLAYING – Displaying information in monitors or printouts
➔ Information Technology - Keyboard and terminal for initial data entry and searching
records, Barcode scanners as database input devices, EFTPOS machines; Network
links to head office and Associated software

Organisation
● Database = an organised collection of data. A place to organise and store data for later
uses (Data = Raw facts + Information = Data with meaning)
● Organising = The information process that determines the format in which data will be
arranged and represented in preparation for other information processes.
- Computer-based is sorted into 3 categories; flat-file database, relational database,
hypermedia system
- Non-computer based include; telephone books, card based applications
Computer vs Non-computer based Databases:
Organising Advantages Disadvantages
Method

Non • Does not require computer, batteries or power
computer supply
based • Easily portable (light weight)
• No special skills or training needed to use them
• Small amount of data is easily retrieved; no
need for extensive processing
• No expensive hardware/software is needed to
be purchased
• May be more secure because there is physical
barrier (isn’t accessed through similar networks)
• Can easily be physically destroyed (water, fire etc)
• Very large; hard to track down specific data
(sequential)
• If items are incorrectly filed, it will be more of a
hassle
• Takes more work to adequately display retrieved
information
• Access through one method at a time (e.g.
alphabetical/ chronological etc, can’t have both)
• Usually, only a few people can access data at a time
• Hard to interpret clearly (handwriting)

Computer • Considerably faster to search • Data can only be accessed if you have suitable
based • Data can be easily exchanged over networks, technologies (and software you need to purchase +
apps and devices install)
• Vast amounts of data stored in small area of • Training is usually required to work interface etc
space • Convenient exchange of data between
 • Manipulation/analysis of data is done more networks/computers may raise security/confidentiality
accurate+faster problems
• Data doesn’t always have to be in a set order
(diff sorting categories)
• Data can be presented in a variety of ways to
suit many purposes
• Data can be easily edited

Flat File databases

- Data is stored and retrieved from one table/file
- Suitable for small applications
- Use data structures:
● Files = a block of data stored as a unit using a
unique identifier (file name). A file in a
database is divided into a set of related
records
● Record = a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database.
● Field = a specific category of data. Data items in a field are made up of
characters
● Character = smallest unit of data people can use. Includes letters, numbers and
special symbols

Relational databases
- Data is organised in a series of relationships (2-dimensional tables)
- Linking data between records in different files is done by keys or key field
- Schema = an organised plan of the entire database, shows how and where data is
found, descriptions of data, data’s logical relationships. Shows structure of database.
- They can be called Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERDSs)
● Entity (tables) = a specific thing about which information is collected and stored
(seperate files for each entity). Represented by separate tables
● Attribute (field names) = a defined property of an entity. Attributes are the same
as fields in a flat file database
 ● Relationship = The way an entity is related to each other. Key fields are used to
link entities. There are 3 relationship types (bolded = allowed in 3NF, Normalised)
○ One to one (a primary school class has one teacher)
○ One to many (a highschool teacher has many classes) /
○ Many to one (many transactions can buy/include the same item)
○ Many to many (students study many subjects, subjects are studied by
many students). Not allowed in a 3NF/Normalised Schema
● Primary key = a field that stores data that uniquely identifies the record (keyfield).
This is usually an ID number that is assigned to the record
● Foreign key = An attribute which is a primary key of another table

Data Modelling Tools

- Data-modelling = process of identifying entities (tables) and attributes of those entities,
used to develop schema and helps to create an efficient database
- There are a number of tools used in data-modelling, e.g. data dictionaries, schematic
diagrams and normalisation
- A well-designed database plan addresses data integrity (the reliability of the data so that
data is accurate and current) and data validity (the correctness of the entered data to
ensure that it is of the correct data type and its value is sensible.)
- A data dictionary = a description of each field (attribute) in the database. It contains
information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such as field
name, field size, data type and field description etc
● Field name = name of the field. It should be short and clear to avoid confusion
● Data type (or field type) = the sort of data that can be inputted into the field. Each
field stores data of a single data type. E.g. time/date, text, number. (Logical field
contain logic values, “true” and “false”)
● Field size = the number of characters allowed in a field. Smaller fields let the
database work faster
● Description = specifies the content of the field
- A data dictionary contains metadata, or information about data. People can refer to it in a
workplace to avoid data redundancy
Calculate size of a database
- (Allowed) Characters in 1 record * 8 bits = bits
- One character = 8 bits
- Length of record * 1000 = bytes
- Total Bits / 1024 = Kilobytes
- To figure out STORAGE REQUIREMENT SUM: (Field sizes in bytes * number
of records) / 1024 for KB
Numeric Data types:
- Integer = Whole numbers whose lengths depend on the bytes allocated to them.
- Real numbers = also called floating point and fixed-point data types, these represent
decimal places
- Currency = If a number is used for money value, it is important to use this data type
because monetary calculations follow special rules e.g. 2 decimal places
Normalisation
- The process of removing redundancies in tables/fields to make a table that is flexible and
easy to maintain (cleans it up)
- Usually entails adding more tables and relationships but it improves data integrity and
reduces anomalies (yucky stuff) popping up in the data
- Anomalies in unnormalised table structures are caused by
➔ Insertion - data being added may not be consistent with data that’s already there
➔ Deletion - when data is repeated/duplicated, only some of the data may be
deleted, leaving some copies/records that should not be there
➔ Updating - if data is repeated, the update routine might only update SOME
records, causing inconsistencies between records
● First Normal Form (1NF)
○ If there are no repeating fields/categories/groups
● Second Normal Form (2NF)
○ 1NF + Every non-key attribute (field) is dependent on the table’s primary key +
can be dependent on other fields as well
● Third Normal Form (3NF)
○ 2NF + Every non-key attribute (field) is dependent ONLY on the table’s primary
key and not on another attribute in the table (more tables because fields will
begin to form their own entities as to not relate to each other in the same table)

Hypermedia
- Hypertext = Bodies of text that are linked in a non-sequential manner. Each block of text
links to other blocks of text
- Hypermedia = An extension of hypertext to include non-sequential links with various
other media types e.g. image, audio, video
Hypermedia vs Database
- The World Wide Web is the most well-known application of hypermedia/text - it now
stores TONS of information and data!
● Hypermedia is unstructured
 ● Databases are very structured

Links Connections between media elements in a

webpage to other internal elements and to
elements on other websites

Meta data Data that describes other data (e.g. META tag
is used in HTML to store information that
described data within the webpage)

Nodes A point where links come together in a

network of media elements, such as a
graphic piece of text

Uniformation Resources Locators (URL) Used to identify individual files and resources
on the Internet. Contains transfer protocol,
domain name, directory path and file name

User View What the user or participant can see

Tools for organising Hypermedia

- storyboards to represent data organised using hyperlinks
- software that allows text, graphics and sounds to be hyperlinked
- HTML editors
- webpage creation software

Storage and Retrieval

- Large data stores (databases) depend on efficiency/security of storage and retrieval
information processes
- DBMS (Database Management System) is the software that allows user to interact with
the database
● Data independence = can separate data and its management from the software
applications that process the data. e.g. DBMS
- They make it easier for different software applications to process the same data
and to process data from a variety of differently organised databases.
● Data dependence = when software DEFINES the organisation of its data. Makes sharing
data with other applications difficult (e.g. video game)
● Direct Access = Ability to go to any data item regardless of order (e.g. file cabinet)
● Sequential Access = Data must be stored and retrieved in a linear sequence (e.g. video clips)
● Off-line Storage = Data stored in media that needs to be plugged in or attached before
data can be accessed (e.g. CD(-ROM)s, DVDs, hard discs, cartridge, tape and USBs)
● On-line Storage = Data is immediately available when accessing computers (e.g. hard
disks, networked computers/servers, via the internet)
○ This is becoming more common
○ Third-party organisations can provide secure back-ups and restore services
 ● Centralised Database = A single database under the control of a single DBMS (all users
and clients connect DIRECTLY to DBMS)
● Distributed Database = A set of connected databases stores on multiple computers, that
appears to users as a single database (e.g. bank branches)
Encryption and Decryption
● Encryption changes data to be read only with someone with the correct key (can be a
private key, which also uses decryption).
● A more secure method is using 1 person’s public key to encrypt a message, then having
a second person use a private key to decrypt/access information
● Data can be encrypted in data storage and/or transmission (public key is used more in
these scenarios, and is more secure that private key encryption)
● Public key encryption allows identity of sender of encrypted message to be validated by
receiver, using a digital signature
Backup and Security Procedures
● Copies of data files are made on a regular basis, depending on how critical current data
is/how often the data is updated. Backing up protects against:
➔ Hardware/software errors (e.g. hard disk crash)
➔ Physical theft or destruction (e.g. fire)
➔ Deliberate attack on systems (e.g. virus)
● Should be able to recover as close to original version, before problem occurred
● Incremental back-ups copy only selected data or data recently changed
● Back-up copies can be sent off-site (physically: tape or disk) or transmitted via the
internet to a safe site.
○ Length of time kept there depends on system, factors include cost of storage,
and how critical loss of data would be
➔ Record locking prevents two people trying to change a record simultaneously
➔ The use of passwords to restrict levels of access
➔ Biometric devices/passes restrict physical access to server locations
➔ Firewall restricts unauthorised access to network from the Internet
➔ Virus protection software protects data files from malicious electronic attack

Tools for Database Storage and Retrieval

Sorting - Arranging of items in a particular order
● Ascending order = data is arranged from smallest to largest (A-Z, 0-9)
● Descending order = data is arranged from largest to smallest (Z-A, 9-0)
● Multiple field-sorting = more than 1 criteria is used for sorting (e.g. student First
and Last name)
Searching - Process of examining the database to retrieve data.
- You can construct a query to help retrieve data more efficiently
● Query = A search of the database for records that meet a condition (takes the form of a
question most of the time)
- The results of a query can be presented in a form, report or graph (or even
another query)
 - A query can delete or update multiple records at the same time and perform
built-in/custom calculations on the data
Query By Example (QBE)
- Provides a form where inexperienced users/participants can choose options from to filter
their search results (by entering or selecting data in specific fields)
- Visual where people put keywords in an empty record
- It may be linked by relational or logical operators

Structured Query Language (SQL)

- Specialised language designed to search a database, there are different kinds each with
its own grammar, syntax and vocab
- Structured Query Language (SQL) is used to access and manipulate data in a relational
database
- SQL statements contain keywords used to perform a particular task (e.g. a simple
statement may contain SELECT, FROM, WHERE and ORDER BY)

Operators:
➔ Relational operators = the relationship between 2
expressions in a query. Uses:
 ● “contains”
● “does not contain”
● “begins with”
● “ends with”
● “is blank”
● “is not blank”
➔ Logical Operators = used to combine queries so that the search is carried out on 1+
fields
● AND operator = requires both the first and the second query to be true. It
retrieves records that satisfy both queries.
● OR operator = requires either the first or the second query to be true. It retrieves
records that satisfy either of the queries.
● NOT operator = requires query to be untrue. Retrieves records from all but
query(ies) specified after NOT
- Wild-Card characters

Spreadsheet:
 - Queries with parameters = prompts users to specify certain criteria. Each time a query is
run; user chooses a criteria for selection. A prompt between square brackets is used
- Queries using calculate fields = You can select/use fields with operators and functions in
an expression (like normal mathematical operators)
- Calculations on groups (aggregate queries/functions) = they use Totals and allow you to
do calculations such as sums, averages, minimum, maximum on groups of records.

Tools for Hypermedia Search and Retrieval

➔ Free text searching – program looks for specific characters in open document (ctrl+F)
➔ Search engine – searches web for specific keywords, stores their location in index table
in a database
● Indexing and search robots – a crawler/spider/robot is software that scans all
web pages available to it on the Internet. Sends URL and the context of the found
word phrase (metadata) back to the search engine, which stores information in
table or index
● Reporting on Data – search engines using page-rating/relevance calculation to device
which roder URLs are to be displayed on search results page. Factors affecting rank
include number of times keyword appears on found webpage, how often the page has
been accessed, or if a company paid to ensure it reaches the top.
- Index = a table that stores data or resources and its location in a file or block of text
- Metadata = data that describes other data. Used in web pages and data dictionaries

Other Information Processes for Database Information Systems

Displaying – Reporting
- A report is one way to display information (usually extracted using Searching) e.g.
mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries, telephone lists
- A DBMS (Database Management System) gives format options; tabular (displays data
with fields extending across the page) or column layout (displays data with fields going
down the page)
● Purpose of report determines format, content and style (which you can alter
accordingly) Here are the following traits:
○ Report header appears at the beginning of the report. Contains logo, report title
and date of the report.
○ Page header displays information such as the title, column headings or any
information needed at the top of each page.
○ Details section displays most of the information.
○ Page footer displays page number and any other information the user wants at
the bottom of each page.
○ Report footer appears once, at the end of the report. It displays stuff like report
views etc.
● As a head teacher you need special access to some data (e.g. student addresses). you
are allowed to contact families, but a normal one should not be able to reach out.
Form views:
- Through which different aspects of a database can be viewed
- Form = used to view, enter and change data in a table, for data entry.
- The user can change the layout of the form by customising headings etc..
Form and Report Design Principles:
- Headings that identify purpose of the report
- Layouts that efficiently present the information (e.g. tabular and column)
- Text that is balanced on the page either vertically or horizontally
- Style that is consistent throughout the report with its purpose
- Columns with clear descriptive headings
- White space used to improve readability
- Page numbers and data included in header or footer
- Appropriate grouping of information
- Appropriate use of colours and graphics as to not to interfere with readability

Issues related to Information Systems and Databases

➔ Acknowledgement of data sources
● Acknowledging sources is important because you are using people’s knowledge!
● Allows users to check reliability and validity of data
● It also helps to avoid breach of copyright
➔ The Freedom of Information Act
● Freedom of Information Acts exist at state and federal levels. This also applies to
information held by the government departments and related authorities
● This legislation enables a person to ask to view information about themselves
that is being held, and ask for it to be corrected (if necessary)
● There are some reasons why this request will be denied e.g. breach of national
security or invasion of another person’s privacy
➔ Privacy principles
● People in Australia have a right to know who holds their personal information and
to be certain that this information is confidential and protected
● Privacy is protected by federal and state Privacy Acts
● People might accidentally divulge personal information (during payments or when
using public services like a library catalogue) when accessing internet
➔ Quality of data
● Data Integrity = accuracy + reliability of data. Data must be correct and current
○ A person’s address can change, needs to be kept up-to-date
● When data is collected they need to be verified (“Is it correct?”)
● When data is entered into the information system, validation checks are needed
(“Are they in the correct form? Do they lie within sensible limits?”).
○ Check digits and look-up lists are used to guard data entry errors
➔ Reliability of data sources
● Data can be from primary sources or informal sources such as observation and
meetings, or published sources like reports books and documents
 ● In order to judge reliability, consider when and where data was initially generated,
who was responsible for this, what were their qualification and contact details
● Before using data, establish whether they are current, objective and complete
● Information from the Internet is not reliable unless from a reliable source
○ Includes relevant information like author and date of publication
➔ Access, Ownership and Control of Data
● Access to data in any information system important to establish
○ There are “levels” of access granted to any user
● Ownership of Data: there can be potentially malicious use of owned data. E.g.
individual supplies personal information, company stores it (hence has
responsibility of confidentiality)
○ Company can only use data for purposes intended
➔ Data Matching
● Automated process of comparing records in database. Checks consistency of
records across multiple database tables/entities (delete duplicate content!)
● Important to cross-link data from one information system to another, safely
○ E.g. all applicants for welfare assistance must apply their fax file number
to the Centre before receiving payments. Income details can be obtained
from the Tax office for data verification. There is legislation in place to
protect people from the misuse of data-matching methods.
➔ Current and Emerging Trends
● Data warehousing involves the storage of copies of several or many databases
from across an organisation over a period of time. Stores can be large and can
be accessed for analysis of trends within large organisation
● Data mining involves analysis of large data stores (data warehouses) to discover
hidden patterns/trends that are hard to see by conventional query of database
● OLAP (on-line analytical processing) provides businesses statistical evidence
needed to support decision-making. Results are displayed visually (graphically)
on a computer screen (on-line). Graphs can be interacted with to get MORE
information (zooming perspectives, sorting by customers, products or historically)
● OLTP (on-line transaction processing) involves databases that allow transactions
to be processed immediately by remote users (over a network/Internet).
Transaction is a sequence of operations that must be successful or not at all
(moving funds from one bank account to another needs to be seamless)