INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS HYDROGRAPHY?
The branch of applied Sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the physical
features of Oceans, Seas, Coastal Areas, Lakes and Rivers, as well as the prediction of their
changes over time.

The Primary purpose is for safe Navigation

Also to support Economic and Environmental activities

WHY HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING SO IMPORTANT?

Fundamentally, it’s important to secure the safety of commercial and non-commercial vessels and
other water users.

Of late lager ships and tankers built with huge investments are seen on the waters transporting all
sorts goods all over the world and their safety must be of utmost importance.

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING

Hydrographic surveying deals with the configuration of the bottom and adjacent land areas of
oceans, lakes, rivers, harbours, and other water forms on Earth.

In strict sense, it is defined merely as the surveying of a water area; however, in modern usage it
may include a wide variety of other objectives such as measurements of tides, current, gravity,
earth magnetism, and determinations of the physical and chemical properties of water.

The principal objective of most hydrographic surveys, is to obtain basic data for the compilation
of nautical charts with emphasis on the features that may affect safe navigation.

Other objectives include acquiring the information necessary for related marine navigational
products and for coastal zone management, engineering, and science.
The purpose of hydrographic surveying is

1. To collect, with systematic surveys at sea, along the coast and inland, georeferenced data related
to:

 Shoreline configuration, including man-made infrastructure for maritime navigation i.e.

all those features on shore that are of interest to mariners.
 Depths in the area of interest (including all potential hazards to navigation and other
marine activities).
 Sea bottom composition.
 Tides and Currents.
 Physical properties of the water column

2. To process the information collected in order to create organized databases capable of feeding
the production of thematic maps, nautical charts and other types of documentation for the
following most common uses :

Uses:

♦ Maritime navigation and traffic management.

♦ Naval operations.

♦ Coastal zone management.

♦ Marine environment preservation.

♦ Exploitation of marine resources and laying of submarine cables/pipelines.

♦ Maritime boundaries definition (Law of the Sea implementation).

♦ Scientific studies.

Other Uses

1. Locate sewer fall by measuring direct currents

2. Locating mean sea level

3. Scouring, silting and irregularities of the bed can be identified

4. River and stream discharge measurement

5. Massive structures like bridges, dams, harbours are planned

Fig.1. Principal Components of Hydrographic Surveying

The end result of a hydrographic survey is a nautical chart: a map that shows the seafloor and other
features related to navigation.

Four major components hydrographic survey.

1. Positioning. This refers to the location of the survey data with respect to latitude and longitude.

2. Water depth, measured from a vertical reference surface or datum, such as mean lower low
water, to the seafloor.
3. Features, sometimes referred to as targets, which may be hazards to navigation. These include
wrecks, shoals, reefs, and other features.

4. Seafloor characteristics. This refers primarily to the bottom type (for example, mud, sand,
bedrock, coral reef). Mariners want to know seafloor characteristics to determine good anchorages
or the danger in running aground

A NAUTICAL CHART OR HYDROGRAPHIC MAP

It is a graphical portrayal of the marine environment;

Showing the nature and form of the coast,

Depths of the water and general character and configuration of the sea bottom, locations of
dangers to navigation,

Rise and fall of the tides, cautions of manmade aids to navigation, and the characteristics of the
Earth’s magnetism.

The actual form of a chart may vary from a traditional paper chart to an electronic chart

Such charts no longer have, as their object, the safety of navigation, but rather, the knowledge of
the environment required for submarine navigation, oceanographic research or industrial
applications, such as cable laying, seabed mining and oil exploitation.

Hydrographic surveying is undergoing fundamental changes in measurement technology.

Multi-beam acoustic and airborne laser systems now provide almost total seafloor coverage and
measurement as compared to the earlier sampling by bathymetric profile.

The capability to position the data precisely in the horizontal plane has been increased enormously
by the availability of satellite positioning systems, particularly when augmented by differential
techniques.

This advance in technology has been particularly significant since navigators are now able to
position themselves with greater accuracy than that of the data on which older charts are based
UNCLOS: UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

It is a Convention that governs relations among countries on oceans-related issues. It outlines the
rights and responsibilities countries have related to the use of the oceans, the seabed and their
resources, and the protection of the ocean environment.

It defines the parts of the ocean where countries with coastlines have sovereignty, rights or
jurisdiction, including the right to use and manage resources through activities such as fishing or
oil exploration.

It also sets out the rights of countries in other countries’ zones, including rights related to
navigation, conducting research and laying cables, and the rights all countries enjoy in the parts of
the ocean that are beyond the legal control of any specific country.

OBJECTIVE

UNCLOS sets out the legal framework within which activities in the oceans and seas are carried
out.

The Convention governs many aspects of oceans affairs, from navigation and fisheries to scientific
research and the rights of coastal states to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage resources within
200 nautical miles of their shores and on their continental shelves beyond 200 nautical miles
(where applicable).

A Nautical mile is a unit of length used in Air, Marine and Space Navigation. A minute of an arc
on Earth is 1 nautical mile

A Nautical mile is approximately 1.151miles or 1.852 km.

BASELINES

Baselines are used to establish the maritime boundaries of a coastal state which include the
territorial sea, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf; thus, they are
instrumental in implementing state maritime policy. Baseline determination can be considered
from both a legal and measurement-related point of view

According to international law, determination of the maritime boundary of a coastal state is

referred to as delimitation.

It allows for the establishment of four types of borders:

 Territorial sea,
 Contiguous zone,
 Exclusive economic zone and
 Continental shelf.

All of these types of borders are determined relative to the baseline, which is an internal state
border. For this reason, precise baseline determination is an important task for each state because
it establishes the area of its sovereignty and jurisdiction.

To accommodate deeply indented coastline and fringes of islands along the coast, the Law of the
Sea Convention (LOSC) allows for use of straight baselines.

These baselines, drawn between features and coastline to create straight lines, allow States to create
fixed points to deal with the wild distance variances caused by such features. Any sea between the
coast and the straight baseline is considered internal waters rather than territorial waters.

The practical effect of straight baselines is that they push a State’s maritime borders outward.

States are not allowed to arbitrarily draw straight baselines in order to extend their maritime claims.
The LOSC provides that straight baselines must conform to the general direction of the coast and
the sea area lying with the lines must be closely linked to the coast

CONTINENTAL SHELF

The continental shelf is a natural seaward extension of a land boundary. This seaward extension is
geologically formed as the seabed slopes away from the coast, typically consisting of a gradual
slope (the continental shelf proper), followed by a steep slope (the continental slope), and then a
more gradual slope leading to the deep seabed floor.
These three areas, collectively known as the continental margin, are rich in natural resources,
including oil, natural gas and certain minerals.

The LOSC allows a State to conduct economic activities for a distance of 200 nautical miles from
the baseline, or the continental margin where it extends beyond 200 nautical miles.

The accurate delineation of the coastline (shoreline) and coastal features is an essential feature of
a Hydrographic Survey, since the mariner is often required to fix his position by bearings and
angles or ranges to promontories (i.e. high points of land or rocks projecting into a body of water)
and similar features on the coastline.

Generally, in hydrographic surveying, the coastline is defined with respect to a High Water datum.

A shoreline is the line of contact between the land and the body of water (This could be the high
water level line)

The main objective of shore line survey is to prepare a topographical map of the shore line.

This consists of

Determination or delineation of shorelines

Location of shore details and prominent features to which soundings may be connected.

Determination of low and high water levels

Shoreline is located by running a traverse and taking offsets from the traverse lines to the shoreline
points.

For a narrow river, an open traverse on one bank of river is sufficient to locate shorelines on both
banks. In case of wide rivers traverse are run on both the banks to determine the shorelines.

The two traverses on both banks may be interconnected by observations as a check on the work
being done.

It may also be required to use triangulation network along the banks of a wide river.

In case of tidal water surface, the low and high water lines are observed from the benchmarks on
the shore.
Shore deposits and marks on the rocks can be used for determining high and low water lines.

Contouring can be done to locate the points of high water line.

Generally, interpolation from soundings is done to save the time and efforts.

The coastline, except in the most rapid and cursory surveys, must always be walked over in the
field when its nature permits.

In some instances, adequate land survey maps based on modern air photography or satellite
imagery will provide data which can be used to assist in plotting the coastline.

Occasionally air photography will be flown specially for a survey and an air “photo plot” produced
at the appropriate scale.

Coastline Details Required

The surveyor should carry out the following tasks:

a. Delineate and fix the coastline by the best methods available;

b. Fix and describe all objects conspicuous and prominent to the mariner, which are not already
fixed, and check existing marks/features on charts and publications are positioned and described
correctly, even though they may be a little inland;

c. Fix and describe or indicate on the chart all objects and features of the coastline which would
assist the mariner to fix himself and identify the coastline. In large scale surveys this will include
very minor details which can only be seen close inshore;

d. Measure and estimate the heights of all such features, some features can be described in general
terms such as “Low red cliffs, 5 to 6 metres high”;

e. Fix all islands, visible offshore dangers and obtain their heights, also fix adjacent floating marks
(buoys not on chart);
f. Describe the composition of the beach between the low water line (drying line) and the high
water line as well as above the high water line. The appropriate symbols should be inserted on the
Bathymetric Sheet;

g. Indicate established landing places along the coast. Fix and describe groynes, sewer outfalls and
anything that might constitute a danger to landing. Piers and jetties should also be fixed and a full
description obtained, which should include type of structure, depths alongside, height of deck
above the HW datum and facilities available;

h. Details of harbours should be obtained giving berthing facilities and supplies available, this
information is to be included with the Sailing Directions;

i. Where appropriate, correct spelling of place names should be obtained from reliable local
sources and checked with names shown on existing maps and charts & publications.

Detail of Concern to the Mariner

Conspicuous objects/marks. - Mariners use bearings to peaks, churches, chimneys, windmills,

masts, permanent buildings etc. They will be visible from quite a distance offshore.

Prominent marks. – Again, Mariners will use bearings to peaks, churches, chimneys, windmills,
masts, permanent buildings etc. These marks will be visible from quite close to the
foreshore/coastline.

Headlands, Islands, Offshore features. - Mariners use bearings to left and right tangents and
vertical heights to cliff tops etc.

Harbour and Port facilities. - Determine dimensions and heights of jetties, orientation and depths
alongside, type of construction, mooring and berthing facilities, small craft facilities, fuelling
berths etc.

Principal Land Features:

a. Natural Objects - Hill summits, rivers, lakes, marshes, woods, contours etc.
b. Artificial Objects - Buildings, towns, flag staffs, roads, railways, factories etc.

c. Contours - Sufficient to indicate height and shape of coastal region.

d. Nature of the Foreshore and Near shore Topography - To assist in recognition and in selecting
landing places.

Lights. - Details must be checked in the field and against entry in Light Lists.

Sailing Directions. - Full written descriptions of the coastline and details of port and harbour
facilities.

SOUNDING

Sounding is the determination of the depth of water at different points on the surface of a water
body.

This requires two measurements- vertical measurement giving depth or R. L. of the bed and
horizontal measurements to locate the points where depths were taken

In flowing and turbulent water as in sea or river, sounding has to be done carefully, as the data
collection of soundings may be disturbed by silting and scouring that changes the bed level.

Sounding Equipment

Sounding Boat: It is a simple boat with a sounding platform. A rowing canoe or flat bottomed
boat may be used in placid water

Sometimes, a special sounding boat with a central well is used. In flowing waters and difficult
conditions, a motor launch is preferred.

Sounding rod or pole: It is a thick wooden pole 5-8 m long and about 80 mm in diameter.
Sounding rods are suitable for shallow water sounding only. A weight of lead is attached at the
end for stability and for holding it vertical

Lead lines:

These are made of cord, rope or a brass chain with a sounding lead weight attached to it. The line
is graduated in a stretched position after wetting it. It should be dried and stored. It is wetted for
about one hour before it is used for sounding.

Sounding machine:

It is used where extensive sounding work is expected.

The sounding machine is a drum with a lead line and may be operated manually or by electric
power.

The attached lead weight is lowered slowly in water. The depth of the sounding can be read from
the dials. The sounding machine can be used for depths up to 30 m.

Fathometer:

It works on the principle of echo sounding.

It can be used for greater depths and hence mostly used in ocean sounding. A fathometer
determines the water depths by measuring the time taken by sound waves to travel through water
and back.

The instrument can directly give the depth or may record it on paper giving the profile of the bed
ground

A fathometer has a transmitter for generating and transmitting sound waves and a receiver unit for
receiving the echo sound waves.

The time of travel of signal is recorded. As the distance travelled is two times the depth of the
water and V is the velocity of sound that takes the time t,

then D = V t/ 2, where D is the depth of water.

A correction may be applied if the boat is in motion, i. e., the position of transmission and receiving
of the signal is not the same.

Basic Principle of echo sounder

Sound waves are directed in the same way as light waves in a searchlight, towards the bottom of
the sea floor.

A pulse of sound sent from the ship is reflected as echo after hitting the sea bottom. The time
interval between transmission of sound wave and the reception of bounced echo is being
proportional to the depth of the water.

Water depth is determined from the travel time and the speed of sound in water.

 Water depth can be estimated simply by using an average sound speed and the following
relationship:

 Distance between vessel and sea bottom = speed of the sound wave in water multiplied by
travel time of sound wave send from vessel and reception of echo by vessel divided by two.

 The value is divided by 2 as the sound wave travels two way from vessel to sea bed and
seabed to vessel .

 In order to understand the acoustic function of an echo sounder one must know the basics
of Hydro acoustics that means study about propagation, reflection and refraction of sound
waves in water.6

 Sound waves can travel through a material medium such as a gas, a liquid or a solid, with
particular speed, but not a vacuum. If we count the number of peaks which pass a given
point during one second (s) we get the frequency of sound. The frequency thus gives the
number of waves or periods per second.

An echo sounder consists of 4 basic components.

1. The Transmitter

2. The Transducer
3. The Receiver

4. The Recorder

First component of echo sounder is transmitter.

The function of the transmitter is to produce energy in the form of pulses of electrical oscillations.

The pulses of electrical energy are generated at a specified frequency. (Frequencies for fisheries
applications might be 38KHz,120KHz or 400KHz).

In echosounder, the sound wave is not sent out continuously but in short bursts (pulses) with
longer quiet periods in between.

The duration of the short burst is called the pulse length. The duration of the sound pulse is one
thousandth of a second (ie one millisecond or 1 ms).

Transducer

Transducer is very important part of the echo sounder, which is fixed in the hull region, below the
waterline of the vessel.

The main function of the transducer is to convert electrical energy into sound energy when sound
is to be sent and conversely, to convert the sound energy into electrical energy when echoes are
received.

The transducer is also responsible for concentrating the sound pulse in a directional beam, similar
to the beam of light produced by search light. The width of the sound beam is inversely
proportional to the frequency of the sound.

The transmitted pulse of sound propagates through the water away from transducer. The sound
pulse travelling through water may face various targets such as fish, seaweed, sea bed etc..

These targets reflect or scatter the sound pulse, and some energy returns the transducer.
This bounced sound (the echo) is detected by the transducer and converted to electrical energy as
the received signal. The time at which the echo is received is calculated by the echo sounder and
the distance of the target from the transducer is calculated.

Fig. 2. Transducer installation over the bow

The Receiver

The function of the receiver is to amplify the weak electrical oscillations produced in the transducer
by the echo so that they can be recorded or displayed.

The weak electrical signals produced in the transducer when echoes are received must be amplified
several thousand times before being passed on to the recorder. This amplification takes place in
the receiver and the amount of amplification can be decided by the sensitivity control.

In order to remove the echoes from very close range which are much stronger than those from a
distance, the sensitivity of the receiver is automatically suppressed.

The Recorder

The recorders are responsible for displaying and recording of the echoes in different forms like
paper recorder, a flash-light display, an audible signal or an oscilloscope (Cathode Ray Tube (
CRT)) . Modern echo sounders often use a colour monitors to show the echoes. In recent years ,
most advanced, light weight displays such as LCD and LED are used in echo sounders, with that
the crystal clear visibility of the display is possible even under the direct sunlight.

The recording unit also has another important function of starting the transmitter to produce the
electrical pulse and to measuring the time between the transmission of the sound pulse and the
reception of the echo.

Bathymetric surveys

Bathymetric surveys are a type of hydrographic survey which map out the details of underwater
terrain, illustrating the depth and land that lies beneath a body of water.

Data can be collected for a variety of water bodies, including rivers, lakes and estuaries, and the
data can be used to inform flood assessments and project developments.

Traditionally, Bathymetric surveys are conducted using an echo sounder attached to a survey boat.

As the boat moves across the water, the echo sounder will generate electrical signals. These are
then converted into soundwaves by an under-water transducer.

Soundwaves will bounce off features under the water and this echo is then identified by the echo
sounder and the distance to the identified feature is calculated.

Bathymetric survey systems rely on highly accurate GNSS (GPS) systems to link each measured
distance to a particular depth on the surveying map.

The next stage in a bathymetric survey consists of transforming the captured from the boat into an
elevated model.

Bathymetric Surveys Methods

There are an array of methods and tools that can be used to produce a bathymetric survey, some
of the more common methods include:
Multi-beam survey – This involves attaching an echo sounder to a boat, which then sends out an
array of beams across the waterbody floor. When the beams are bounced back from the
waterbody’s floor, data is collected and is then processed, so that data can be viewed in real-time
during the survey

Single-beam surveying

As the name suggests, his involves sending out a single-beam directly underneath the boat to
identify the depth of the waterbody. Typically, the single-beam method is used on smaller areas of
water.

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) –

This method involves the use of soundwaves to measure velocity. The soundwaves are transmitted
into the water and as they are reflected off sediment and other materials within the water, data can
be collected.

Sub-bottom profilers –

This method also adopts the use of soundwaves. However, unlike the ADCP, the soundwaves are
directed at the waterbody’s floor to identify the layers of sediment and other rocks that lay beneath
the floor.it is used to view the layers of sediment and rocks under the water body floor.

Doppler Effect,
The apparent difference between the frequency at which sound or light waves leave a source and
that at which they reach an observer, caused by relative motion of the observer and the wave
source. This phenomenon is used in astronomical measurements, and in radar and modern
navigation. It was first described (1842) by Austrian physicist Christian Doppler.

The following is an example of the Doppler Effect:

As one approaches a blowing horn, the perceived pitch is higher until the horn is reached and then
becomes lower as the horn is passed. Similarly, the light from a star, observed from the Earth,
shifts toward the red end of the spectrum (lower frequency or longer wavelength) if the Earth and
star are receding from each other and toward the violet (higher frequency or shorter wavelength)
if they are approaching each other
IMPORTANCE OF BATHYMETRIC SURVEYS

Bathymetric surveys can be important for a wide number reasons, particularly in terms of aiding
navigation and dredging activities, and supporting land projects.

Navigation

Having an accurate survey of a body of water is crucial to enable safe navigation for boats, ships,
and vessels through the water. Bathymetric surveys can help these watercrafts identify whether the
water is too shallow for passage, which is particularly useful for rivers and harbours.

Dredging

Bathymetric surveys are commonly used as part of the data collection process for dredging and
maritime infrastructure works, as it establishes the subsea conditions, as well as the contours of
the seafloor. This vital information informs decisions regarding dredging tools that will be used
and creates a baseline for both measuring environmental impact and for measuring dredging
accuracies.

Land Development Projects –

Bathymetric surveys can also be useful for land development projects, such as urban planning,
bridge building and housing. These surveys identify the features of a body of water, so project
plans can be developed around this information, reducing the likelihood of timely errors and
misjudgements occurring.

Acoustic Positioning System

An acoustic positioning system calculates range from a submersible-mounted transducer to other
transducers at known locations with known spacing. This permits an accurate range calculation,
with adjustment for water temperature/salinity/density, by computing the one-way or round-trip
timing. Bearing is resolved through triangulation of the timing differences across the transducer
array (i.e., merging point of the separate lines of position).
Baseline station deployment and survey:
Acoustic positioning systems measure positions relative to a framework of baseline stations, which
must be deployed prior to operations. In the case of a long baseline (LBL) system, a set of three or
more baseline transponders are deployed on the sea floor. The location of the baseline transponders
either relative to each other or in global coordinates must then be measured precisely. Some
systems assist this task with an automated acoustic self-survey, and in other cases GPS is used to
establish the position of each baseline transponder as it is deployed or after deployment.

Underwater Acoustic Positioning System

Underwater acoustic positioning systems are generally categorized into three broad types or
classes namely Long Baseline (LBL) Systems, Ultra Short Baseline (USBL) Systems and Short
Baseline (SBL) Systems.

Long Baseline (LBL) Systems: Long baseline systems, as in figure 1 above, use a sea-floor
baseline transponder network. The transponders are typically mounted in the corners of the
operations site. LBL systems yield very high accuracy of generally better than 1 m and sometimes
as good as 0.01m along with very robust positions. This is due to the fact that the transponders are
installed in the reference frame of the work site itself (i.e. on the sea floor), the wide transponder
spacing results in an ideal geometry for position computations, and the LBL system operates
without an acoustic path to the (potentially distant) sea surface.

Ultra Short Baseline (USBL) Systems: USBL systems and the related super short baseline
(SSBL) systems rely on a small (ex. 230 mm across), tightly integrated transducer array that is
typically mounted on the bottom end of a strong, rigid transducer pole which is installed either on
the side or in some cases on the bottom of a surface vessel.

Short Baseline (SBL) Systems: Short baseline systems use a baseline consisting of three or more
individual sonar transducers that are connected by wire to a central control box. Accuracy depends
on transducer spacing and mounting method. When a wider spacing is employed as when working
from a large working barge or when operating from a dock or other fixed platform, the performance
can be similar to LBL systems. When operating from a small boat where transducer spacing is
tight, accuracy is reduced.

GPS Intelligent Buoys (GIB):

GIB systems are inverted LBL devices where the transducers are replaced by floating buoys, self-
positionned by GPS. The tracked position is calculated in realtime at the surface from the Time-
Of-Arrival (TOAs) of the acoustic signals sent by the underwater devic, and acquired by the buoys.

MODERN SYSTEMS:
During the last decade, hydrographic surveying has experienced a conceptual change in depth
measurement technology and methodology. Multibeam echo sounders (MBES) and airborne laser
sounding systems (ALS) now provide almost total seafloor coverage and depth measurement. The
high data density and high acquisition rates have led to huge bathymetric data sets and much
ancillary data.

Oceanographic studies or large scale harbour projects use echo -sounding systems with side-scan/
single or multiple beam scanning systems.

Multiple -beam scanning systems use a number of transducers and scan the floor in parallel lines
in two perpendicular directions. These airborne devices are known as SONAR (sound detection
and ranging) and LIDAR (light detection and ranging)

LiDAR, is a remote sensing method that uses laser pulses to measure the distance between objects,
or the distance from the LiDAR sensor itself.

It does this by targeting an object or a surface with a laser and measuring the time it takes for the
reflected light to return to its receiver. The light pulses, together with other data taken using the
LiDAR system, generate highly accurate, 3D information about the Earth’s surface.
How Does LiDAR Work Underwater

An airborne bathymetric LiDAR system works underwater by using a green wavelength of 532
nm to penetrate the water column and effectively measure the seafloor.

Greenlight from LiDAR sensors can penetrate water the farthest (overcoming challenges like
refraction and light absorption). Greenlight can penetrate ocean waters up to 300 meters. To
perform bathymetry (or the underwater mapping of ocean, river, and lake floors), bathymetry
survey operators need to use an airborne LiDAR bathymetric technological system

LiDAR follows the simple principle of throwing a laser beam at an object and measuring the time
the light beam takes to return to the receiver. There is a laser source at the system that fires rapid
laser pulses and a receiver sensor that calculates the amount of time the light takes to reach back.
A rapid succession of these events allows the system to determine the speed and distance of the
target. Here is a formula that analysts use to get the precise distance.

Distance of the object = (Time of Flight x Speed of Light) / 2

What Happens When LiDAR Hits Water?

Missing pulses sometimes occur when the laser pulse from the LiDAR bathymetry scanner hits
the water. This happens because water has a tendency to absorb most or all of the near-infrared
laser energy directed towards it. Not all water does this, as laser reflection from water is affected
by water surface roughness. The presence of waves and turbidity (i.e. the cloudiness or haziness
of the water) will also impact laser reflection. For the successful penetration of pure water, you
only need a wavelength of 440 nanometers (nm). The saltwater found in oceans, rivers, and some
lakes, however, needs a wavelength of at least 532 nm (which is the wavelength of the color green)
to ensure the LiDAR is able to penetrate the water.
Satellite derived bathymetry (SDB)

It is a relatively new technique in hydrography that allows to create nautical charts and bathymetric
maps of shallow waters and coastal regions. The biggest advantage is to cover a big area against
relatively low investment in time and resources.

Satellite bathymetry refers to ocean depths derived from orbiting radar altimeters that observe
variations in sea surface height relative to the reference ellipsoid. These variations are caused by
several factors, including oceanographic (tides and currents) and climatological (wind and
atmospheric pressure) factors. However, the major causative factor by far is gravitational, i.e. local
variations in the Earth’s gravity field over the ocean. These are caused by morphological
irregularities and density transitions that occur beneath the ocean’s surface: in the seabed itself, in
the sediment layers that underlie the seabed, in the assemblages of igneous rock beneath the
sediment and in the deeper layers of crustal rock.

There are various justifications for using SDB: the information coverage is nearly worldwide and
reasonably uniform; the acquisition of basic altimetry data by orbiting satellites is relatively cheap
and fast compared with conventional depth sounding by ships; it is adequate as a reconnaissance
tool over large unmapped features; and it is useful for regional tectonic investigations.

However, there are some significant disadvantages to synthetic bathymetry: with limited resolution
and accuracy, it cannot match the detailed seabed perspectives that are obtainable with echo
sounding, derivations of depth can be significantly biased by unknown sub-bottom geology
beneath the point of observation; and the ubiquity of posters and publications that feature brightly
coloured renditions of the global seabed create a misleading illusion that the world’s oceans have
already been fully mapped by satellite – which provides little or no motivation for government and
intergovernmental agencies to take steps that improve the situation.

DRONE FOR HIGH SEAS FLOOR MAPPING

To achieve the aggressive goals of Seabed 2030 project, uncrewed survey systems must be used
to augment more traditional ocean mapping efforts, particularly on the high seas. In addition to
providing a much-needed force multiplier for surveying, these systems lower environmental
impacts by using harvestable energy, eliminating personnel at sea and reducing ship-generated
noise, overboard discharge and potential for pollution. Saildrone Surveyor, a 22m Unmanned
Surface Vehicle (USV), recently completed a mapping mission that traversed approximately 4,200
kilometres and mapped nearly 22,000 square kilometres of previously unmapped seafloor.
Primarily powered by solar and hydro energy and propelled by wind, Saildrone Surveyor ushers
in a new era of long endurance, low impact (LELI) USVs for ocean mapping.

Generally, the high seas are deep, difficult to reach, and more accurately, expensive to survey with
manned vessels, and there is limited incentive to map the seafloor. This will be a significant
challenge for the Seabed 2030 project – how to map the deep ocean in areas of low priority to
countries with limited budgets. As marine resource exploitation efforts, such as deep-sea mining,
become a reality, mapping of the high seas will become a higher priority, but it is unlikely these
areas will receive the necessary attention prior to 2030. Industry, government, and philanthropic
organizations must be convinced to fund high seas mapping projects to achieve the goal of Seabed
2030.

Fig.3 Saildrone Surveyor

Measuring 72 feet long (22m) and weighing 14 tons, the Saildrone Surveyor carries a sophisticated
array of acoustic instruments that is normally only carried by large, manned survey ships. The
Surveyor’s sensors interrogate the water column, looking at underwater ecosystems and mapping
the seafloor in high resolution to a depth of 23,000 feet (7,000m).

Multibeam data from the Saildrone Surveyor has been calibrated and assessed. The data quality
from the Surveyor is of very high quality; as good as anything we have seen from a ship. Due to
the wind-powered nature of the vehicle, it is very quiet, and this enables the very accurate acoustic
measurements needed to map to these depths.

The challenge of reliable long-range, large-payload remote maritime operations have been solved.
Offshore surveying can now be accomplished without a large ship and crew; this completely
changes operational economics. Based on this achievement, Saildrone Surveyor technology is
being applied to other markets normally reserved for large ships, such as homeland security and
defence applications. The implications of a low-carbon solution to these critical maritime missions
are significant.

TIDES

Tides are the periodic rise and fall of average sea level that occurs throughout the ocean. As sea
level rises and falls, the edge of the sea slowly shifts landward and seaward daily, often
destroying sand castles built during low tide. Knowledge of tides is important in many coastal
activities, including tide pooling, shell collecting, surfing, fishing, navigation, and preparing for
storms. Tides are so important that accurate records have been kept at nearly every port for
several centuries.

There is no doubt that early coastal peoples noticed the tides yet the earliest written record of tides
is in about 450 B.C. Even the earliest sailors knew the Moon had some connection with the tides
because both followed a similar cyclic pattern. However, it wasn’t until Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
developed the universal law of gravitation that the tides could adequately be explained

What Causes Tides?

Tides are caused by the combined gravitational effects of the sun and the moon, with the moon
having the major effect due to its proximity or nearness to the earth.

Additionally, they are also effected by winds, currents, the atmospheric pressure, the topography
and bathymetry of the area. Tide values vary greatly with geographical location

Tides originate in the ocean and progress toward the coastlines where they appear as the regular
rise and fall of the sea surface.

When the highest part, or crest, of the wave reaches a particular location, high tide occurs; low tide
corresponds to the lowest part of the wave, or its trough.

The difference in height between the high tide and the low tide is called the tidal range.

Fig. 4. The Tidal Range

The typical tidal range in the open ocean is about 0.6 m (2feet). As you get closer to the however,
this range gets much greater. Coastal tidal ranges vary globally and can differ anywhere from 1.8
meters to 3 meters (6-10 feet)

The moon tries to pull at anything on the earth to bring it closer but the earth is able to hold onto
everything except the water.
Since the water is always moving, the earth cannot hold onto it, and the moon is able to pull at it.

The earth and the moon are attracted to each other by gravitational attraction as shown in Figure

The moon tries to pull at anything on the earth to bring it closer but the earth is able to hold onto
everything except the water.

The moon’s gravity pulls on the earth, and pulls the water towards it as shown in figure above.

The water moves up into a slight bulge on the side of the earth that faces the moon.

At the same time, there is a force pulling water out in the opposite direction of the moon

According to Cooley (2002), the earth and the moon are two great masses that have a significant
gravitational pull on each other.

This is what keeps the moon in orbit around the earth, and it is also what causes tides to occur in
the ocean.

As the moon travels around the earth and they travel around the sun, the combined gravitational
forces cause the world's oceans to rise and fall.

Newton’s Second Law states a relationship between net force and acceleration F = ma.

For a falling object at the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to the force of gravity is usually
written g, so that

F=mg. ……………1

Here g ≈ 9.8 m /s2 , and m is the mass of the falling object

Newton’s Law of Gravitation is an expression of the mutual gravitational attraction between two
masses, m1 and m2.

The attraction is proportional to the product of the masses of the two bodies and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance separating their centers of mass (l).

In the case of the falling object of mass m, and the earth, with mass Me,
 …………………………….2

Here G is the gravitational constant. At the earth’s surface l = re,

and Eqs (I) and (2) yield,

………………………………….3

The earth’s mass is 5.97𝑥〖10〗^24kg, and the earth’s radius is 6.371 × 〖10〗^6m

Therefore, from Eq (3), the magnitude of the gravitational constant follows: G = 6.673 × 〖10〗^

(−11) (m3/ kg s2)

Tidal Bulges: The Moon’s Effect

It is easier to understand how tides on Earth are created if we consider an ideal Earth and an ideal
ocean. The ideal Earth has two tidal bulges, one toward the Moon and one away from the Moon
(called the lunar bulges), as shown in Figure 4 .The ideal ocean has a uniform depth, with no
friction between the seawater and the sea floor. Newton made these same simplifications when he
first explained Earth’s tides. If the Moon is stationary and aligned with the ideal Earth’s equator,
the maximum bulge will occur on the equator on opposite sides of Earth. If you were standing on
the equator, you would experience two high tides each day. The time between high tides, which is
the tidal period, would be 12 hours. If you moved to any latitude north or south of the equator, you
would experience the same tidal period, but the high tides would be less high, because you would
be at a lower point on the bulge. In most places on Earth, however, high tides occur every 12 hours
25 minutes because tides depend on the lunar day, not the solar day. The lunar day (also called a
tidal day) is measured from the time the Moon is on the meridian of an observer— that is, directly
overhead—to the next time the Moon is on that meridian and is 24 hours 50 minutes.
Idealized tidal bulges.

In an idealized case, the Moon creates two bulges in the ocean surface: one that extends toward
the Moon and the other away from the Moon. As Earth rotates, it carries various locations into and
out of the two tidal bulges so that all points on its surface (except the poles) experience two high
tides daily

FIG. 5 Idealized tidal bulges

The Monthly Tidal Cycle

During the monthly tidal cycle, the phase of the Moon changes dramatically. When the Moon is
between Earth and the Sun, it cannot be seen at night, and it is called the new moon. When the
Moon is on the side of Earth opposite the Sun, its entire disk is brightly visible, and it is called a
full moon. A quarter moon—a moon that is half lit and half dark as viewed from Earth—occurs
when the Moon is at right angles to the Sun relative to Earth.

Figure 6 shows the positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun at various points during the lunar cycle.
When the Sun and Moon are aligned, either with the Moon between Earth and the Sun (new moon;
Moon in conjunction) or with the Moon on the side opposite the Sun (full moon; Moon in
opposition), the tide generating forces of the Sun and Moon combine (Figure 9.9, top). At this
time, the tidal range (the vertical difference between high and low tides) is large (very high high
tides and quite low low tides) because there is constructive interference
FIG. 6 Earth–Moon–Sun positions and the tides

How are Tides Measured?

The standard method of measuring is by means of instruments called Tide Gauges. A tide gauge,
is one component of a modern water level monitoring station, fitted with sensors that continuously
record the height of the surrounding water level.

This data is critical for many coastal activities, including safe navigation, sound engineering, and
habitat restoration and preservation.

Tide gauges measure the sea level relative to a benchmark. The problem with the tide gauges,
besides their spatial limitations, is their vertical movements. Movements of these benchmarks and
thus movements of tide gauges and the ground around them have been conventionally observed
by levelling. Because levelling is done mostly once a year, or even less frequently, it is not very
fast or accurate method if sudden movements happen.
Sea level monitoring is an important part of oceanography and climate investigation. Information
of the sea level can be used for forecasts of climate change and marine resources as well as for
natural hazard mitigation and improvement of use and protection of coastal areas.

The sea level can be observed from the coasts by tide gauges or from space with different satellite
borne radars. Tide gauges are spatially limited and situated on the coasts, but provide the longest
continuous sea level time series. Satellite data are spatially more evenly distributed but they can
be temporally limited and their time series are much shorter. Both data are needed to complete
each other.

Benchmark stability can be monitored also with GPS. GPS offers better temporal coverage,
ultimately continuous tracking in real time, and the data collection and analysis can be automated.
However, there are periodic and random temporal

DATUM (vertical) - A datum is a base elevation from which to reckon heights and depths. There
are two main datum: Horizontal datum measure positions (latitude and longitude) on the surface
of the Earth, while vertical datum are used to measure land elevations and water depths

What is Tidal Datum?

A tidal datum is defined as "a base elevation, defined in terms of a certain phase of the tide, used
as a reference from which to reckon heights or depths". There are a number of different tidal datum
depending on the phase of the tide used for the definition, such as high water, low water, and MTL.
When a particular datum is used on a hydrographic chart, it is referred to as a chart datum

A chart datum is the water level surface serving as origin of depths displayed on a nautical chart.
A chart datum is generally derived from some tidal phase, in which case it is also known as a tidal
datum. Common chart datum are lowest astronomical tide (LAT) and mean lower low water
(MLLW).

The accuracy of the tidal datum resulting from a series of observations is a function of many
factors, including length of time series, gauge installation and operation, and meteorological
effects. For example, meteorological effects from changing atmospheric pressure and wind set
produce variations of tens of centimeters
In non-tidal areas, e.g. the Baltic Sea, mean sea level (MSL) is used. A chart datum is a type of
vertical datum and must not be confused with the horizontal datum for the chart.

LAT (Lowest Astronomical Tide) is the lowest theoretical water level.

It is taken as zero depth. It is predicted based on the lowest possible tide level in the history of
observation over 19 years.

LAT is the lower extreme of the range of the tide. Accordingly the height of LAT, relative to mean
sea level, changes from chart to chart.

LAT, relative to mean sea level, changes from chart to chart.

2. MLLW (Mean Lower Low Water) is the average value of the lower low water.

Mean lower low water (MLLW) is the average height of the lowest tide recorded at a tide station
each day during a 19-year recording period, known as the National Tidal Datum Epoch

Or the lesser of two lowest low waters per day over a 19-year observation period.

And why a 19 year period?

18 years and 7 months, to be exact.

The tilt and orbit of the Moon's movement around the Earth change due to the Sun's gravitational
action. The Moon does not exactly repeat its path relative to the Earth until every 18 years and 7
months. This observation period is therefore minimal. It is used to calculate all the mean values
associated with the tides.

MSL (Mean Sea Level)

It is not a datum, but the arithmetic mean of hourly sea level for the same 19 years of observation.
It is needed to know what water level was at a certain point during a historical period. It is global
data. However, a vast majority of sailors, surfers or fishermen are used to looking at tidal levels
relative to the reference level adopted in a region, or datum. In other words, they are more accurate.
Some other tidal datum

HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide)

MHHW (Mean Higher High Water)

MHW (Mean High Water)

DTL (Diurnal Tide Level)

MTL (Mean Tide Level)

MLW (Mean Low Water)

HIGH AND LOW TIDES

High and low tides refer to the regular rise and fall of the ocean's waters.

High tide is when water covers much of the shore after rising to its highest level.

Low tide is when the water retreats to its lowest level, moving away from the shore.

Measuring Tides with GPS

For the purposes of water surface measurements, we can consider the instantaneous GPS
"observable" to be the height component of the GPS baseline vector,

The GPS carrier phase observables have been used to position boats or buoys by a number of
investigators

The more recent results using the improved receivers all report accuracies of 1 to 2 cm.
Additionally, the sampling rate of a GPS receiver, although manufacturer dependent, is typically
one second -- much faster than required for tide measurements. The carrier phase observations are
generally considered instantaneous measurements and are time tagged as such.