Hawassa University

Daye Campus

Department of Agricultural Economics

Hand out for the course:

Gender and Youth in Development

By: Abriham A. (MSc.)

2015 E.C
Daye, Ethiopia

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 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 ‘Gender’ and its difference from ‘Sex’
The term gender has become a word of the day and it is used by different kinds of people
all over the world but what does it really mean?

What is gender?
In a very shorthand way, gender refers to the roles, behavior, attitudes, and activities that
society assigns to men & women. It refers to the power relations between men and
women in a given society. The gender of a person is shaped by the society and by its way
of upbringing children. Gender is therefore the result of the interplay of cultural, religious
and similar factors of a society. Gender starts in childhood in the household. Gender
relations are justified and normalized in different ways. They are transmitted to or
internalized by children via action or role demonstration by those who assume the roles,
proverbs and sayings, songs, etc…

‘Gender’ is different from ‘Sex’ in that sex refers to the biological difference between
male & female while gender is socially constructed. People are born biologically female
or male, but they learn femininity & masculinity. That is, they are brought up to act and
behave to be girls and boys who grow into women & men. They are, therefore, shaped by
the society to learn the socially accepted behavior, attitude, roles etc…These learned
characteristics are what make up gender identity and determine or govern gender roles in
a given societal context. On the other hand, sex differences between males and females
are strictly speaking biological in nature. As such they are essentially unchangeable and
universal throughout all human societies.

Sometimes there is a tendency to refer to women when dealing with gender without
looking at their relationship with their male counterpart. Many mistake the differences
among the different gender groups brought about by socio-cultural factors, for natural sex
differences and consider it as God given phenomena. We should therefore take care not
to refer to women or men per se, but to the relation between them. Gender has become
an important factor since the 1970s and the term is widely used to explain the position of
women with respect to men is different aspects of life. In sum, though sex plays a
significant part in the way a human’s gender is defined; gender is also a result of social
and ideological experiences mediated by socialization.

Why gender makes a difference?

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All conscientious extension workers should like to see their works benefit each
& every farmer (including women, poor, and young) not just the easier to-reach
subgroups like rich –male farmers.

Gender identity in a given society governs the allocation of resources, tasks and power at
the level of the individual, the household and society. Hence, we should be able to
understand/ and be sensitive to the existing gender relationship in a given society and act
/plan/ and design our activities accordingly.

Some people claim that gender issues is not important since they don’t differentiate
between women and men but work with ‘all’; however such a claim is not valid. If we
want equally positive results for all, we have to make a difference in how we approach
the different groups of people co-existing in the community. This is due to the fact that
the social starting positions of men & women differ. For instance, women are not
supposed to travel far and cannot do it easily, they are taught to keep quiet in meetings
and so on while it is vice versa for their men counterparts. It is true that in all societies,
social factors underlie and support gender based disparities through: institutional
arrangement, the formal legal system, socio-cultural attitudes and religious practices.
Such differences between men & women and disparities should, therefore, be part of the
“baseline” situation in which you should plan your interventions.
`

Different authors argue the need to deal with gender issues from two aspects:
1. The instrumental argument - to reach the basic objectives of a project due to the
gender division of labour. E.g. If the project deals with post-harvest activities it
definitely should consult women because they are more responsible for this activity.
2. The fairness argument- some projects might reach their goal(s) with our taking
gender in to account, but the situation of women might worsen. Hence, in this
argument women’s problem needs equal attention as the men!

1.2 Gender Division of Labor (GDoL)

1.2.1 Triple roles of gender
In all societies men and women play different roles, have different needs, and face
different constraints. Gender roles differ from the biological roles of men and women,
although they may overlap in nearly all societies. Gender roles are socially constructed,
learned, & dynamic. They demarcate responsibilities between men and women in social
and economic activities, access to resources and decision-making authority. Society
assigns different roles to men and women. These gender-differentiated roles are moreover
shaped by ideological, historical, religious, ethnic, economic and cultural determinants.
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These roles may show similarities and differences between societies within a country and
between countries. Yet, the different roles can generally be categorized in to three.

These are
a. Productive
b. Reproductive and
c. Community management.

a) Productive role: work done to obtain payment in cash or kind. Includes marketable
goods that have exchange value and consumable goods (at home) which have use
value. Both women and men undertake this role. Yet, the role is mainly considered to
be men’s role and even if women undertake the role it is mostly unrecognized.
E.g. Wage workers, farming activity…

b) Reproductive role: There are three levels at which the term is used. These are
biological reproduction, labour reproduction and social reproduction. Biological
reproduction comprises child birth and lactation while labour reproduction involves
the daily regeneration of the labour force through cooking, cleaning, washing, nursing
and so on. Social reproduction on the other hand is an all-embracing category that is
maintenance of ideological conditions which reproduce class relations and uphold the
social and economic status quo. In most societies, reproductive role mostly tend to
fall upon the shoulders of women. Since they work to transform goods and services
for household use and welfare; women remain outside the domain of public life and
politics. Moreover, if one looks at the condition how they are performing their task
(Energy and time requirement as well as valuation), it is tedious, and non-
remunerative.

c) Community management: These are activities undertaken at local community level.

Includes voluntary unpaid or paid work, undertaken in “free & volunteer time”. It is
important for the spiritual and cultural development of communities and as a vehicle
for community organization and self-determination. It is the role of both women &
men. Nevertheless, in most cases men’s participation is paid in cash or kind (status &
leading position). e.g. Idir, Ekub, Debo, wedding, funeral, security….

Mostly the triple role of women is not recognized. Productive work is considered as work
while reproductive and community activities are not. These two are seen as natural and
non-productive. They are not valued as well. This has a negative consequence. Majority
of the work done by women becomes invisible and has a contribution for not properly
understanding the needs of women which arises from their different role that they play in
the society.

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According to conventional feminism, the GDoL in many societies is unequal or favors
men over women. Women are made responsible for repetitive, time consuming and not
economically rewarding activities of maintaining the labour force. Such activities tie the
women in the HH, while men predominate in the public sphere performing activities that
are rewarding.

This is not to argue that there is no difference in physical strength between men and
women. Rather natural difference between men and women cannot be the justification for
the gender based division of labour.

1.2.2 Practical & Strategic Gender Needs/ Interests (PGN & SGN)
Men and women in a given society have different needs and interests. These needs and
interests, with respect to their gender relations could be summarized as:
1) Practical gender needs and,
2) Strategic gender interests

1. Practical Gender Needs (PGN)

▪ These needs tend to be responses to immediate & short-term necessity. They relate to
daily needs: food, housing, health, employs.
• Are easily identified by women
• Addressing practical needs of women can improve the condition of their lives but
does not change (alter) traditional roles and relationships of gender.
• The needs are socially accepted and do not challenges the existing gender relations
(division of labour).
▪ They are practical in nature and are identified in a specific context (unique to
particular women or men)
▪ The WID approach to development mainly focuses on this need of women.

2. Strategic Gender Needs (SGN)

Also, known as strategic interests referring to needs of power or capacity to have
‘Control over one self’
• They tend to be responses to long-term necessity
• They relate to disadvantaged position: subordination, lack of resources & education,
vulnerability to violence, burden of domestic labour and child care etc. Hence they
focus on equal wages, legal rights, and so on both at household and community (state)
level and so on.
• Addressing SGN can improve the position of women in society and empower them
and change (transform) the existing gender relations to achieve greater equality.
• The needs vary depending on the particular cultural and socio-political context within
which they are formulated

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• The GAD approach to development focuses on both the practical and the strategic
needs of women.

PGN & SGN cannot be defined in absolute terms since they may differ for different
societies depending upon the difference in the standard of living.

1.3 Policy Approaches to Women

History has known a number of approaches to development to solve the economic ills of
the third world. In the 1950s development was seen as the process of rising per- capita
income. This approach was based on the assumption that economic growth is the solution
for all social evils of underdeveloped nations. However, this approach proved to be
inadequate. On the contrary, the gap between the rich and the poor became ever wider
and wider. These approaches failed to achieve their goals partly because they completely
ignore women and their contributions to the efforts of development. The approaches are
leveled as a top-down approach. The approaches during this time ignored women and
their contribution to the efforts of development. The development efforts experienced
exacerbate the condition of the third world women favoring men at the expense of
women. Activities of women were not valued in the accounting of the GDP. The
activities women are, in most cases, involved in include unpaid activities which are not
valued or taken into the accounting of the GNP. Irene Tinker, while explaining the reason
why development disadvantaged women, emphasized on the failures of planning. That is,
the absence of proper planning as the cause of the adverse effects of development on
women. First, planners fail to cognize women’s traditional productive roles. Secondly,
such development efforts reinforced the already prevailing values that relegate women to
the reproductive activities.

In the mid 1970s, it was widely recognized that alternative strategies that focus on people
both as subject and objects of development was needed. Hence came the client- oriented
/people centered participatory development approach. The approach was a response to
improve the basic needs of third world countries. Unlike the previous approaches, this
one seemed to have room for women. However it does not take the facts of women’s
lives into consideration.

This shift in approach coincided with additional women movement and research. The
realization that men and women are situated and impacted by development differently has
led for the attention of women’s issue which developed into gender issues.

The WID approach & its historical evolution into GAD

Since the late 1970’s many approaches in women issues in relation to development have
been coined. WID and GAD are two approaches that take into account the difference
between men and women. However, they do have some conceptual and strategic
difference between them in the way they address the problems of women.

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1.3.1 WID – Women in Development approach/movement
Is an approach to development that was originated in the late 1970’s during which time
the UN brought women’s issues into its agenda. Though it was only much later that
women’s concern surfaced in the global development agenda, women’s movement has a
much earlier origin as far back as the 1940s. Therefore, WID is a result of women’s
movement and more importantly, the publication of Easter Boserup’s book: ‘Women’s
role in economic development’ where she exposed how development marginalized
women. Such pressure made it impossible for the UN to ignore the issue. The approach is
still used by some development agents.

The rational argument of this approach is that women are unused resources who can
provide economic contributions to development. The approach stimulates networking
among women and has been successful in increasing development workers awareness of
women’s distinct priorities, situations and concerns. With the realization of women’s
contribution to development, it was advanced that their efforts should be enhanced
through necessary material and technical support. The approach designed strategies to
integrate women into the development process and ensure efficiency focused on
improving their situation through the provision of basic necessities. It treats women as
special beneficiaries in development programs. The approach perceives problems of
women in terms of their ‘sex’ – their biological differences from men. Nutrition,
health, education, child care, family planning and skills training were some of the
major components of the WID programs.

However, in the 1980’s it became evident that targeting women as a group with special
needs in isolation from men had some limitations. This is because it is the overall
structural factors in society. That is, the rules & practices of the household, community,
school, market and State which sustains women’s systematic subordination. These needs
to be addressed understood & effectively changed. Hence, this led to the need to deal
with women in terms of their gender relations. Since then “gender” became an important
development variable.

1.3.2 GAD – Gender and Development approach/movement

A more recent approach (since mid 80s), which perceives the problem of women in
terms of their ‘gender’. That is their social relationship with men in which they have
been systematically subordinated. It believes that focusing only on women is ignoring the
real problem i.e. their position to men.

The approach places emphasis on analyzing the incentives and constraints under which
women & men work, in order to “make visible” the difference between them in terms of
workloads, the impact of interventions, and their access & control to resources &
decision making. It also allows women to participate at all stages of development

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process. It believes that the use of a participatory approach helps to empower women by
raising their consciousness, as well as their voices about their needs and rights. However,
we sometimes find this movement coexisting in aid work. GAD starts with satisfaction of
PGNs, yet at the same time it focuses on mobilization of community which is needed to
overcome structural inequalities. The approach is not concerned with women per se, but
with social construction. It seeks to understand the root cause of gender inequality. The
approach is based on two strategies: considering the interests of both men & women in
general programs and special support for women because women often begin from a
relatively disadvantaged position. The WID movement is correlated with policy
approaches such as anti-poverty, equity, & efficiency which latter gave way to the
empowerment approach in the GAD movement.

Warning:
What needs to be emphasized here is that men are not enemies though unfortunately
women are subordinate to them. In fact as the main actors in the process of
socialization of children, it is primarily women who instigate gender discriminatory
values in the minds of children. This shows that gender discriminatory practices are
inherited from the society. Therefore, in the attempt to eradicate these discriminatory
practices, men also should become partners. We all need to work for the betterment
of life since improving the position of women best helps improve the socio-economic
and cultural life of the people: both men & women alike.

1.4 Critical areas of concern/ intervention for women in development worldwide

1. 4.1 Global History of women’s movement:
There have been held four World Conferences on women at different times and different
places since the 1970s to discuss about the position of women in the world in relation to
their gender relation with men.

In the year 1975, the first world conference on Women was held in Mexico. Thus, the
year 1975 was declared women’s year and decade that followed, women’s decade. The
theme of the conference and the movement that accompanied it has been Equality,
Development and peace.

Five years later in 1980, the second UN mid-decade world conference on women took
place in Copenhagen and focused on the study made by the UNDP to assess women’s
status. This conference was preceded by the adoption of the Convention for the
Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women- CEDAW’ by the UN in
the year 1979.

Then came the 1985 UN world conference on women held in Nairobi. This conference
adopted what is known as the “Forward-Looking Strategy for the Advancement of

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 Women to the year 2000’. While the theme continues to be “Equality, development and
peace”. The focuses of the strategy adopted included: eliminating illiteracy, bringing
life expectancy for women to 65 years of age, ensuring self- supporting employment
for women, equality before the law and working out a national policy for women to
ensure their full participation in the rewarding spheres of life.

The fourth world conference was held in Beijing in 1995. Members of the conference
were representatives of women all over the world from both governmental & non-
governmental bodies. The aim of the conference was to evaluate the progress in the
status of women over the past quarter century before 1995. i.e. (1970-1995). It was a
follow-up on the Nairobi conference. The conference reflected the review and appraisal
of the progress made in implementing the forward looking strategies and pointed out
that only modest progress was achieved by then. To overcome the main obstacles, the
conference adopted 12 areas of concern on women worldwide called the Beijing
platform for action /PFA, which should be pursued over the next five years since then
i.e. 1995-2000.

What are these 12 areas of concern/intervention?

1. Poverty: Studies have shown that women and especially rural women are more impoverished
than their men counterpart. They constitute 70% of the world poor. This is because of
absence of economic opportunities due to their lower position in the gender relationship. E.g.
lack of land ownership and inheritance, education etc...
2. Education and Training: Almost 2/3 of all illiterate people in the world are women the
majority being from rural areas. Moreover, dropout rates among girls are much higher than
among boys due to problems including preference of boys’ education at the household level.
3. Health care: Mortality rates of women are high due to inadequate attention given to
reproductive health. (For Ethiopia 8% of every mother dies due to a cause related to
pregnancy)
4. Violence: Violence of women could be domestic (at home) or outside (at school, on the road
and workplace so on). It includes beating, rape, and sexual abuse (harassment) causing
physical or physiological damage on women.
The members of the conference noted that violence is a global problem yet no preventive laws
exist to protect women and even if laws exist, there is reluctance from the part of authorities to
enforce them.

5. The effect of war on women: Women are affected in many ways during war. Women are
left to maintain families when economic & social life is disrupted. Women are also victims of
disappearance and rape as a weapon of war. Moreover, 75% of the world’s 23 million refugees
are women & children… showing the devastated position women face.

6. Inequality in Economic structures and (access to resources): Though women do

produce food and contribute significantly to economic life everywhere, they are excluded from
economic decision-makings. In most societies, they lack equal access to & control over

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 various means of production (land, capital, technology). Moreover, their work is underpaid
and undervalued.

7. Inequality in sharing power and decision- making: Not enough women participate
fully as top-level diplomats or leadership positions, though there has been noticeable progress
over the years. Yet, to attain the goals of equality and development they passed some
recommendations in order to create rooms for women at top levels.

8. Women focused Institution: Though national institutions like ministries (which analyses
the needs & problems) and women research units have been created in most countries, for the
advancement of women, they suffer from the lack of financial and human resources to
perform adequately.

9. Human rights of women: Women may have rights guaranteed by law, but do not exercise
them because they might not be aware of them and because governmental bodies fail to
promote & protect those rights.

10. Women & media: Although, more women work in the media, few make policy decisions.
Still, in most countries, mass media provides a distorted picture of women- their role and
contribution to communities and countries.

11. Women & Environment: In most developing counties, women are responsible for
fetching water & fuel and also management of household consumption. Yet, because they are
mostly absent from decision-making, environmental policies don’t take in to account the
close links between women’s daily lives and the quality and sustainability of the
environment.

12. The girl child: In many societies of the world, girls are often treated as inferior to boys.
Girls are subjected to detrimental customary practices as genital mutilation (FGM) and early
marriage.

Q. What does this imply for extension workers?

Extension is a service or system that assists farm people, through educational procedures,
in improving farm methods and techniques, increasing production and income, bettering
their levels of living & lifting the social & educational standards of rural life. Hence, an
extension worker, not only working towards finding sustainable ways of improving
agricultural production, but also towards the improvement of well-being of rural
households should be aware of such problems which might be encountered mainly by
rural women and should work towards a search of problem solving technology.

1.4.2 National Context for Gender Issues

❖ Emperors regime(prior to 1974)
- There was no major challenge and fight against gender inequality.

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- Attempts made were limited to individual cases and some voluntary
organizations, as the Ethiopian women’s welfare association, Ethiopian military
officers’ wives association and the Ethiopian female students’ association.

- However, the associations had little or no impact on government policies, laws,

regulations or development programs.

- Individuals, as Sinedu Gebru raised the issue of women’s equal rights and played
a role in pushing women to enroll in higher education. Yet, her influence &
individual impact was limited to the higher social classes.

- Towards the 1970s, there came a radical approach that raised the issue of
women’s emancipation as part of the movement for socialism.

- The idea that the revolution would not be successful without women’s
emancipation became a popular slogan. “Not a single great movement of the
oppressed is able to do without the participation of women” Stalin.

❖ Derg (1974-1991)
- Women’s equal rights and even preferential treatment for women to facilitate
equality, was institutionalized in the country’s constitution.

- Constitution stated that the state shall provide women with special support,
particularly in education and employment, so that they may participate in
political, socio-economic and cultural affairs on an equal basis with men.
- A national mechanism to integrate women in the process of development, through
the Revolutionary Ethiopian Women Association was created (1982). REWA
which claimed a membership of over 5 million took an active part in educating
women.

- Enrollment of women in primary and secondary schools increased from 32 % in

1974 to 39 % in 1985.

- Nevertheless, integrating women into development was not accompanied by

increasing number of women at decision-making positions.

- The association did almost nothing to realize its aim of securing access to economic
resources for women.
❖ EPRDF (1991 onwards)
- The constitution aims at promoting women’s equality and allows for preferential
treatment of women.

- National women’s policy was formulated in 1993.

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 - The policy approach is based on concept of GAD, but all activities target only
women. The justification is because of the existing gender gap, and the need for
working more on women’s issue rather than on the relationship between women
& men.

- Discriminatory family law is revised

- The educational policy is gender mainstreamed

- Despite efforts made by government to implement National women’s policy, the

intervention mostly focused on delivering services and failed to meet the varying
needs of the women and lessened women’s commitment to development.

- The government has agreed to implement a number of UN declarations and

conventions one is CEDAW- a convention which requires states to eliminate
discrimination against women in the enjoyment of all rights.

- Ethiopia participated in World Women Conferences: the 1985- “ Nairobi Forward

Looking Strategy” and 1995 – Beijing Plat form for action.

Presently:
- Development practices in the country seem to be gender mainstreamed. Yet,
many GO and NGOs are still following the WID approach instead of the GAD.

- Persistently, the ‘gender problem’ in the country is perceived as ‘women’s

problem’ and hence ignores the underlying issues of unequal power relation.

Constraints:
- Gender issue is still an abstract at the field level
- Lack of good will to implement the gender concerns
- Lack of legal mechanism to implement the policy
- Absence of adequate gender sensitive planners
- Shortage of sex disaggregated data

1.4.3 Gender related problems in Ethiopia:

Ethiopia is one of Africa’s most traditional societies, when it comes to gender issues.
Ethiopia is a patriarchal society, where gender relationship is characterized by male
domination of the female in all spheres of social life. Patriarchy is a gender system
legitimizing the predominance of the male over the female.
Social life in which patriarchy reflected is:

❖ Economic

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This area of social life is reflected in the existing sex-based division of labour, rights to
resource, distribution of services, capacity to make use of available opportunities.
a. Division of Labour
The existing division of labour is unfair because: it creates more burdens on women than
men, women are not engaged in socially elevating activities, and under-estimates &
undervalues women’s work. Although a few women with higher education have found
professional employment, most hold low-paying jobs.
b. Rights to resources, social services and opportunities
Basic resources like land, livestock, urban houses, factories, bank accounts, training,
extension, education, employment and investment are predominantly held by men than
women.
❖ Political/ power/decision making
Men hold society’s power and political decision making. In many cases, society is ruled
by decisions made and executed by men. Male physical force on women is also observed
in many instances. This physical force is expressed in battering, abduction, rape,
intimidation, harassment etc…

❖ Sexual
From birth to death, women are subjected to control of men. In early childhood, parents
show preference for boys than girls. Girls (72.2 % of the female population) undergo
genital mutilation to reduce/eliminate women’s sexual urge, virginity and loyalty is
expected from girls and not from the boy. Arranged marriage is still prominent in the
Ethiopian traditional societies and after marriage, the male governs the family. In
patriarchy, divorce is to the advantage of the male party, where often women are chased
out with their children. Child prostitution is on the increase, especially in urban centers.
Girls as young as age 11 are recruited to work in prostitution, where they are kept
ignorant of the risks of HIV infection.

❖ Technology
Technologies are mostly designed to suit the physical conditions of men. These
technologies are too cumbersome and heavy. This has led for women to depend on men.

❖ Ideology
This is ideas with which the society socializes. Used to defend and justify the system of
patriarchy. This is reflected in the:
@ Laws: The 1960 civil code (family law) that treats women as if they are children or
disabled// which is now revised (1998). The 1957 penal code has also been revised
where critical issues affecting women and c hildren include rape, domestic violence and
child abuse. However, regardless of changes of codes, tradition and culture often prevail
over civil and criminal law, and in practice women do not enjoy equal status with men.
@Religion: There are some patriarchal notions in the main texts of Christianity and Islam

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@ Proverbs & stories: Patriarchal thoughts are disseminated in society through proverbs,
songs.
Can patriarchy be abolished?
What needs to be emphasized here is that men are not enemies, though unfortunately
women are subordinate to them. In fact as the main actors in the process of socialization
of children, it is primarily women who instigate gender discriminatory values in the
minds of children. This shows that gender discriminatory practices are inherited from the
society. Therefore, in the attempt to eradicate these discriminatory practices, men also
should become partners. We all need to work for the betterment of life since improving
the position of women best helps improve the socio-economic and cultural life of the
people: both men & women alike.

An improvement in economic conditions would improve the standard of living of

women, but real change would require transformation of the attitudes of
government/societies and men regarding women.

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 CHAPTER – TWO
Gender Analysis Frameworks/Tools
2.1 Introduction
It is a professional challenge for extension planners to ensure that farmers of both men
& women are included as extension clients and to identify appropriate means of
directing services to them. This chapter intends to give extension workers some tools to
analyse rural women’s activities. We will first see what kinds of information are needed
(about women) which could help extension workers to plan and design their activities
more effectively in order to work with rural women.

Why do we need to gather information for both Sexes?

To effectively meet local needs, extension services should have a thorough understanding
of their target group (to effectively work with rural women). The need arises to collect
information specifically on women farmers because of the widespread lack of
information on women’s agricultural and household task, responsibilities and so on.
When planning activities aimed at local rural women a range of information on their
specific situation is needed, as well as on the inter-relationship between their tasks and
men’s tasks. In fact, since women and men have complementary and often, overlapping
tasks and responsibilities, extension workers need to obtain most of the information on
both men and women.

What kind of information?

Some key areas, which require information separated by sex, include:
a) Specific tasks and responsibilities in agricultural production, household and non-farm
activities. E.g. Crafts, wage, labour, trading

b) Location of tasks. (In the field, at what distance from the field, in the household, in the
Community)
c) Daily and seasonal work schedules of women and men
d) Responsibilities and financial obligation (e.g. provision of food, medicines, clothing,
School fees)
e) Their source of income or other or providing for their obligations (e.g. home gardens
f) Access to resources for both agricultural and non-agricultural work.
(e.g. credit, tools, technologies) as well as control and decision-making power over
the resources.
g) Access to local support services and institutions governmental & NGOs (and their
Participation)
h) Constraints, needs and priorities felt by women (e.g. lack of land title, access to credit,
time)
i) Existing opportunities which could be developed or used further (e.g. existing self-
help groups, good loan repayment rates, informal groups, meeting places, skills and
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so on.

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Most of the time extension activities are planned without any of the above information.
This inevitably leads to services that partly meet local needs, and so limit development.
Moreover, most existing information and data has been gathered considering the
household to be a unified group. However, experience has shown that since men and
women normally have deferent tasks, responsibilities and access to resources and
constraints the information regarding the issues above cannot all be considered together.
Yet, though information might be gathered, the way it is done might not be accurate to
show the gender desegregated roles, responsibility and so on.

Q. How do we gather the information & what difficulties might be encountered in

obtaining information?

Information could be gathered through the different data collecting instruments like
surveys, questionnaires and censuses. Yet, many of these data collecting instruments
still do not obtain information desegregated by sex and they sometimes fail to capture the
full extent of women’s work.

Why many surveys fail to capture accurate information on women?

Though surveys might now be redesigned in order to obtain accurate information about
both gender, many still do not obtain information separated by gender and they
sometimes fail to include information about women. This is not necessarily due to
deliberate ignorance of women’s role but is often an indirect consequence of how surveys
are normally designed. Some common pitfalls include:

▪ Surveys often count only income- related work. Yet, many tasks performed by
women which may be vital to the well-being of the family don’t generate income and
so end up being ignored (They count paid tasks only)

▪ They fail to capture the full extent of women’s work since they might count one or
two of the many tasks performed in the course of a year which may vary depending
on the season, and even during the course of the day. (They count only “main” jobs
performed by a person)

▪ They often look at the HH as a unified unit, failing to distinguish between tasks,
responsibilities, income and obligations of women & men.

▪ Perceptions and assumptions about rural women might also hinder accuracy of
information collected. In many places both women & men hold attitudes that
undervalue women’s work (men’s work is seen as important and women’s work is
not recognized as vital to the survival of the HH). It cannot simply be assumed that
men can give accurate information about what women do because they are not aware
to full extent of the tasks carried out by women.

17
 Example: of a poor interview with a male farmer:
Q. Does your wife work?
A: No, she is a housewife.
Q. What does she do during the day?
A: She gets up at dawn and fetches water and firewood and then prepares breakfast for me
and the children. She feeds the chickens and cows, collects the eggs and milk. She then helps
me in the field and then prepares food for the household. In the afternoon, she takes the
produce to the market to sell and buys household goods in the rest of her time she makes
clothes and mats…..in sum, she does not work, and she is just a housewife.

Nevertheless, it is true that studies on women’s role, need, constraint and so on might
exist on a national basis, based on surveys conducted in some areas (representative for
the nation). Even in these cases more specific information on the local constraints will be
needed to add details about the particular village. This being the case, field extension
workers themselves need to collect the relevant information about women in a given
society.

2.2. Gender Analysis Frameworks (GAF)

You must, by now have realized the direct implications that a better understanding of
women’s involvement in agriculture, constraints and needs would have in planning
effective extension activities. This section will show practical ways to collect this
information. Because of the need for more accurate detailed information on rural women
and their work and responsibilities, a method recently (1980s) commonly called gender
analysis or situation analysis framework has been developed.

Q. What is gender analysis and how can it be used to obtain information needed about
women?
Gender analysis can be used as a common sense organization of information about men
and women in a given context. It looks at the different roles, activities and so on, done in
societies by men and women and their interaction. These roles and responsibilities may
vary according to socio-economic status and could also change over time.

GAF more often need to focus on women than on men. Special steps to include women
and overcome constraints to their participation are usually needed. GAF can
significantly increase efficiency, sustainability and equity in interventions for rural
and agricultural development. At its simplest GAF entails seeing what our eyes have
been trained not to see. It is asking questions about the differences between men and
women’s activities. It can be applied to analytical work or to any project in the
agricultural sector.

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According to the time available & depth of information required, gender analysis can be
carried out using a range of different methods. GAF can be carried out using a simple
checklist and work sheets, along with seasonal calendars and daily activity schedules to
structure the collection of information. We can follow several steps when undertaking a
gender analysis in a certain society.

The first analytical framework was developed by the Harvard Institute for International
development in collaboration with WID office of USAID. This framework helps to
answer the following basic questions:

▪ Who does what?

▪ Who has what?
▪ What factors influence the gender arrangement?
▪ How are public resources delivered?
▪ Who gets what?

2.2.1 The Harvard Gender Analytical Framework

This framework is known as the “Gender Roles Model” It is also commonly refereed
as the “Harvard Model” because it was developed at the Harvard Institute of
International Development. It is also the first frame work to be developed. The
Harvard model is concerned to provide an improved understanding of women so that
they could be visible. Women’s visibility is seen as a strategy point for integrating
them into development projects. And since this visibility is believed to come through
data, information is generated on the gender division of labour, access to and control
over resource and on the influencing factors. And the model is also concerned with
more detailed considerations of the project cycle and is intend as a diagnostic tool for
project planners concerned with the efficient use of scarce resources. Other agencies
(organizations) have developed there own GAF based on the adoption of the Harvard
analytical framework: Generally, basic components of gender analysis can be
classifies in to six steps:

The 6 Steps in Harvard Gender Analytical Framework

Step-1: GA of activities (agricultural or household)
GA of activities will give the extension worker a good picture of the work carried out
by different members of the community and an idea of the amount of time women &
men spend on their tasks and where they are located in relation to where they live. It
is a first step in learning about needs, problems, constraints and opportunities of
women & men. The extension worker will have an idea of possible problems of
women & men related to time and location from this step. Further analysis of the
responsibilities, resources and obligations of women & men will help more. GA of
activities should capture the major productive, reproductive and community
management activities performed in the society. Agriculture should include both

19
 crop and animal production. Also, all the different tasks under one crop or animal
should be listed. All the different activities undertaken in the household should also
be reported.

Example of a Productive & Reproductive activity

Who performs it? Time (when?) Location (where ?)
Activity

*** Productive
Crop- maize
- Plowing Men Sep-Nov (2hrs daily) field 2 km from home
- Planting… Men & women
Crop – teff
- Preparation of land
- Sawing
- Weeding
*** Reproductive
Washing cloth Women Once every week 2 km away river
Bringing water women 3 km well

Step -2: GA of Responsibilities & Financial obligations

Women & men have different needs & responsibilities for their families. They also might
have different source of income to provide for needs. Information should, therefore, be
gathered on what women & men provide in the family and where they get the income.
This information is important because it indicates where further income may be necessary
to improve the well being of the HH & because the introduction of new crops activities or
sources of income may affect either positively or negatively and also the resources
available to provide for family needs. In most cases of Ethiopia income from both male
and female household members is pooled (jointly used). This makes it problematic when
collecting information, yet, male and female members should be asked their
responsibility separately. Eg.
Family needs Who is responsible? Means to provide for needs?
Food Women From sale of produce (chat)
Clothing Women
Medicines Men
Schooling Men From sale of ox
Transport Men
Farm implement Men Rent of land
Step-3: GA of Resources and Benefits
This step is analysis of what resources men & women have at their disposal to carry out
their work. It enables extension workers to gather information on who controls the
resources and has decision-making power about their use and also about the benefits that
men and women derive from their access to & control over the resources. The
information will also give the extension worker a picture of the present situation in the

20
community and an idea of where additional access to resources may be necessary as well
as about existing opportunities. E.g:
Resource Who has access? Who controls? Benefits driven?
Land Men & women Men Cash crop
Farm Inputs
Equipment
Animals Women Women Sell of by-products (egg, milk)
Education
Trees
Extension
….

➢ Membership in organizations, groups (cooperatives or mutual help groups) and

saving groups can also be taken as resource. e.g. only a certain gender could gain
benefits of membership in access to credit & training (Peasant Associations)
Step- 4: GA of Constraints & Opportunities
Using the above information the extension worker can chart major constraints and
problems faced by women and men. Again the information can be used to determine
strengths and opportunities that already exist for both genders. For instance, from the
activity analysis (step 1) – it is possible to see whether or not women farmers face time
constraints. From step 2 and 3 it will be possible to decide whether or not access to
specific resources is a constraint.
Step- 5: GA of Information flows
To plan extension activities effectively, extension workers need to carry out some
investigations on channels of communications. The following information should be
gathered through formal interviews and discussions:
• Who influences what decisions?
• Who do they ask advice from and for what?
e.g. Who do they ask about child -care / agricultural/ health problems?
▪ Who attends formal & informal meetings?
e.g. Do women go to community / extension/ school meetings (if not why?) Where
are the. Meeting places;
• What instructional and information material reaches the HH (extension pamphlets,
local paper…), who reads it?
Step- 6: Summarizing and analyzing the results

Using the information so far, the extension worker will be able to plan activities that are
relevant and that meet the needs of both genders. All the relevant issues should be
summarized, which could have implications for extension work. It might be useful to
group the issues under several topics like: * Production Constraints, Storage constraint,
Marketing constraint, Extension service problems

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 e.g. Wrong time for meeting, lack of child care
The summery could then be shown to farmers to confirm by ensuring women have the
opportunity to express their views. Conclusions drawn from the analysis should be
checked with both women and men farmers themselves for verification through
discussion. Here, it is important that women farmers have the opportunity to express their
own needs and priorities
Important points to note.
▪ The extension worker should first prepare a plan on objectives of the gender study,
No. of households to visit, and time frame for collecting & processing the
information.
▪ The formats presented here are general; they need to be adjusted in each situation to
better fit the specific characteristics of the area under analysis. GA must be specific to
particular target group for which the extension activities are meant.
• Summarize the relevant information that could have implication for extension work.
The summery and analysis should be again shown to the farmers.
▪ Once analysis is finalized it should serve as a basis for planning extension activities
for the area
2.2.2. Moser frame work
The Moser frame work (gender planning) was developed as a planning tradition in its
own right. It takes the view that gender planning, unlike other mainstreaming
planning, is “both technical and political” in nature. It assumes conflict in planning
process. It involves transformative process and it characterizes planning as a
“debate.” It can be also be used for gender training.
Q. What are the six tools in the frame work that can be used for planning at all
levels from project to regional planning?
Tool 1: identifies what women, men boys and girls do in productive reproductive and
community activities.
Tool 2: identifies practical and strategic needs of needs of women.
Tool 3: Defines access and control for resource and decision making in the household.
Tool 4: examines the impact that new policy, project or program has on the three roles.
Tool 5: look at how welfare, equity, anti-poverty, efficiency or empowerment approaches
address in practical or strategical needs. (e. g for evaluation )
Tool 6: look at why women and gender aware organizations and individuals can be involved
in the process.

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 CAPTER-THREE
Women & Men Farmers in Extension
3.1 The need to work with both men & women farmers
Gender relation in a society is one of many constraints to increasing agricultural
productivity. Indeed, resource endowments such as farm size may have a greater
influence on factors of production than gender; but, within each social and economic
group, gender roles will meditate the response to change and can reinforce the constraints
on women.

Women are of course an integral part of farming households. They produce over half the
food in many developing countries, bear most responsibilities for household food security
and contribute to household well-being through their income generating activities.
Women farmers need to be reached because the contributions of both female & male
farmers are substantial and essential to agricultural development of a nation. Literature
shows that women are involved in agriculture & rural development representing more
than ½ of the labor required to produce food consumed in developing countries. Yet,
women usually have more limited access to resources and opportunities and their
productivity remains low relative to their potential.

In some regions, women & men farm separate plots having different farming system. In
the case of Ethiopia, both men and women tend to `work together on the ‘family farm’.
Yet, literature shows that women play an important role in peasant agriculture of
Ethiopia, contributing more than 50% of the total labor force, with much contribution to
tasks such as weeding, harvesting, processing and other post-harvest operations. They
are, therefore, partners in agriculture production if not farmers in their own right. Hence,
distinction in training delivery and information by extension planners restricts the skill
development of a substantial proportion of the agricultural labor force.

One problem here is reaching at a common understanding as to how female farmers are
perceived in the Ethiopian society. Observations indicate that a female farmer is
commonly perceived as a co-farmer and as marginal players in agricultural
development particularly by those individuals with significant influence in research,
extension and rural development positions. As a result, there is no as such a female
farmer and a male farmer; and hence do not need a separate extension advice. Often, it is
observed that major emphasis in agriculture is given to men’s activities while the
roles of women and children in the Ethiopian farming systems have been ignored.
So far, the extension system in Ethiopia is unable to address the cultural taboo
against the participation of female farmers in plowing and sowing, which
subsequently reduce the rigid DOL of both at the household and field levels.
Nevertheless, studies done on the farming systems of the country show that the family
and the farm should be accepted as closely integrated phenomena in a subsistence
23
economy system. In this respect, we need to acknowledge the role men, women, and
children in our farming system on equal footing and in more clear term.
Reviews made on female farmers’ labor and time inputs in crop and livestock production
activities are indicated below.
Table 1: Percent of labor and time inputs of male and female farmers in crop and livestock
production in three regions of Ethiopia.

Agricultural Amhara Tigray Southern

Regions
Activities North Wollo Wag Hemra Eastern Southern (North Omo)
M F M F M F M F M F

Crop Prod. 50 50 50 50 42 58 53 47 66 34**

Livestock 48 52 55 45 23 52 - - 33 77
Prod.

** Enset is the main crop and women do about 60 % of the activities.

Making female farmers targets in extension, therefore, makes sense for agricultural
and rural development at different levels because:

▪ It improves productivity, income and status of rural women in turn enhancing the
well- being of rural households.
▪ Helps nations to achieve their goals pertaining to food self-sufficiency & export
through developing both genders human resource base and
▪ Maximizes the utilization of scarce extension resources.
In the same manner, econometric evidence on gender differences in agricultural
productivity point out the importance of investing in women. Key findings are:
▪ Women farmers are as efficient as men farmers, once other characteristics and
input levels are controlled for.
▪ Women farmers under perform in agricultural production because they lack access
to information, credit, extension, input etc.…
▪ The gradual feminization of agriculture in many countries makes attention to
women farmers necessary in implementing agricultural policy & programs.
In sum, the challenge for extension planners is to ensure that both women & men farmers
are targeted as extension clients and to identify the appropriate means of directing
training and technologies to them. This is due to the fact that agricultural extension
programs that ignore women’s farming roles risk low returns, inefficiency and in the long
run, failure to achieve development objectives. Extension activities carried out without
the participation of women farmers risk having negative impacts on women and
their families. Nevertheless, the productivity & welfare of rural households can be

24
maximized when both women & men farmers participate in extension activities that is
relevant to their roles as agricultural producers.

Here, it is important to stress that women farmers can’t be considered homogeneous

category- with the same sort of problems and facing the same constraints. There is
diversity also among women (age, marital status, economic class ethnicity and so on). For
instance, Female headed households should be given special emphasis by extension
programs because they belong generally to small farmer category.

3.2. Barriers to women’s involvement in extension

Evidence from many countries shows that women usually do not benefit automatically
from agricultural projects. Gender-neutral programs can sometimes bypass or be
detrimental to women. Predominantly extension services are geared primarily to male
farmers. This is evidenced in:

• Delivery systems staffed by males;

• Extension methods that often preclude women e.g. Contact farmer method, requiring
resources with women have limited access.
• Segregated pattern of training topics
e.g. agricultural information for men & home economics for women

Taking the case of Ethiopia it is true that the ratio of women clients in extension and
female extension personnel is very small. This shows that, whether by design or by
default, the result is male-to-male delivery.

What are barriers to women’s involvement in Extension?

Beyond their status as producers, a number of factors play a role in determining whether
or not women farmers are included in extension programs. The barriers are categorized
in to four headings:

1. Resource based barrier

Women farmers have most of the time low resource base, thus are not sought by
extension services. Lack of technology, lack of access to credit, low literacy, and
small size of land (small holders) are some constraints related to resource. Some
studies reveal that women’s right to land is one constraint. In some areas religious laws
forbid female land ownership. Even when civil laws give women the right to inherit,
local customs may rule otherwise. As a result, formal titles are given to men only.
Women have the right to use but have no control (ownership). Even the use needs the
consent of a male relative due to lack of ownership that is reserved to men. This results
in women’s lack of incentive to be involved in extension.
2. Education based barrier

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It is true that better educated farmers are more likely to adopt new technologies and
to have access to extension services. It is again true that the gap between women &
men’s literacy rates is high in rural areas. This gap, therefore, has implication for women
farmers’ adoption of new technology.
e.g. a case study in Kenya reveals that improving the primary education of women
farmers helped them in the adoption of improved coffee growing technology by copying
from other women farmers.
3. Time related barrier
Frequency of tasks and gender related responsibilities determine the amount of time men
& women will have available each day. It is clear that women are more involved than
men in routine, time-consuming activities; therefore, time availability is more of a
constraint for them. They have less total time available than men to participate in
extension activities. Also their free time may not coincide with that of the men.
4. Mobility related barrier
Women’s freedom to move inside and outside the community is restricted in some
society due to their reproductive roles, social or religious reasons, less cash to pay for
transport, fewer means of transportation available. This also has a noticeable impact
on women’s involvement in extension activities.
3.3. Difficulties faced by extension workers in reaching women farmers (the
extension service)
Here barriers in reaching women farmers that resulted from the way the extension
program is designed are highlighted. The following issues represent some of the
drawbacks of extension packages. The key points here are summarized as Technical
content of Extension packages.
1. Most packages introducing technological improvement require credit. However,
credit is less accessibly from adopting the package
2. Improved technologies may focus on maximum productivity. Ignoring other aspects
that might be important to women, for the HH.
e.g. traditional variety may not be very productive but can offer valuable by-products
‘food, fuel, medicine …) which might lack in modern HYV. In other cases, taste & habit
within the family may be more input than higher yield.

3. Lack of flexibility in adoption of technologies. The “ all or nothing” approach e.g.

packages of inputs & technologies delivered in a full bases, prevents women from
adopting technologies on a step by step basis due to the limited resource capacity of
women and their capacity to take risks.

26
4. New technologies usually show little effort into promoting labor-saving technologies
for the time consuming tasks in which women are engaged. (labour-saving
technologies can increase women’s productivity in agriculture (more time).

5. Sometimes, the technology being promoted can be unsuitable for women because
it could be heavy or difficult to understand. Moreover, packages sometimes don’t
take in to account cultural barriers to women’s using certain kinds of equipment.
(reflecting the inferior position of women)
There are also other reasons related to the extension methodology, gender related and
socio- cultural barriers.

(1) Most extension resources are absorbed by programs for commercial and
Commodity producers. Yet, most female farmers do not qualify as members of such
target groups because they mostly produce for home consumption.
(2) The “Progressive farmer” strategy excludes them.” contact farmer” because of
women’s poor access to resources.
(3) Multiple restrictions are placed between female farmers and male extension
workers. Social, cultural and religious restrictions are some. This might prevent
male extension workers from contacting and working with women farmers in a
mixed group of men and women.
(4) Women farmers are neglected by virtue of their gender. They remain
unrecognized by extension services.

On basis of a study finding by FAO, reaching women farmers might depend on at least
four key factors
a) Whether or not the extension service reaches farmers with small land holdings
(resource base)
b) Whether or not the program explicitly targets women as well as men farmers,
appropriate to their agriculture role
c) Whether or not there is congruence between the socio-cultural norms regarding
women’s roles, mobility and male- female interactions and the types of extension
activities.
d) Whether or not there is congruence between women’s agricultural activities and
access to resources and the types of extension activities.
3.4 Developing Appropriate Extension Packages for Women
One of the reasons why extension services have had limited success with women is that
the extension packages aimed at improvement of rural area are often not suitable for rural
women. The packages fail to neither reflect the priorities of women farmers nor take into
consideration a number of gender related issues.

27
There is no such thing as a single, ideal extension package for all rural women. As with
all extension work, the package need to be designed according to the particular
circumstances & needs of the society. Here we should discuss some of the reasons why
extension packages may fail to meet women’s needs. It then suggests possible issues to
incorporate in the packages by making use of the finding conducted. This section
emphasizes on the link between gender (situation) analysis and the process of developing
a suitable (appropriate) package for women.

➢ Why may extension packages fail to adequately address rural women’s needs?
Extension packages have traditionally been developed considering men farmers as the
main target. The growing recognition of the women’s role in agriculture and rural
development has recently led to include women in existing extension activities, without
proper consideration of how the packages may do; that needs revision.

Where the need for including women in the target group has been recognized, it has
rarely gone beyond inviting women to attend existing extension activities. Even packages
aimed specifically at women often achieve results below potential because they fail to
address women’s specific needs. A number of issues have limited the adoption of
extension packages by women. While several issues are specifically related to women’s
situation only, other issues are also concern of a wider category of small (poor)
farmers. Here it is highlighted that the principle that “appropriate to men” does not
necessarily mean “appropriate to women”

What can be done to improve the problems regarding extension packages?

▪ In using packages of inputs and technologies, extension workers can try to ensure
flexibility to allow women to adopt inputs and practices on a step by step basis
according to their resources and ability to take risks.
▪ Give attention to post harvest and marketing operations, which are mostly given
less weight, related to agricultural production
▪ Time consuming tasks of women can be reduced through use of simple, low cost
labour- saving technologies.

E.g. improved stoves to use less fuel, Smoke- less stoves to save fuel and improve health.
Irrigation technology –to save time spent on water fetching, Grinding mills and so on.

➢ How does lack of access to credit limit women’s participation in extension work?
One reason why women don’t make use of extension packages is that they face problem
in getting access to credit. Access to credit could actually be problem for women & men
farmers, particularly the poor. Yet, women’s case is particular. This could be evidenced
from statistical data of credit getting women worldwide. For example, in 1990, a total of
5.8 billion USD loans was allocated to agriculture and rural development in developing
28
countries of the world. It is estimated that only 5% of the total was given to rural women
(IFAD, 1990). Again in Africa rural women receive less than 10% of the credit allocated
to small farmers (IFAD, 1991). Statistics from country to country also shows similarity.
In sum, it can be said that there exists a gender gap in access to credit.

If rural women do not have cash or a way of getting credit, they will not be able to afford
to buy improved seeds, fertilizers or other inputs. Lack of credit, therefore, prevents
women farmers from purchasing capital equipment & technologies. When women
know they can’t afford it, they are less interested in participating in extension packages.

Contrasted to the above data is the fact that women have good repayment rates usually
higher than that of male farmers. For example, in Nepal (Asia) a World Bank credit
program for the rural poor showed a 91% repayment rate on the part of women, after 8
years of operation. In Bangladesh it is reported that the Grameen bank has a repayment
rate of 98% for women groups.
If women have good repayment rates, why is it difficult for women to get credit?
Obstacles facing, women in getting from formal credit. Women face several obstacles to
obtain credit. This could be due to:
A. Lack of collateral: women lack title to land or other assets. These are usually in a
man’s name. Yet, most banks and credit institutions require some sort of material
collateral like land or oxen to deliver credit.

B. Exclusion from Peasant Associations as or co-operatives: sometimes women are

excluded from membership of institutions that provide access to credit or information
about source of credit. Membership may be reserved to male heads of HH. In this
case women are excluded.

C. Transaction costs are often too high for small and poor farmers and rural women are
among the smaller and poorer farmers. Distance from sources of credit & lack of
affordable public transportation: credit institutions are located at some distance
from the place women live & work. It is therefore, often difficult for women to travel
the distance required to obtain credit due to transport problem, time constraint.

D. Limited education and information on bank and financial procedures and on where
and how to get credit. Women don’t have experience with banking: women may
not be able to read the information about how to obtain credit or to make the required
calculations. The information might also be written in technical terms, difficult for
women to understand.

E. Credit is frequently tied (hard credit to purchase only certain commodity) and is not
soft. Because of the gender division of labour, the credit might happen to be tied to

29
 commodities for which men are responsible

Q. What can be done to improve access of rural women to credit?

Extension workers can help overcome the obstacles that women face and increase
women’s access to credit through:
* Providing women with information on where and how to get credit, it any are
available. This could be through simple written materials, radio and also through co-
operatives and rural groups.

* Help women farmers develop the necessary skills and provide them with
assistance in filling out forms and following procedures for obtaining loans.

* Assist women farmers to find ways to overcome the difficulties in traveling to

financial institutions.
* Encourage financial institutions to provide credit for women.
* Help develop and promote special credit schemes for women or strengthen
existing group saving schemes. In many places, rural women have been able to find
solutions to the problems of access to credit from which extension workers can learn
from.
e.g. “ikub.”

Informal credit schemes keep women outside the formal credit institutions. However, it
may be the only way to give women access to credit. In places where formal and informal
credit is non- exisistant or limited, it may be possible for extension workers to help to
establish informal savings and credit schemes.
Many government and NGOs have established financial institutions, which provide credit
to meet the need of the people. Examples are:
• The German Bank in Bangladesh
• Revolving fund in Tanzania.
• Mobile credit officers in Pakistan
• Market women’s cooperatives in Nicaragua
• Self-help groups in Nepal and so on

In the case of Ethiopia, access to credit has been one of the factors that helped farm
household’s uptake technologies. This means that lack of access to credit could
significantly influence farm household’s ability to use economic opportunities and get out
of poverty. In this country, formal financial institutions have not developed and/or have
hardly reached the rural population. Consequently, farm households had been relying
almost exclusively on informal credit generated from within the rural areas. According to
a study done in three regions of Ethiopia, 84 % of the loan came from relatives and
30
neighbors and informal sectors are still providing a worthy service to the most needy
farm households including women.

 How can we develop gender sensitive extension packages for rural women?
Quite often, the inappropriateness of extension packages is because they are designed and
decided upon by development workers with no specific support from a gender and
situation analysis study. From the previous discussions we had till now, we know what
aspects we need to include in Extension packages to enhance their appropriateness for
rural women.

Knowledge on the information from a gender analysis study in consultation with the
women farmers themselves can help extension workers to determine appropriate
packages for women. In a nutshell, to design a gender sensitive project, it requires
following a two step approach.

The two step approach, Consider:

1) The results of GAF including amendments as suggested by the farmers must be
used. Knowledge of women‘s activities, resources, constraints and needs can help
extension workers to determine the most appropriate inputs and technologies for women.

2) Revision of the technology and support services available is needed. Here we ask
which technologies match the needs identified in GAF? Try to see if existing packages
are appropriate. if not, why? And how can it be adjusted to make them more suitable?

Hence, by comparing the GA’s summery and the list of technologies available, and
by being innovative on mixing the two, it is possible to develop appropriate
extension packages. The development worker should not forget to consult the farmers at
every step of package development.
Other important points:
Ensuring responsiveness to felt needs of women. When pressing needs are mentioned by
several women, extension workers should try their best to address it. Even with issues
that seem beyond the control of extension workers, it will often be possible to take the
case to the concerned office and establish the basis for a constructive relationship.

It should be stressed that the rules/ guidelines to be followed in designing a package are
not a recipe, but represent some of the most common issues to incorporate in extension
packages. The key learning point is to realize the need to use a problem solving approach
and develop solutions that will be different for each situation.

3.5 Contacting rural women: Working with Rural Women in Practice

One of the reasons why women may be fully involved in extension activities is that there
are often social or cultural constraints that prevent or inhibit male extension workers from

31
contacting and working with women. However, even where there are fewer or no formal
cultural restrictions on contact between male and female, there may still be cultural or
social reasons that make it difficult to communicate women successively. For instance,
when women have little education, they may lack the confidence to express themselves.
Where men are considered the authority, women may not feel free to speak and ask
questions or disagree with men. Contacts with women can also be limited as a result of
assumptions about rural women by extension workers. Once knowing the social and
cultural factors that restrict contact, they can make adjustments or use methods to
overcome the limitations. Below are some ways to improve contact with women.

A. Who should contact women?

Female agents: It has often been noted that women extension workers can be more
effective in communication with women farmers especially in areas where strong cultural
taboos exist concerning contacts between male and female. However, the number of
female extension workers is still very limited in most extension services.

Male agents: Even in situations where cultural taboos exist, male extension agents can
still succeed in working with rural women. Commitments, being ready to learn about
women, finding the best ways to communicate them and providing for specific needs
of women are the important points to note.

Contact farmers: Some female farmers could be selected as contact farmers and act as an
effective link with other women farmers. Experience of working with female contact
farmers shows that this is an effective approach. To ensure women are included as
contact farmers, extension agents need to consider the criteria commonly used in the
selection process.

B. What communication methods should we use?

You must be aware of various communication methods used to undertake extension
activities like visual aids, field days, extension group discussions and so on. This
section is to alert you to use the communication methods and techniques, you are
aware of, effectively with rural women. Hence, the section is like a supplement to
your previous knowledge of basic communication methods. The basic principles
behind conventional extension methods are the same for target of audience (men or
women), yet there are a number of considerations that can enhance their effectiveness
when working with women. The extension works choice of communication methods
will depend on technologies and materials available, cultural situation of the rural
people and farmers need.

Using visual aids and traditional media

The extension workers choice of communication methods will depend on
technologies and materials available, the cultural situation of the rural people and

32
farmers need. Visual aids are generally effective than printed materials, since women in
particular have low literacy levels. Drawings, photos, object and so on all reinforce
discussions and learning. Yet, using familiar visual aids is more effective. Careful
explanation is needed in using aids that the people have never used before. Eg. in areas
where people are not used to drama, they have difficulty in understanding them.
Traditional media, such as games, songs, dances and so on are low-cost and easy to use
and are found to be effective for women to express their problems.
Using demonstrations, field days, and tours
Demonstrations and field days are commonly used extension methods. They can be made
possible for women to participate in these activities by organizing the timing and location
of the activities. Demonstrations should take place at times when women can attend. It is
often difficult for women to participate in field days because they can’t afford leaving
their daily tasks for a whole day. Yet, by discussion with the women themselves,
extension agents can explore ways to make it possible for women to attend such events.
Since field days are all day events, arrangements for childcare are needed.

Demonstrations and field days should take place in locations easily accessible to women.
Experience has shown that the use of farmers plot for demonstrations rather than a special
plot has advantages in terms of promoting the participation of farmers. Women are more
confident when they see demonstrations on their own or a neighbour’s land that is similar
to theirs. Hence, extension workers should make efforts to use women’s plots of land.
Moreover, they should ensure that the demonstration plot reflects the reality of both men
and women. The plots should be established along the main paths and crossroads.

In large groups of both men and women, women often sit or stand at the back of the
group behind the men. For a demonstration it is important thus to keep the group small. It
may also be necessary or convenient to hold the demonstration separately for groups of
men and women.

Demonstrations should be relevant to the work of women. If men and women work with
different crops or livestock or handle different activities (tasks), extension workers should
plan demonstrations that are relevant to the different tasks of both men and women.

Using Speeches and talks

Speeches and talks are more effective when used with other communication means
(visual aids) this is because people tend to forget much of what is said unless it is
reinforced by other means. Speeches are more effective if followed by discussions, to
give the farmers a chance to ask questions and talk over what has been presented in
the speech. Moreover the extension worker should take care to address women as well as
men when speaking to a mixed group and ensure that the specific problems and needs of
women farmers are addressed as well as those of men farmers. The timing and location

33
of the speech should also be that women can attend. Women tend to sit at the back of a
group, extension workers should ensure that they are not sitting too far away to hear.

Using group discussions

Group discussions stimulate the participation of farmers in actively talking and thinking
about their problems and solutions. Whether or not to hold discussions with mixed groups
of both men and women or a woman only depends on the situation of the society (culture,
gender relation). If discussions are held in mixed groups the extension workers should
ensure or encourage that all participate. If women tend not to speak up as much as men
the extension worker can ask questions to the women or ask the women their opinion. If
it is difficult for women to speak in a large mixed group, there might be a need to
hold discussions for women only and need to break the large group into smaller
groups and make them present the results of their discussions in a larger group.

Using audio-visuals
The uses of audiovisual (AV) like TV, Video… depends on the availability of equipment,
electricity and how familiar the farmers are with the media. If farmers are not used to the
kind of AV, they may find it difficult to understand the message presented. Message
should be relevant to the needs of women and should address them because AV mostly
assumes farmers as only men. Radio broadcasts are frequently used in rural areas to bring
information. It is important that the programs are broadcasted at times when it is possible
for women to listen. The use of video has also been successful with rural women. A study
found out that women did not respond well to messages in films because the women
portrayed were from other countries. Therefore, is found out that the video will be more
effective if made of the villagers themselves.

3.6 Mobilizing women groups for self-help development

One of the most successful ways of working with rural women is through groups. The
natural tendency may be to form mixed groups, with both male and female members. Be
aware that, because men generally dominate such groups, they do not always provide the
best learning environments for teaching leadership skills to women. It might, therefore,
be important to form an all-female group. This is linked to the enhanced confidence and
support that individuals gain through it. And the greater understanding gained by
comparing each other’s experience. It is also culturally and socially acceptable in most
places, and can overcome even the most rigid taboos. It also may facilitate pooling of
resources. Women feel freer to speak in groups of women than they do when men are
present. A women group offers a place to speak up freely and talk about needs and
interest which are often overlooked. When women have had the opportunity to develop
speaking and leadership skills in women’s groups, they are often more likely to speak and
actively participate in mixed groups.

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If men object to the formation of separate all female groups, mixed groups can be
formed, but measures should be taken by the facilitator to ensure female participation in
group decision making. Men may need to be shown the benefits of increased women’s
participation in decision making. For example: in some rural areas, women tend to be
more concerned with details than men and tend to make better treasurers and secretaries
than men. Women also tend to save more regularly than men and are more concerned
with paying back debts. Also, remember that women are less likely to be able to read and
write than men. In this case, more attention has to be given to encourage women’s
participation.

Working with existing women groups or setting up new women groups

According to the specific situation and local customs, women groups may already exist or
the situation may be conducive to their formation and operation. In communities where it
is best to work with existing women groups, the first step is to identify the group with
the help of community leaders and key women informants.

Many communities have a long tradition of women groups which include mutual help
groups, saving and credit clubs, labor exchange groups or those set-ups for security
purposes. Though existing groups are the first choice, there might be a need to establish
new ones, since it is often the more literate and better off who are members and poor
women participation tends to be low.

Examples indicate that:

- The women co-operative movement launched by the ministry of local
government in Bangladesh, successfully promoted the formation of women
groups to work with agriculture extension agents.
- In some African countries, women groups have been set-up to introduce
improved technologies for fish processing and conservation.

Steps in forming a women’s group

Step-one: In setting up new groups, it is necessary to know the community and go
through community/traditional leaders and authorities, requesting permission. This
shows respect. The extension agent must explain clearly the need of the group, by
showing them that it will help women to improve their production, their families and
community will benefit. This step is most important to gain acceptance by the general
community. Some important points under this step are: gathering information about the
community, its leaders and government officers. Introducing yourself and your aim, the
local leaders then introduce you to all the villagers. Best way to gather information is by
living in the community. Visit the villagers/women frequently, talk to them and observe
what they do. Gaining the people’s confidence and the villagers trust may take time.

35
Listen to the people and show them respect. Talk with people with various backgrounds.
Do not try to control discussions nor impose your own way of thinking. The presence of
other assisting agencies will also affect how you work. People develop expectations, both
good and bad, based on their experiences with people who have come to help them
before. It is important to find out what people think about their previous ‘helpers’
and what people expect from you.

Step-two: Get support of local leaders in identifying potential groups of women

which may be interested to work together. Yet, groups must not become dominated by
elite and result in marginalization of poor women. It is important to remember, at this
stage, that common economic and social interests are what bind the group together.
Difference between members may cause conflict.

Step-three: Once local support from the authorities is ensured, and potential groups of
women are identified, initial meeting(s) should be carried with the group. Issues for
discussion should cover the group’s expectations as well as general issues related to
problems faced and needs. Once a clear idea of what they want to do and how to do it is
clear, group(s) can be formed. The group size should be kept small (10-15). The process
of group formation often faces obstacles. The poor may not be receptive to new ideas.
Heavy workloads and generally poor health often leave them with little energy for
participation. Low level of education & geographic isolation cuts them off from
progressive ideas, and hence sensitizing leaders and illustrating the benefits of forming
the group might be important.

The following issues should be discussed at the initial stage:

- future meeting days, time and location
- clear objectives for what the group wants to achieve
- structure and leadership of the group
- members contribution in either cash or kind
- group rules to minimize conflict and improve efficiency of group decision
making
- Name for the group.

Once the potential group members have an idea of what they want to do and how they
can do it, the group can be established. Formation of viable and stable groups requires
patience and in most cases, a period of 2-6 months. You should avoid both overly rapid
formation and overly long delays, which may dampen the interest of potential group
members. Promoting women’s participation in groups when men are around can be
difficult. This is because women are reluctant to air their views or challenge the views of
males in public.

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Four basic principles in group formation:
1. Depending on the kind of activity, the group should be small and manageable and
all members should have a chance to speak and contribute ideas. Ideal number of
members is between 10 and 15. Small groups are less likely to be divided by
arguments or dominated by a majority.
2. The group should be homogeneous, where members should have similar economic
conditions and similar background. Homogeneity reduces conflict within the group-
members with similar backgrounds are more likely to trust each other and accept
joint liability for their activities.
3. Groups should be formed around income generating activities. This is important for
group development because they produce assets that help build self-reliance.
4. Groups should be voluntary and democratic, where members should decide the
leaders, rules and regulations and decisions are taken by consensus or majority vote.
Other important thing is sustainability of the group.
Four important blocks for establishment of a self-reliant, cohesive & sustainable
group are:
- Leadership: Well led groups are more successful and sustainable. Leaders &
committee members must be chosen carefully.
- Contribution: Contribution in kind or cash enhances group ownership and solidarity.
Regular group savings are essential.
- Group constitution: A written record of rules, purposes and responsibilities. This helps
to avoid internal conflicts and makes the responsibilities of each member clear.
- Record keeping: Very important in monitoring and evaluation. Records help the group
to remember what has been decided at meetings.

3.7 Policy Related Issues for Rural Women

Many policies in relation to rural women have been developed internationally and
nationally. For instance are the articles provided by the Ethiopian National Policy of
women, adopted in 1993, with the aim of ensuring that special attention should be given
to rural women. However, real challenge lies in the translation of policy
(implementation).
Women access to land and other rural resources
For direct involvement of women in agricultural activities, demand for additional external
inputs like credit, fertilizer, farm tools, etc, is highly dependent on access to and control
over the basic means of production. In Ethiopia, this includes land, oxen and male labour.
In almost all cases, women are deprived of their ownership rights to land. In Ethiopia,
the process of the 1975 land reform involved transfer of all land to state ownership, to be
controlled by the household head. This did not change (improve) the life of the lot of

37
rural women. Moreover, the matter of land tenure in relation to rural women can be
explained in terms of their marital status. Married women have access to land through
their husband, who is, in most cases, the head of the family. Single (unmarried) and
divorced women have access to land through their natal father. For widowed women, it
might be different. They will keep on having access to the family land for their survival.
In terms of oxen and male labour, majority of the female headed households in Ethiopia
face two options: to enter a share cropping arrangement, where a women’s land will be
taken over and managed by a man. Depending on the contribution of women and their
relationship, certain proportion of the final yield will be returned to the women (share
cropping). Access to male labour is often seen as a pre-requisite for access to oxen. For
this reason, the proportion of FHHs without oxen is very high. However, where women
are encouraged to own oxen through personal savings or the availability of affordable
credit, there are in many communities, a number of options for exchanging oxen for local
labour. This arrangement has permitted women to retain control of their land.
Unfortunately, few agricultural policies recognize such needs and they fail to override the
politics of local decision making and the general perception is that FHH, will not
productively make use of their resources- land and oxen.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
Empowerment of women
4.1 Concept of empowerment
At the level of development bodies, the concept of empowerment was largely adopted
after the Bejjing conference (1995). The Bejjing Declariation (section 13), presents
women’s empowerment as a key strategy for development: “women’s empowerment
and their full participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society,
including participation in the decision –making process and access to power, are
fundamental for the achievement of equality, development and peace”.

Empowerment as a development strategy involves two levels, the intrinsic and the
extrinsic. The extrinsic level refers to gaining greater access to and control over
resources. The intrinsic level involves changes within such as the rise in self-reliance,
confidence, motivation and positive hope for the future. It recognizes women’s
multiple roles and seeks to meet strategic gender needs through bottom –up participation
on resources and development issues that concern the life of the women.

The women empowerment is a holistic approach to bring about overall improvement for
the women, irrespective of the situation where they are born and brought up. It must
include:
i) Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for
full development of women to enable them to realize their full potential.
ii) The de-jure and de- facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental
freedom by women on equal basis with men in all spheres political, economic
, social, cultural and civil
iii) Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social ,
political and economic life of the nation
iv) Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career
and vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupation health
and safety, social security and public office etc.
The empowerment of women can be viewed in different dimensions, as follows:
4.2 Economic empowerment of

women Poverty eradication

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In the case of poverty, women and girls are mainly the victims within the household,
considering the higher status ascribed to men and boys. Intra – household poverty
might even lead to hazardous consequences to women and girls, including denial of
education and health care, disease, and even to prostitution. Since women comprise
the majority of the population below the poverty line and are very often in situations of
extreme poverty, given the harsh realities of intra- household and social discrimination ,
macro-economic policies and poverty eradication programs that specifically address the
needs and problems of such women are to be developed. There has to be designing and
implementation of programs which are women oriented. Steps have to be taken for
mobilization of poor women and convergence of services, by offering them a range of
economic and social options, along with necessary support measures to enhance their
capabilities.

Micro credit
Access to credit would be one important step in empowering rural women in
Ethiopia. Evidence from the efforts of NGOs like care Ethiopia give adequate proof to
this strategy , where in small organized groups of rural women are able to utilize micro
credit for production and consumption purposes. It helps in their income generation as
well as participation in decision making. In order to enhance women’s access to credit
for consumption and production, the establishment of micro-credit mechanisms and
micro-finance institution are to be enhanced so that the outreach of credit would be
increased. Other supportive measures should be taken to ensure adequate flow of credit
through extant financial institutions and banks, so that all women below poverty line have
easy access to credit.

Women and agriculture

Think how far our extension services are reaching our rural women in agriculture sector
as well as in health and childcare. Do you think that the situation is adequate? What we
can do to improve it?
In view of the critical role of women in the agriculture and allied sectors, as producers,
concentrated efforts should be made to ensure that benefits of training, extension and
various programs reach them in proportion to their numbers. The programs for training
women in nutrition, health care, childcare and occupations allied to agriculture like
horticulture, livestock including small animal husbandry and poultry, natural resource
management etc. are to be expanded to benefit rural women.

Women and industry

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The roles played by women in electronics, food processing and agro industries are
becoming crucial to the development of these sectors in Ethiopia and other developing
countries, they should be given comprehensive supports in terms of labor legislation ,
training , social security and other support services to participate in various industrial
sectors. When compared to men, women need special attention, since they have to face
different types of exploitation, addition to the suppression and subordination.

4.3 Social empowerment of women

Education
There is serious gender disparity in enrollment of and completion of education at
different levels in Ethiopia. Large majority of the out-of-school children are girls and
major chunk of the dropouts are from female students. When we compare the enrollment
and graduating student at primary, secondary and tertiary levels in our country, the share
of female students is considerably less compared to males.
Special measures are to be taken to eliminate discrimination, universalize education,
eradicate illiteracy, create a gender –sensitive educational system, increase enrolment
and retention rates of girls and improve the quality of education to facilitate life –long
learning as well as development of occupation /vocation / technical skills by women.
Reducing the gender gap in primary, secondary and higher education should be a
focus area. Gender sensitive curricula should be developed at all levels of educational
system in order to address sex stereotyping which one of the causes of gender
discrimination.
Health
A holistic approach to women’s health which includes both nutrition and health services
will have to be adopted and special attention be given to the needs of women and the girl
at all stages of the life cycle. As we have seen from the field realties in Ethiopia as well
as indicated by many WHO reports, the redaction of infant mortality and maternal
mortality, which are sensitive indicators of human development, is a priority concern.
Women should have accesses to comprehensive, af and quality health care. Measures will
have to be adopted that into account the reproductive rights of women to enable them to
exercise informed choices, their vulnerability to sexual and health problems together with
endemic, infectious and communicable diseases such as malaria, TB, and water borne
diseases. The social, developmental and health consequences of HIV/AIDS and other
sexually transmitted diseases are to be tackled from a gender perspective.

The harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, early marriage,
frequent child births, abduction and rape etc are to be socially discouraged and for that
public awareness have to be created.

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Women’s traditional knowledge about child and family health care and nutrition should
be recognized through proper documentation and its use, since they are the ones who
keep such traditional wisdom, which is being transferred from generation to generation.
Nutrition
Women are the major victims of household poverty, and are the ones who skip food when
it is inadequate in many poor rural households in Ethiopia. In view of the high risk of
malnutrition and disease that women face at all the three critical stages viz., infancy and
childhood, adolescent and reproductive phase, focused attention should be paid to
improve the nutritional needs of women at all stages of the life cycle through special
programs. This is also important in view of the critical link between the health of
adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women with the health of infant and young
children.
Rural energy and drinking water
Improving facilities and schemes for easy access to rural energy and drinking water
would save the women from a major share of their drudgeries. It would also help them to
involve more in productive works, which in turn would facilitate their income generation
activities, participation in decision –making and self-confidence.
Women in difficult circumstances
In recognition of the diversity of women’s situations and in Acknowlgment of the needs
of specialty disadvantaged groups, measures and programs should be developed to
provide them with special assistance. These groups include women in extreme poverty ,
destitute women, women in conflict situations, women affected by natural calamities,
women in less developed regions, the disabled widows, elderly women, single women in
difficult circumstance, women heading households, women who are victims of marital
violence or rape, deserted women and prostitutes etc.

CHAPTER FIVE
RURAL YOUTH IN AGRICULTUTURAL EXTENSION
5.1 Who are the rural youth?
Age as gender is a way of grouping the rural people. Different countries have different
age categories for the same terminology (youth). The dictionary defines the terminology
as the period between childhood and maturity. In some countries, youth are between 12 &
18 years of age. In the case of Ethiopia it is 15-30, while the UN defines it as individuals
from 15-24 years of age. It is estimated that about 20% of the world’s population, which
is about more than 1 billion, falls in the youth category (by UN definition). Of this
population, about 70 live in rural areas and the majorities are victims of rural poverty. In

42
the case of Ethiopia, from the total projected population of 60,000,000 (in 1997) more
than 13,000,000 are rural youth.
This age group makes a significant labour force, considering the underage and the
elderly. It is an important able group, especially in LDCs and constitutes a significant but
unused resource available to help in rural area development. The youngsters of today are
the farm families of the future. It is, therefore, important that due attention is given to
these group.
In LDCs the trend is that more young people are moving to town to seek for jobs with
high expectations. These youngsters are slightly more educated than those who stay
behind. It is, therefore, important to catch them while they are still young. The main
objective of targeting the youth is show concern for the future of the youngsters and to
keep them settled so as to minimize migrations to town. The rural youth should be
catered for by the extension services. Rural youth programs have positive impact on
young people’s development and that of their families & communities. It is therefore
important that extension intensifies its efforts of advocacy on behalf of rural youth to
strengthen youth programs.

5.2.Common problems faced by rural youth world-wide:

a. Burdened with special obligations staring from a very early age, working for long
hours. Youngsters in some cultures are burdened with family responsibility from an
early stage of life due to early marriage…adding to the rural population pressure.
b. They are faced with landlessness /diminishing farm size/ unemployment. As a result,
production is not sufficient for the family and hence, the prospect of living below
poverty level will force most of them to leave the rural areas and migrate to urban
areas.
c. Lack of motivation: as young people see the backwardness and neglect of rural areas,
they lose inspiration and often see little hope for their own future.
d. Lack of training: many lack formal education and technical training. Even the few
educated lack the skills required to make living in the rural areas. Often the youth are
not prepared for the demands of rural development.
e. Lack of involvement and opportunities: they often feel isolated and unable to get
involved in development activities. They have no representation and no means of
making their voice heard. From government perspective, there is no plan to deal with
specific needs of youth. And programs are developed without consulting the youth.
f. Usage of drugs, and alcohol and usable to disease including HIV/AIDS, such
practices affect their health.

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g. Lack of any coherent youth policy and implementation

5.3 Rural Youth in Extension

Rural youth can play a significant role in agricultural extension, if they are properly
handled. They can act as a dynamic force in communities because they generally have a
positive attitude to change. The following could be done through them:
• Raising demonstration plots and showing to others
• Keeping themselves aware with latest agricultural technologies and adopt all
improved agricultural technologies.
• Educating other farmers
• Acting as liaison between extension workers and farmers.
Rural youth Extension programs/projects/clubs
Rural youth programs are organized groups of young people, under the guidance of
professional youth leaders/ local volunteer leaders/ extension agents. Young members
elect their own officers, plan and conduct programs and carry out worthwhile activities in
the community. Extension personnel play a catalytic role in getting these programmes
organized and providing a broader organizational structure at various levels. The most
widespread rural youth clubs are the 4-H clubs which began in the US and which have
now spread too many countries. 4-H stands for Head to clear thinking, Hands to
larger service, Heart to greater loyalty, Health to better living
The youth can implement the following types of projects/clubs:
Educational: - Socialize and train for future life
- Special skills like qualities of leadership, management & technical
Economic: - Income generation
- Farm & home management
Social: - Working for the good of the community
- Military service
Recreational: -Dances & cultural show
- Sport activities

How to select the project

Though there might be many activities, the project needs and interests should be selected
and those which teach definite improved practices should be used. After the extension
agent thoroughly studies and discusses needs with local leaders, parents and interested
youth, the type of project for each village could be selected. The selection should be

44
based on: the need for improvement in the village, the youth interest and ability to
do the job, and practicality in terms of cost and time needed.

Purposes/objectives of youth programs

The type of rural youth programs needed and appropriate for one place may be different
from those needed in other places due to socio-cultural and other factors. The objective
of the programs, however, tends to be similar. These objectives, relative emphasis given
to each varying from place to place, can be categorized under four headings:
a. Leadership development: Rural youth programs are generally nurtured by
continuing and voluntary adult leadership in the community. Because the programs
are largely self-sustaining, leadership development becomes both a means and an end.
The youth learn leadership skills form the older, more experienced members, by
serving in the project. Such skills will be valuable when they are older and will need
to organize co-operatives, credit groups…etc.
b. Citizenship development: this can vary from promoting national identity and
consciousness to community orientation and development. Generally, most rural youth
programs seek to encourage young people to become involved in improving their local
communities. By fostering this attitude among the youth, it is expected that such
community orientation and pride will continue into adulthood. Community
improvement projects are part of it.
c. Personal development: The social interaction that occurs in rural youth
programs/organizations helps to develop social skills (talking in front of groups or
working with others, group solidarity). Given low status of agricultural life, this
dimension is extremely important for the future.
d. Occupational development: The youth will acquire technical and management skills
in agricultural production/ or other activities. By the time they get out of the program,
they should be on the road of establishing a farm. The project work should be
developmental in character and should help members develop in character and
establish some aspect of production. The overall effect of the projects is to develop a
positive attitude towards change, increasing agricultural production and income. They
learn by doing (seeing is believing).

Rural youth project requirements and financing

Rural youth projects should convey the message of improved livelihood. It should offer
the youth opportunities to increase production, increase income and improve rural living
conditions. The project should be a point where families exchange useful and helpful
information. In some cases, there might not be any funds for a new project. Yet, if the

45
project is very important: first, begin with what people have. This gives them a chance to
learn principles of management- the local people can supply with materials. Second
MOA local schools, research centre… can provide some initial material (seeds,
animals…), at the start members do not pay, but will pay out of their product.
Elements of successful sustainable rural youth projects
- the youth should own the project
- members should do all the work
- members and the community should understand how the production increases
and how income from the project will be handled
- Income from the project should go to the members, to give them satisfaction
from their work.
- Members should be recognized for work well done in any appropriate manner, to
keep members interested in the project.
- Source of supply for materials needed for each project must be planned
5.4 Attempts made to organize the rural youth in Ethiopia
1. Agricultural Extension Service: Extension activities in Ethiopia began in 1954,
where 2 young graduates of Ambo where selected as extension agents. The
extension work was expanded through the formation of an agricultural youth club.
As first members of the club, 33 boys participated in poultry breeding & 38 in
gardening.
2. Teachers Training School: In 1954, an agricultural education class was
established to teach modern agriculture at the teachers training school in Harar.
Practical experience was gained through a poultry & gardening projects. The
graduates were expected to carry on agricultural teaching & their rural schools.
3. School Clubs: Youth clubs were initiated and supported by extension service.
Extension agents organized school clubs with the consent of the headmaster.
Teachers were expected to cooperate in supervising the club’s activities.
Incidentally, extension agents were expected to spend around 40% of their time in
the work. Local school officials played important roles in establishing clubs in
schools, and schools were made to compete by holding annual shows and
demonstrations. Members were enthusiastic due to the competitive spirit and for
winning awards. Major clubs are poultry & gardening. Expected benefits are
learning by doing, income generation, report preparation, etc.
1. REYA: was formed at a national congress held in 1980. It had strong
ideological content and it received political, ideological and organizational
leadership from the party. Membership was voluntary (ages 14-30). At
inception in 1980, it had 3 million members. Of this 86 % was in rural areas.
Various activities of REYA were: 1) Literacy campaign 2. Social service
3.Direct agricultural work 4. Recreational activities 5. Military activities

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 CHAPTER SIX

Leadership for Development

6.1. Introduction

LEADING is a process of activating and directing other people’s efforts toward accomplishment
of organizational and personal objectives. When leading, managers assign tasks, delegate
authority and responsibility, ask for cooperation, deal with conflict, use motivation techniques,
and develop effective communication channels.

Definition of leadership
Leadership is the thus defined here as the process of influencing others to achieve specific
objectives in specific situations (without using unduly coercive methods or techniques). Unless
unduly coercive methods and techniques are excluded, leadership would include such actions an
influencing people through threats of violence. Leadership thus refers to something a person
accomplishes rather than to his or her personal characteristics. However, you may use your
characteristics to influence people. Our definition of leadership also implies that (a) the leader
has a since of direction or goal –orientation and (b) the effectiveness of one’s attempts to
influence is contingent upon unique situation factors.

Although leadership is considers a separate function within management, it is important for

carrying out the other functions. Effective leadership skill helps managers do a better job of
planning, organizing and controlling.

Leadership is a group phenomenon. It occurs in a situation. Four essential elements are in any
leadership situation. A group of the people, a leader or leaders, a problem, and a possible
solution. These are the four minimum conditions from which leadership can develop. There are
qualifying conditions related to each which can contribute to the effectiveness of leadership.

Members of a group will operate most effectively toward reaching a goal if the members are
common back ground, race creed, color, age, education, socio economic status or neighborhood,
or, it may mean simply having a common problem or situation which all wants to change. One of
the first steps in leadership may be to help seemingly a heterogeneous group to recognize its
common grounds for becoming a group.

Three factors are generally considered essential to effective leadership in extension work. There
are:
(a) Knowledge of the area in which leadership is to develop;
(b) Knowledge of human nature ; and
(c) Acceptance of leader by the group.

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When number of a person are frustrated by the same problem and are unable to resolve it
themselves, they are ripe for leadership. The more critical, the more serious, the more
unreasonable the problem, and the either the group is to lead.

A group that has no problem, or none that its members cannot solve themselves, needs no leader.
Efforts to organize such a group are met with in difference and non-compliance. Leadership does
not develop but withers.

The group must have a problem that it recognizes. Often the would – be leader’s first function is
to help the group to recognize its real problem. The community that has an abundance of
children between ten and twenty years of age but has 4-H club may not be aware of the total
educational problem of its youth.

A group cannot move towards its goal until it knows and accepts a way to the goal a solution to
the problem. The solution may be produced by the leader, but it is possible that he will have to
influence the member of the group to accept his solution. On the other hand, the leader may
inspire or guide the group in seeing its own solution. Unless the group moves, no leadership has
occurred.

6.2 Qualifications for lay leaders

Empirical evidence of specific qualities necessary for lay leadership in extension is somewhat lacking.
However, some studies have provided certain guidelines for identifying potential leadership. Brunner and
his associates, after reviewing available research and literature relative to qualities of needed for
leadership, settled on the following twelve qualifications (not necessarily in order of importance):

1. Empathy ( the ability to put oneself in another’s shoes)

2. Consideration of others
3. Enthusiasm
4. Expressiveness
5. Originality
6. Emotional stability
7. Desired to assume a leadership rule
8. Knowledge
9. Intelligence

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 10. Self confidence
11. Ability to delegate tasks
12. Competency in the area.
Bruner feels that the key qualification is competency. He points out that:
Leadership is specific to particular situations and is a function of the situation. These relates to the matter
of competency. It emphasizes that there are few generalized leaders but many recognized by their peers as
superior in some one area of the interest.

From the practical stand point, the importance of competence for leadership is obvious. A 4-H beef –
cattle project leader possessing all the other qualities of leadership would find the task of leading his
group extremely difficult without knowledge of beef cattle. The same principle holds true in the case of
advisory or planning committees. They should have demonstrated some ability and skill in planning and
decision making.
6.3 Methods of selecting lay leaders

The method used in selecting lay leaders will depend primarily up on the task at hand and the
existing social situation. No particular method can be said to the best under all conditions. The
extension worker must know his people and their way of behavior before he can give leadership
There are three major methods used in the selection of extension lay leaders:
a. Election
b. Appointment, and
c. Opportunity to volunteer
Each of the method is appropriate under certain conditions.

Election might appear to be a sure means of obtaining a leader who is acceptable. However, this
method does not always produce the most acceptable leaders. The group attendance at the time
of election may not be representative of the group to be lead. Small attendance at the election, for
example, indicates lack of representativeness. Besides, false modesty on the part of some
potential leaders may cause them to reject the nomination. Yet, election is a sound and sensible
way of selecting an acceptable leader. It can be used effectively, if the extension worker
understands the people of the country and how to motivate them.

Appointment another desirable way of selecting leaders is to appoint them. This method implies
that one person or a committee is more likely to pick an acceptable leader than would the group
as whole. If the advantages of selecting leaders are not overcome. It is possible that appointment
rather than election is preferable.

There are two distinct disadvantage of this method. In the first place, committees or individuals
may over look the essential item of acceptability by the group of the person appointed, or they
may mistake popularity for acceptability. Second both committees and individuals are prone to
consider availability –that is, who will take the job rather than who will be acceptable to the
group.
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Leaders may be appointed by the:

a) extension worker
b) town chairmen
c) county council(agriculture , home economics , 4-H)
d) group they represent ; or
e) Parents of members (4-H).

The appropriateness of the method used in appointing the leaders will depend again on the
situation. It must be kept in mind that what should be looked at is the total extension leadership
picture and not just the one phase such as 4-H or agricultural or home economics.

Opportunity to volunteer one of the greatest misconceptions in extension work is the fallacy of
referring to the lay leader as the volunteer lay leader. Extension research intimates that the most
effective lay leaders are those who volunteer for the job. Most of this research studies have not
clearly defined the term volunteer; however, Webster defines a volunteer as “one who enters into
or offers himself for any service of his own freewill”

If the researchers were thinking of volunteer leader in terms of one who personally presents
himself to the professional worker and offers his service unsolicited, the writer question the
validity of their findings on the other hand, if they were thinking of the volunteer as a person
who voluntarily accepts leadership responsibility when approached by responsible individual or
a group, then there is no criticism of the finding.

It should be pointed out that there is an inherent danger in opening up a lay leader position to the
first type of volunteer described above. The volunteer may be overly ambitious, aggressive,
dictatorial, and otherwise an acceptable his group. The remedy for such a situation is to avoid the
practice of asking for his type of volunteer, except for temporary assignments nominating or
sponsoring committee may call for volunteers when it is made clear that its function is to select
one of the volunteers.

6.4 Opinion leadership

Opinion leadership is the extent to which an individual is execrating informal influence over the
behavior of others, changing their attitudes and behavior with a relative frequency. Other terms
used for opinion leadership such as key communicators, gate keepers, influencers, test makers,
style setters, fashion leaders, etc.

In 1944 American presidents election Katz and Lazarsfeld (1944) identified the existence of
some intermediary influence on the working behaviour of the public in between the mass media
and audiences. Till then, the general belief was that the mass media are excreting a direct
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influence on the audience a possessed by hypodermic needle model.

When further examined the scientist could identify the set of informal leader ship is active in the
community, to shape the public opinion. They called this type leadership as opinion leadership.
Opinion leaders are those individuals who may not occupy the formal status in the society, but
continue to influence other in certain subject area of their credibility.

The opinion leadership status for an individual may be specific to some aspects and hence, there
may be different opinion leaders in the community for different topics. The opinion leaders are
significant in the context of diffusion of innovations and adoption behavior of the community;
they may be cold or hot in their behavior in influencing the social life style. The term cold means
passive or indifferent to the incoming innovation and hence not helping its acceptance by the
society, rather sometimes making resistance also.

Hot opinion leadership is receptive to new ideas and helps the speedy diffusion of an innovation.

Opinion leadership is to be considered as of vital importance in planned change process. These

are because generally the opinion leaders have a tendency to conformist to values of norms of the
society, and hence they, may not be easily receptive to substantial change inducements. But once
they are convinced about the need and utility of the change, they help in the speedy diffusion. In
short, the opinion leaders are to be handled with care, if we have to introduce a plan change
without fail.

What are the characteristics of opinion leaders?

 Opinion leaders may have higher social status within the class.
 Opinion leaders have greater exposure to mass media that are relevant to their area of
interest.
 Opinion leaders have greater interest and knowledge of the area of influence than do non
leaders.
 Opinion leaders are more gregarious than non-leaders.
 Opinion leaders have more innovativeness than do non-leaders.
 Opinion leaders are also more familiar with and loyal to group standards and values than
are non-leaders.

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 Two- steps flow model postulates the existence of the opinion leaders between mass media
source and their audience, in inducing indirect influence on the formation of public opinion and
attitudes on the mass audiences. Latter, some scientists suggested multi-steps flow model also
where there are more number of relays I between the mass media and audience.

6.5 Theories of leadership

1. "Great Man" Theories: (Thomas Carlyle, 1847)

• The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic.
• That simply means that great leaders are born they are not made.
• This theory is based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate
qualities, destined to lead.
• Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man' theory was proposed.
• Most leaders were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in areas other than
leadership.
One of the first theories on leadership makes the assumption that these qualities are inherent,
which indicates that leaders are born, not created, and cannot be learned. This hypothesis asserts
that a leader has certain innate human characteristics, such as:
• Glamour
• Decisive
• Wisdom
• Daring
• Assertiveness
• Appeal
This viewpoint emphasizes the fact that individuals cannot be taught to be effective leaders. It's a
quality that either you have or you don't. These abilities come naturally, thus you cannot learn
them or receive training in them.
In addition, the idea holds that these leadership qualities are constant over time and apply to all
organizations, regardless of the setting in which these leaders are employed. The idea that
exceptional leaders emerge when they are required is another tenet of this leadership ideology.

2. Trait Theories: Late 1800s to Mid-1940s

These early leadership theories were content theories, focusing on "what" an effective leader is,
not on 'how' to effectively lead.
The trait approach to understanding leadership assumes that certain physical, social, and personal
characteristics are inherent in leaders. Trait theories intended to identify traits to assist in
selecting leaders since traits are related to leadership effectiveness in many situations.

Sets of traits and characteristics were identified to assist in selecting the right people to become
leaders.
Physical traits include being young to middle-aged, energetic, tall, and handsome.
Social background traits include being educated at the "right" schools and being socially
prominent.
The great man theory is expanded upon by the trait theory of leadership, which is predicated on the
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idea that effective leaders have particular personality qualities and features of behavior. They can
become effective leaders in a number of circumstances thanks to these qualities. It also promotes
the idea that certain people are more naturally gifted as leaders than others. Effective people have
hobbies and personality traits that are very different from those of non-leaders.
The main characteristics of a successful leader are:
• Emotional equilibrium
• Acknowledging one's duty
• Competence
• Recognising obstacles
• Thinking with action
• Motivational abilities
• Talents in communication
• Tenacity and flexibility
• Making decisions with assurance

Trait approach to leadership

Leadership behavior is often linked to personality characteristics. Examples are:
 Some leaders adopt an autocratic style because they have authoritarian personalities
 Persons with a high need for approval may develop a country club leadership style if
given a managerial assignment.
 A desire to avoid responsibility may motivate the compromiser to use participative
methods.
Every managerial work has a personal opinion about which traits and characteristics are required to
be an effective leader. The following are the leadership qualities related to personal characteristics.

a) Cognitive skills
In virtually every leadership situation, an effective leader must have the appropriate amount of
mental ability and knowledge. We refer to this category as cognitive skills. These include.

 Problem solving ability: according to cognitive resource theory, intelligent and

competent leaders make effective plans, decisions, and strategies. They anticipate
problems before they occur and preserve until the problems are solved. In the process,
they demonstrate imagination, creativity, and a willingness to experiment with
unproven methods and approaches.
 Insight into people and situations: an effective leader has ability to read people and
situations. Insight into people is essential when assigning work to subordinates and
choosing among the job candidates. Insight into situation enables a leader to choose the
appropriate leadership style for the task at hand.
 Technical and professional competency: some people argue that a person who has the
right leadership characteristics and skills can lead various types of groups. Perhaps this
is true in top –level leadership situations, such as when a former army general becomes
president and then asectratery of state. In lesser leadership positions, however, it is
difficult for a leader to establish rapport with subordinates when the

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leader does not understand the technical skills. At a minimum a leader who manages specialists
must not be readily bluffed by their technical arguments.

b) Personality traits and characteristics

Although personality traits and characteristics are difficult to measure accurately, they have an
important influence on leadership effectiveness. And there are situation differences in terms of
which traits and characteristics are the most relevant. For instance, enthusiasm may be more
important for a sales manager that for the supervisor of accounts payable. Here are several
personality traits and combination of traits that often relate to leadership effectiveness.

 Self -confidence: a realistic degree of self-confidence enhances leadership

effectiveness. A leader who is a self-confident without being over bearing in stills
confidence among subordinates. A manager who is inwardly self-confident will behave
confidentially and will be perceived as acting cool under pressure.
 Power motive: effective top level managers have a strong need to control resources.
Leaders with strong power motives have three dominant characteristics. First, they act
with vigor and determination to exert their power. Second, they invest much time in
thinking about ways to alter the behavior and thinking of others. Third, they care about
their personal standing with those around them. This high need for power is important
because it means that the leader is interested in influencing others.
 Need for achievement: The need for achievement refers to a strong desire to
accomplish things for their own seeks. When a person with a strong derives for
achievement is placed in leadership position, he /she will often exhibit a leadership
style characterized by a strong sense of time urgency. Intern, this strong sense of time
urgency can be a positive force for innovation.
 Sense of humor: the right amount of humor contributes to leadership effectiveness
because it relives tension and boredom and diffuse hostility. If people can be made to
see the humor in a situation, some of their anger will dissipate.
 Enthusiasm: enthusiasm is a desirable in most leadership situations. Employs respond
positively to enthusiasm, partially because they perceive is expression as a reward for
doing things right. Enthusiasm is also a desirable because it helps build good
relationship with a group member. A leader may express enthusiasm variably or non-
verbally through gesture, handshakes, or touching.
 Assertiveness: leaders, along with other professionals, must be forthright in expressing
their demands, opinions, feelings, and attitudes. Assertiveness helps learner perform
many tasks and achieve goals. Among them are confronting group members about
their mistakes, demanding higher performance from employees, and making legitimate
demand on higher management. In contrast, leaders who express demands in an overly
pushy , obnoxious , and aversive manner are termed aggressive also in contrast to

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assertive leaders are passive individuals who suppress their own ideas , attitudes, feelings, and
thought as if they were likely to be perceived as controversial.
c) Relationship with subordinates
Some traits of effective leaders closely linked to behaviors that involve relationship with
subordinates. The most important of these behavioral traits include,
i) Interpersonal skills: one of the key managerial skills is the ability to work
effectively with others. Frequently the person chosen for a managerial position is
not higher to producer in the team. Instead, this person is an ample producer who
gets along well with co-worker.
ii) Leading by example: a simple at effective way of influencing team members is to
lead by example, or by acting a positive model. Among the behaviors effective
leaders set an example or for are integrity and honesty, concern for quality, good
team work, and careful work habits.
iii) Sensitivity and tact: being too sensitive to team member’s feelings and using tact
help build morale. In contrast, being insensitive may block a manager’s career,
preventing him/ her from exercising leadership at a higher organizational level.
Insensitivity to others, which characterized by an aversive, intimidating, bullying
style is a critical flow. In one instance, when top level managers perceived such
behavior in an aspiring middle level manager, they made the judgment that this
insensitive person was not promotable. Another important aspect of leader ship
sensitivity is responding to cultural diversity by, for example, not asking an
employee to work on a religious holiday that is significant to him or her.
iv) Supportiveness: providing emotional support to team members contributes to
leadership effectiveness. By giving encouragement and prize, leaders usually
increases morally and often increase productivity. Supportive behavior typically
stems from persons characteristics such as empathy, warmth and flexibility.
v) Maintaining high expectations: holding high expectation for a team member
often raise their level of performance. This is known as the Pygmalion effect. It
works because people develop more self-confidence when they recognize that their
superiors have confidence in them. Increased confidence leads in tern to increased
performance although the Pygmalion effect does not always work, it has been
documented recently.

Limitation of trait approach

The trait approach to understanding leadership patterns has some merit, but it is also fraught with
problems. Limitation of trait approach can be summarized as follows:
1. Traits naming does not indicate how much of the trait is needed.
2. Trait are usually poorly defined and are overlapping

3. Trait approach fills to recognize that leader ship requirement vary from one
situation to another
4. Trait approach fills to distinguish between traits that are necessary for the success
in certain situation and traits that are merely desirable (for example, the necessity
for decisiveness in some supervisory jobs). Similarly, it fills to show how persons
who lack a certain highly desirable trait, such as skill in interpersonal relations (if

55
, indeed, that is a trait), may succeed because of a compensating quality such as
superior decision making skills related to technical or financial matters.

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3.Behavioural Theories: Mid 1940s to Early1970s

• Leadership is not something you are born with, nor do you need a set of commonly accepted
traits. However, effective leadership is dependent on the right behavior.
• Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look
at what leaders actually do.
• If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy
for other people to act in the same way.
Behavioral leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders and holds that other leaders are able
to imitate similar actions. Because it is sometimes known, the design theory contends that
successful leaders could also be developed through teachable conduct rather than being born with
it. The behaviors of a pacesetter are extensively emphasized in behavioral theories of leadership;
this theory contends that observing a leader's behavior is the best indicator of how successful their
leadership will be. The behavioral learning hypothesis emphasizes behavior instead of traits.
Consistent with this idea, observable patterns of conduct are classified as "styles of leadership."
Task-oriented leaders, club leaders, people-oriented leaders, dictatorial leaders, status-quo leaders,
and more are some samples of leadership styles.

4.Contingency Theories: not only qualities but also need of followers

• Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment
that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.
• According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.
• Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of
the followers and aspects of the situation.
According to the contingency hypothesis, there is no one right way to run an organization.
Determining the optimal strategy for leading an organization to achieve depends on both
internal and external considerations. The right candidate should fit the correct scenario,
according to the contingency theory.
The following elements influence the leadership style, based on contingency theory:
• Management approach
• Work speed
• Organizational policies and culture
• Employee spirit
• Employees' level of maturity
• Relationship between coworkers or members of a team
• Organizational objectives
• Environment and routine at work
The management strategy that will help the organization achieve its objectives in a particular
situation is decided by the leader.
According to this view, situations determine whether or not leaders are effective. No matter
how successful a leader is, the idea explains, difficult situations will always arise. It emphasizes
that the leaders are aware that the conditions in combination with their abilities have a role in
their achievement.

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 5. Situational Theory:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational
variables.
Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
Similar to the contingency theory, this idea emphasizes the significance of context and holds that a
leader should adjust to the shifting context to achieve objectives and make judgments. The level of
competence and dedication of the team members can influence how these leaders choose to lead.
Situational leadership, as per situational theory:
• Develop a connection with the workforce
• Encourage employees
• Recognize when alternative leadership philosophies are required in a given situation
• Develop teams and organizational units
The idea also distinguishes four main leadership styles:
1. Telling: Managers instruct staff members on what needs to be done and how to go about it.
2. Selling: Team members are persuaded to adopt a leader's concepts or ideas.
3. Participating: Effective leaders encourage their team members to take an active part in
problem-solving and decision-making processes.
4. Delegating: Limiting their involvement, leaders hand off the majority of the work to the
team. Such leaders defer to the group for decision-making but they are always ready for
advice.
The theory lists a few essential traits of a situational leader, such as problem-solving abilities,
trust, adaptability, insight, and coaching.

6.Management Theory:
• Management theories (also known as "Transactional theories") focus on the role of
supervision, organization and group performance.
• These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments.
Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded;
when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.
It is a leadership approach that emphasizes the value of hierarchy for enhancing organizational
effectiveness. These managers place high importance on structure and utilize their authority to
enforce rules to inspire staff to perform at their best. In accordance with this philosophy, workers
are rewarded for achieving their given objectives. The concept also presupposes that workers must
comply with managerial directives.
Managers who practice transactional leadership keep an eye on their staff, making sure they are
rewarded for reaching milestones and disciplined when they fall short. These executives, however,
do not serve as a trigger for a company's expansion. Instead, they concentrate on upholding the
organization's policies and standards to ensure that everything goes as planned.
Leaders Who Practice Transactional Leadership:
• Target immediate objectives.
• Favor standardized processes and regulations
• Recent changes
• Discourage original thought
• Emphasis on one's own interests
• Encourage performance

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 6.6. Styles of leadership

A leadership style is a way in which a leader accomplishes their team’s objective by motivating employees
to work towards the common goal and focusing on their well-being. Understanding leadership style is
imperative for a team to work together and also keep growing while embracing changes. It is the typical
pattern of behavior a leader uses to influence employees to achieve organizational goals.
It is the behavior exhibited by a leader during influencing subordinates to accomplish organizational
objectives.
Managers and other leaders are relatively consistent in the way they attempt to influence the behavior of
the others. The managers who dominate subordinates in one situation is not likely to use a high degree of
consideration and participation in the another. Correspondingly, the manager who is considerate and
though full in one situation is not likely to be insensitive and harsh in another. The relatively consistent
pattern or constellation of the behavior that characterize a leader is called a leadership style.

The leader ship continuum

In the leadership continuum, we can find autocratic style, participative style, and free rein (laissez faire)
style. Let’s discuss each as follow as

There are 4 basic leadership styles. These include;

• Autocratic leadership style
• Bureaucratic leadership style
• Laissez-faire leadership style
• Democratic leadership style

a) Autocratic Leadership style

An autocratic leader maintains most of the authority in a group by issuing orders and telling group
members what to do without consulting them. The autocratic style is closely associated with the classical
approach to management. The pure autocrat has fallen in to increasing disfavor in modern organizations
where people expect to be consulted about a wide range of matters affecting them and their work. Such a
leader confidently decides without consultation, then gives orders and expects them to be obeyed.

To the autocrat, the basis for legitimate leadership is a formal authority. He /she may have a few faviorite
subordinates but generally regards close interpersonal relationship with subordinates as super fulvous.
The autocrat is task oriented and places little intrinsic value on showing considerations to subordinates as
a leadership technique.

When autocrats learn that their tactic interfere with achievement they often modify them to a degree. In
some cases they become benevolent autocrats, making decisions and hard selling them to subordinate
rather than giving orders. A benevolent autocrat usually returns to the pure autocratic style when
benevolence does not achieve the results they seek.

As with any style of leadership, there are some situations in which being an autocrat is the appropriate

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style. One example is a high –accident –risk work area where the employees are not particularly
knowledgeable about the potential risks. The supervisor needs to be authocratic in making

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pronouncements such as “were acid –proof globs whenever you enter the work area marked off by red
lines.”

Despite many negative consequence of autocratic leadership, many pure autocrats have been success full
as high level government and business executives.

Characteristics of autocratic style

Manager retains power (classical approach)

Manager is decision-making authority
Manager does not consult employees for input
Subordinates expected to obey orders without explanations
Motivation provided through structured rewards and punishments
The autocratic leadership style should NOT be used when:
 Employees become tense, fearful, or resentful
 Employees expect to have their opinions heard
 Employees begin depending on their manager to make all their decisions
 There is low employee morale, high turnover and absenteeism and work stoppage

Autocratic Leader
• “Look, I’m the boss around here. I’ll make the decisions and I’ll tell you what I want you to do.
You do better your job because I’ll be watching your every move.”
• Autocratic leadership Style is also known as ‘’I’’ approach.
• Leader expects high degree of compliance by subordinates.
• A Leader having this style does not consult staff, nor allowed to give any input. He is dogmatic
and positive in his approach.

b) Bureaucratic leadership style

Bureaucratic leadership can be defined as a system of management that follows a hierarchy where official
duties are fixed. Employees in this form of leadership are expected to follow specific rules and authority
created by their superiors. Manager manages “by the book¨. Everything must be done according to
procedure or policy. If it isn’t covered by the book, the manager refers to the next level above him or her
Police officer more than leader.
This style is ineffective when:
Work habits form that are hard to break, especially if they are no longer useful. Employees lose their
interest in their jobs and in their fellow workers. Employees do only what is expected of them and no
more.

c) Laissez-faire leadership style

The term Laissez-faire is of French origin and translates to “letting people do as they choose.” This
leadership style is the complete opposite of micromanaging. Laissez-faire leaders allow their followers to
have the autonomy to make their own decisions and manage their own desks
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 ➢ Also known as the “hands-off¨ style
➢ Little or no direction
➢ Gives followers as much freedom as possible
➢ All authority or power is given to the followers
➢ Followers must determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.

When to use Laissez- faire

Employees are highly skilled, experienced, and educated
Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own
Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used
Employees are trustworthy and experienced

d) Democratic leadership style

The democratic leadership style, or participative management, actively involves the people being led.
Democratic leaders often seek feedback and input from subordinates. They encourage conversation and pa
Help employees evaluate their own performance
Allows employees to establish goals
Encourages employees to grow on the job and be promoted
Recognizes and encourages achievement

When to use democratic style

To keep employees informed
To encourage employees to share in decision-making and problem-solving
To provide opportunities for employees to develop a high sense of personal growth and job satisfaction
Complex problems that require a lots of input
To encourage team building and participation.

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