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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Broadly, communication may nonverbal communication.

divided into two areas verbal and

Verbal communication

Verbal communication, or communication through words, provides the opportunity for personal contact and two-way flow of information. A large part of our communication, whether at work or outside, is verbal in nature. Verbal communication in turn, may be divided into two areas oral and written communication.

Oral communication may be defined as a process whereby a speaker interacts verbally with one or more listeners, in order to influence the latters behavior in some way or the other. Example In a business context, a manager doing a performance appraisal with an employee, or a sales manager making a sales plan presentation to his sales team. In the first example, the manager may point out areas for improvement and in the second case, the sales manager may be explaining how to achieve new sales targets. Oral communication in a business context can take the form of meetings, presentations, one to one meetings, performance reviews and so on.

Written communication is a process whereby a writer interacts verbally with a receiver, in order to influence the latters behavior. Example A manager writing a letter of apology in response to a customers complaint regarding poor service. Written communication at the workplace can take several forms such as letters, memos, circulars, notices, reports and email. We will examine some of these in more detail in later chapters.

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication, on the other hand may be defined as communication without words. It refers to any way of conveying meanings without the use of verbal language. The game of dumb charades is a perfect example. Nonverbal communication is generally unintentional, unlike verbal communication. All of us tend to communicate silently and unknowingly send signals and messages by what we do, apart from what we say. Gestures, facial expressions, posture and the way we dress, are all part of nonverbal communication.

Given its importance, an understanding of the different types of nonverbal communication is essential. There is a common misconception that nonverbal communication is synonymous with body language and includes only body language. The fact is that it is a vast area which has been widely researched and includes several aspects. The table below lists the different types of nonverbal communication, with the corresponding communication terminology:

Types of Nonverbal Communication Description Communication Terminology Body Language Personal Distance Meaning Time Tone of Voice Paralanguage Attached to Time Language Space Kinesics and Proxemics

Physical Environment

Physical Context

1. Kinesics This is the most often studied and important area of nonverbal communication and refers to body movements of any kind. Different body movements can express inner states of emotion. Facial Expressions can convey feelings of surprise, happiness, anger and sadness. If you meet a long lost friend and say Im very happy to meet you again, but with a sad facial expression, it conveys the exact opposite meaning. Eye Movements, such as wide open pupils express feelings of surprise, excitement or even fear. The importance of eye contact with ones audience was pointed out earlier. Direct eye contact is an indication of intensity and interest, while lack of it can convey feelings of nervousness and guilt.
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Gestures, such as movement of the hands while giving a lecture or presentation indicates a high level of involvement in what you are saying. On the other hand, shuffling of the feet is a sign of nervousness and speaking with ones hands in ones pockets is considered to be casual or even rude. Head Movements like nodding the head can convey interest,

appreciation, agreement or understanding. Body Shape and Posture Body shape is not within ones control but can be stereotyped to convey certain meanings. For example, someone who is strong and muscular is generally thought to be athletic, as opposed to a person who is short and fat! Posture on the other hand is within our control. In formal settings such as job interviews or classroom settings, it is essential that you maintain an erect posture to convey that you are attentive, since slouching or a relaxed posture conveys a casual attitude. Physical Appearance Our outward appearance, including the way we dress and the jewelry and makeup that we wear can convey an impression of formality or informality. Going to a job interview dressed in blue jeans or not sticking to a stipulated dress code at the workplace can convey that you are a rebel, nonconformist or a very casual person. Therefore, it is important to take care of your appearance, so that you convey the right meaning to others.

2. Proxemics Proxemics is derived from the word proximity or closeness and is the communication term for personal space and distance. The space and distance which we choose to keep from people is also part of nonverbal communication. Each of us has our own inner and outer circles, which differ for different people. Our inner most circle is an intimate space, into which we generally admit only select

people such as family and close friends. Next comes a personal space which might include other friends and colleagues or coworkers. These two spaces involve communication of an informal nature. Most of us also have a social and public space, which includes official or workplace relationships, where the communication is of a more formal nature. In a business context, it is more relevant to understand the concept of fixed space and semifixed space. Fixed space means that the physical features of the work environment such as furniture, room size and seating arrangement are permanent. This conveys an impression of formality. On the other hand, semifixed space means that certain elements of the environment can be changed for example, the seating arrangement could be changed and this conveys an impression of informality. Sometimes, use of space at the workplace can determine leadership positions. For example, seating at the head of the table conveys leadership or authority. A round table meeting, however, conveys the idea of equality, since no one can be seated at the head of the table! All points of a circle are the same. That is why when heads of state meet ( as in UN Security Council meetings), it is always a round table discussion, since all heads are equal. Space should therefore be used carefully in a work environment, so as to convey the right impressions.

3. Time Language This refers to the meaning or importance attached to time and varies between different people. One person may value time more than another. Similarly, time language also varies across cultures. In most western cultures for example, punctuality is considered to be important. Arriving late for a business meeting is inexcusable. In other cultures, it is more relaxed and time is not given that much importance.

We convey messages to others through the time we spend on a work related activity or by the importance that we give to time. Arriving early at work or for a job interview shows interest, involvement and seriousness. Spending time with an employee and giving him suggestions on how to improve his performance shows interest and involvement in his career growth.

4. Paralanguage Para means like or similar to, therefore paralanguage means like language. Of all the forms of nonverbal communication, paralanguage is closest to verbal communication. It refers to the tone of voice with which something is said. In other words, it is how something is said, and not what is said. The tone of voice includes the pitch (high or low pitch), the pace (slow or fast) the emphasis on words and the volume (soft or loud) and can convey different moods and emotions, as mentioned earlier in this unit. Example : The statement I practice good business communication can be understood in different ways, depending on the emphasis on certain words. Saying I practice good business communication means that I alone practice it above anyone else. On the other hand, saying I practice good business communication could be interpreted to mean that you communicate particularly well in a business context, rather than in a general context. The important point to keep in mind regarding tone of voice is to avoid mixed signals that is, making sure that what you say is consistent with how you say it.

5. Physical Context This refers to the physical environment or surroundings within which we communicate and includes two aspects 1) color and layout and 2) design. Colors are known for their symbolic meaning and have associations with different feelings. For

example, colors like black and grey are associated with death, mourning and negative feelings. Yellow and green are associated with more positive feelings. Of course, these can also vary across cultures. The point to remember is that you can make the right impressions with use of the right colors. Layout in a work environment refers to the size of an office, or the arrangement of furniture. Design refers to the type of chairs, desks or carpeting. All these can convey status, formality or informality.

Nonverbal

communication

is

an

important

supplement

to

verbal

communication and can enhance verbal communication, if used in a positive way. The sender should use the right nonverbal cues to convey a positive message, while the receiver should learn to look for unintended messages conveyed by nonverbal communication.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF WRITING, ESPECIALLY BUSINESS WRITING

General Principles of Writing

Written messages must be made as readable as possible, by making them uncomplicated and easy for even the average person to understand. Readability in turn is largely determined by the length of words, sentences and paragraphs. A common mistake made by writers, especially Indian writers, is to try and impress the reader by using flowery language and an oratory style of writing. Two broad principles of writing are Write to express, not to impress and Keep it short and sweet. A good writer is one who follows these principles and asks himself/herself even before framing a sentence What am I trying to say? What words will express it?

Let us try to understand these principles by first looking at some tips on writing style, followed by some specific rules regarding English language usage, spelling and punctuation

Tips On Writing Style Writing style can be vastly improved through the choice of words. Some of the common problems of word choice include use of complicated words, use of jargon, slang and colorful language and mistakes in various parts of speech categories.

1. Simple vs. Complex Words As far as possible, the sender should select words that are within the receivers vocabulary. If the words used are outside the vocabulary of the receiver, the latter may either not get the message at all, get the wrong message by guessing the meaning incorrectly, or wonder whether the sender intentionally selected a complicated word for making an impression. Short, simple words convey ideas more effectively and require less time and space. They also invite the sender to concentrate on ideas, rather than calling attention to the words themselves.

2. Jargon , Slang and Metaphors Jargon refers to technical terms that belong to a particular subject area or discipline. For example, medical jargon would include terms that only medical practitioners and not the lay person might understand. Such terms are to be avoided in general writing, since they would be out of context. The only instance where jargon can be used and might be essential, is in reports of a highly technical nature, where the reader is in a position to understand these terms. Slang refers to casual words that are not accepted and recognized in a standard English dictionary. While they could be used in a limited way in general or informal writing, they are to be avoided in business writing, which needs to be formal in nature. A metaphor is a figure of speech and refers to colorful comparisons which evoke visual images.

3. Parts of Speech

In the same way that use of big, complicated words may result in receipt of the wrong message, use of small words in the wrong way grammatically could have the same result. Such problems exist in all parts of speech categories Nouns Just as the main actor in a film is the most important character, the subject in a sentence is the most important noun. There are two categories of nouns abstract nouns or nouns that cannot be visualized and concrete nouns or nouns that can be visualized. A message will be understood more clearly if concrete nouns are used as subjects in a sentence, rather than abstract nouns. Pronouns Sometimes, using the masculine form of a pronoun might be taken in an offensive way by the receiver, especially if the receiver happens to be a woman. Even if the receiver is not a woman, the use of a masculine pronoun may convey the impression of being sexist. Such offensive pronouns can be avoided in the following ways 1. Avoid use of the pronoun completely 2.Repeat the noun 3. Use a plural noun 4. Use pronouns from both genders Another principle regarding use of pronouns, is to avoid excessive use of the first person pronoun I, since this gives the impression that one is always talking about oneself. Never sound too pleased with yourself or boast of your own achievements. This is especially true of business writing, where it is important to be objective, rather than subjective.

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The second person pronoun you also needs to be used with care. A rule of thumb is to use the second person pronoun when emphasizing a positive idea or message and to avoid the second person when presenting a negative idea. Verbs Since verbs are action words and action is an essential part of a sentence, correct use of verbs is important. Senders of messages must use verbs that agree in number with the subjects of the sentence. Verbs must also agree in person. Thirdly, since verbs indicate the time of action past, present or future, they should be used in the correct tenses. The tenses should also be used consistently. Adjectives Adjectives give information about or describe nouns. Although they play a less important role in a sentence compared to verbs and nouns, they must be used with care. A common tendency is to use very strong adjectives, too many adjectives, or superlatives. Adverbs In the same way that adjectives describe nouns, adverbs describe or modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Therefore, the same principles apply when using adverbs i.e., avoid use of adverbs that are too strong, or are superlatives

4. Active vs. Passive Voice Verbs may also be classified as active verbs and passive verbs. Using the active voice means that the subject is the doer of the action and that the verb is active. On the other hand, a sentence in
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passive voice means that the subject is the receiver of the action and that the verb is passive. In most cases, the active voice is preferable to the passive, since it conveys ideas more vividly. However, there are instances when use of the passive voice is more appropriate : . When the Doer of the Action has to be Subordinated, rather than Highlighted When an Unpleasant or Negative Idea has to be Subordinated

5. Spelling And Punctuation The important point to remember with regard to spelling is the difference between British English and American English. Certain words are spelt differently in British and American English. Generally British spellings should be used, unless you are addressing an American audience. In any case, either British or American spellings should be uniformly used and not mixed together, in order to ensure greater readability. Another common mistake made with spellings is to confuse the noun form with the verb form. Also, some words may sound the same but have different meanings when spelt differently. Some words may include a single vowel that makes them sound different and have very different meanings. It is important not to get confused with the spellings of these words. Punctuation
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Correct use of punctuation is important in both general writing, as well as in business writing. The main categories of punctuation and their uses are highlighted below a) Apostrophe To form the possessive singular e.g., the Companys profits. To form the possessive plural of words ending in s e.g., the dealers margins. In expressions that indicate ownership e.g., last years records. b) Parentheses or Brackets To separate a phrase from the main section of a sentence, when it is not related to it grammatically e.g., The Indian team tried their best (God knows it) but lost in the finals. c) Colon To suggest that a list will follow a statement in sentence form e.g. ,For three reasons, we have decided to expand our market : 1) 2) 3). d) Comma To separate words in a series e.g., The main punctuation categories are the full stop, the comma, the colon, the semi colon and the apostrophe. To separate two adjectives that modify the same noun e.g., The MBA exam is a long, difficult, objective type exam. e) Dash

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* To separate the words in a sentence which are not necessary for its structure e.g., His answer the correct answer was supported by examples drawn from his own experience. f) Full stop or Period At the end of a sentence After abbreviations e.g, Dr., No., Jr. g) Quotation Marks To enclose what is stated by others, verbatim e.g., The manager said I will review your progress every month. To enclose titles of magazine and newspaper articles e.g., Progress in Stem Cell Research. h) Semicolon It is a pause that is longer than that expressed by a comma and is used to separate clauses of a compound sentence when they have a comma.

6. Common Errors In English Indian English tends to be prone to some common mistakes which should be avoided, in order to make the communication clear and easily understood by the receiver. Some of these mistakes include redundancies, clichs and frequently misused words. We will discuss each of these briefly. a) Redundancies These refer to phrases which contain repetitive or unnecessary words to express the same meaning. This is a common Indian tendency and must be avoided. A redundancy does not serve any purpose and is a mistake since it wastes words.
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b) Cliches These are phrases that are overused and should be avoided, since they make reading monotonous. They should be substituted with more original expressions. c) Frequently Misused Words - Certain words which sound similar or are spelt slightly differently tend to be used in the wrong context.

Principles Of Business Writing

Having dealt with writing in general, we will now go briefly into the specifics of business writing. As pointed out earlier, the language, style and tone of business writing is very different from general writing. Therefore, we will examine these aspects in some detail.

1. Tone We discussed tone of voice or paralanguage, in an earlier section on nonverbal communication. It was pointed out that the spoken words, however perfect, can convey a negative message, if the tone of voice is not consistent with what is said. Tone is equally important in conveying written messages, particularly business related messages. In written communication, tone refers to the way a statement sounds, which in turn, depends on the choice of words. A sentence or statement may be grammatically perfect, but may convey a negative message, if the choice of words is wrong. The tone of business communication should also be confident. You should avoid language that makes you sound unsure of yourself.

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While it is important to be self assured, avoid sounding over confident and pompous. Another aspect of tone is to sound courteous and sincere. This builds goodwill and good relations and increases the likelihood of a message achieving its objectives. Avoid statements such as the following Sincerity also means avoiding exaggeration and flattery, especially when communicating with customers. Finally, the tone of business writing should be nondiscriminatory. This means that the language that is used should not be offensive, irrespective of gender, religion or race. One way of ensuring this is to avoid sexist language by using neutral job titles, or titles that do not imply that a job is held only by a man.

2. Emphasis And Subordination A business writer can be compared to an artist or a musician. Just like an artist or a musician tries to make certain elements stand out and others to get little attention, so too with the business writer. An important principle of business writing is to emphasize important ideas and to downplay unimportant ideas, so as to make the reader understand what you consider to be significant. Generally, pleasant and important thoughts are emphasized, while unpleasant and insignificant thoughts are subordinated or de-emphasized. Use the active voice to emphasize the doer of the action and the passive voice to emphasize the receiver of the action. Use words such as primary, major and significant to lay emphasis. Use repetition. Number the ideas, so as to rank them in the order of importance
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 Use visual elements such as bold type, capital letters, bigger font size and underlined words to emphasize key ideas. Another point to be remembered regarding emphasis in business writing is to stress what is known as the you attitude, rather than the me attitude. This means explaining the benefits to the reader, understanding his situation and answering his unspoken question How is it relevant to me?

3. Write At An Appropriate Level Of Readability A third very important rule of business writing is to tailor your writing to your audience and to make it simple enough for even a layperson to read and understand. As pointed out in an earlier section, readability is determined by the length of words and sentences. Robert Gunning developed what is known as the Fog Index or a readability formula to measure the readability of a piece of writing. According to this formula, the appropriate reading level in business writing should be between 8 and 11. Calculation of the Fog Index involves the following steps 1. Select a written passage of approximately 100 words. 2. Calculate the average length of a sentence by dividing the total number of words in the passage by the number of sentences. 3. Find the number of difficult words. A word may be defined as difficult if it contains three or more syllables ( e.g. communication).Determine the number of difficult words per hundred, by dividing the total number of words in the passage into the number of difficult words, then by multiplying this figure by 100.

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4. Add the number of difficult words per hundred and the average sentence length. 5. Multiply the figure obtained in step 4 by 0.4, to calculate the reading grade level for which the passage was written, or the Fog Index. Ideally, the Fog Index should be between 8 and 11 for most business writing, indicating that a reader between the eighth grade and the eleventh grade should be able to understand it without difficulty.

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PREPARATION FOR

ORAL BUSINESS PRESENTATIONS

Whatever the nature of the presentation however, the same steps in planning and preparation are to be followed. We shall discuss each of these steps in detail. 1.Definition of the Purpose of the Presentation Before preparing for the presentation, it is important to be clear on the goal of the presentation. A statement of purpose, expressing what you want to achieve through the presentation should be framed, so that it becomes easy to measure whether the goal has been accomplished or not. The purpose of the presentation may be stated in broad or general terms, or in more specific terms. A general statement of purpose could be expressed in terms of one of the following To Inform A presentation that seeks to inform would merely create awareness about developments and progress on specific fronts, or try to spread knowledge about something new. To Persuade A presentation that aims to persuade would try to change the attitude or behavior of the audience. It usually involves selling either a product, or an idea. In the above table, the product presentation, project proposal and policy proposal, are all persuasive presentations. The product presentation seeks to persuade consumers to try a new product, the project proposal tries to persuade bankers to provide funds for a new project and the policy proposal tries to persuade top management to adopt a new policy of reimbursing mobile expenses.

 To Entertain A presentation with this purpose is meant to make the audience relax and have a good time. In the table above, presentations marking special occasions such as the company anniversary, may merely focus on making people feel good about themselves. Although it is useful to define the general purpose of a presentation, it is more important to frame a specific statement of purpose, which clearly spells out the answers to the following questions 1. Whom do I want to influence? 2. What do I want them to do at the end of the presentation? 3. How do I want them to do it? 4. When? 5. Where? Example I want 50% of my prospective customers to be convinced enough to walk in to the store and try out the new product on a trial basis, within the next one week. The above statement of purpose describes the reaction that you are seeking from your audience and also describes the goal in measurable terms. The number of customers who walk into the store and sample the product during the one week period would indicate whether the goal has been achieved or not. As far as possible, the goal should be quantified, so that it is measurable. Presentation goals should also be realistic, keeping in mind the limitations of time, the topic of the presentation and the nature of the audience. For example, a presentation that aims to train employees on the use of a complicated software should not expect them to become experts at the end of the session.

2. Development of the Key Idea

The key idea of a presentation is a statement that expresses the main message to be conveyed to your audience. It is different from a statement of purpose, in that the purpose is generally meant for yourself as the presenter, while the key idea is mentioned to the audience at the beginning of the presentation. Example If the purpose is to persuade a prospective customer to try out your companys brand of vacuum cleaner, the key idea or message may be to explain how your brand is superior to other brands, feature for feature. Once the key idea is clearly stated, it becomes easy to develop the rest of the presentation.

3. Audience Analysis Making a good presentation alone is not enough. It also has to be tailored to your listeners, in such a way that they understand and appreciate it. The following information should be gathered about your audience, even before you begin preparing for the presentation Job Designations and Areas of Expertise You need to find out whether the audience comprises of specialists in a particular area such as information technology, or generalists. If they are specialists, your presentation could include technical aspects and jargon, which they would be able to understand. If not, you may have to make the presentation more simple, or explain some of the terms elaborately. Preferred Style of Presentation It would also be relevant to know the personal preferences of your audience, with regard to the style of presentation that they are most comfortable with. Some people may prefer a more informal or conversational style with some humor thrown in, to a more formal style. Others may like the presentation to be made at a slower pace. It should be remembered however, that humor should be used with care, so that it is relevant and does not offend the audience. Analyzing all this in advance would help in determining how the presentation should be delivered.

 Demographic Characteristics of the Audience The gender, age, cultural background and economic status of the audience also needs to be studied in advance, so that the presentation may be tailored to appeal to that particular audience. Size of the Audience The size of the audience would determine your presentation style, the time set aside for questions and answers, the size of visuals and so on. With a smaller group, the presentation could be made less formal, the time for questions and answers less and the visuals smaller, than for a larger group. The Level of Knowledge on the Subject You need to know how familiar your audience is with the subject of the presentation. If the audience comprises of experts in that particular area, basic explanations may not be needed. On the other hand, if the level of familiarity is not so high, a lot of background information and explanation will be required. The Attitude of the Audience The attitude of your listeners, both towards you as a speaker and towards the topic of the presentation, needs to be studied in advance. If the audience is prejudiced towards you for some reason, you may have to alter your style of presentation considerably. If the presentation happens to be on a sensitive topic, you may have to proceed very tactfully. This is especially true of presentations that aim to persuade.

4. Analysis of Yourself as a Speaker Apart from analyzing your audience, you also need to do a self analysis to determine your own purpose of making the presentation, your level of knowledge on the subject and your feelings about the subject. As explained earlier, a clear statement of the specific purpose of the presentation should be developed. If you have a choice of subject, it is always better to speak on a subject on which you are an authority. If the choice is not given to you and you are less knowledgeable, then it is important to research the subject thoroughly, so that you are in a position to anticipate and answer any questions. Finally,

you need to assess your feelings about the subject and make sure that you are convinced enough to be able to persuade others as well. This is similar to a salesperson being convinced about a product to be sold..

5. Analysis of the Circumstances This includes taking into consideration any limitations of infrastructure, time and context that might affect your presentation in any way. For example, if you will be speaking in a small room where the lighting and the acoustics are insufficient, you may have to overcome these limitations by altering the seating arrangement, using brighter visuals and speaking loudly. If the presentation is to be made after lunch, it may have to be made more attention getting, so that the audience is kept alert. If you are making a presentation as part of a team, your style of presentation has to be consistent with that of your team members.

6. Preparation of Outline Once the initial groundwork has been done, you will need to develop an outline of your presentation. Irrespective of the nature and purpose of the presentation, a standard format is generally followed, including the following Introduction This should include an attention getter to get the audience involved and interested in the presentation topic. Several techniques may be used to command attention, which will be discussed later. The key idea, or main message which was discussed earlier, will also be conveyed to the audience during the introduction. Body or Main Section This is where the main points will be presented and elaborated upon. It is best to limit the number of main points to five, so as not to overload the listeners with too much information. Conclusion A brief summary of the presentation, along with concluding remarks would be included in this section. The conclusion should have as much punch as the attention getter in the introduction.

7. Collection of Information and Material Once the outline of the presentation has been developed, you will need to start gathering the relevant material. This is a time consuming process and requires a fair amount of research. The information can generally be gathered from existing sources such as magazines, newspapers and the internet. Sometimes, you may need to do original research in the form of a survey to gather fresh data. For example, if you are making a presentation on a new product, you may have to conduct a survey to find out how consumers feel about that product concept and also about similar, competing products.

8. Organization of the Body The body of the presentation should always be prepared before the introduction. Organizing the body consists in identifying the key points that will support your main idea and then selecting an organizational plan to develop these key points. The next step is to choose an organizational plan to present these main and sub points.

9.Planning the Introduction Since the introduction is where you make the first impression, it should be planned with care. It should take up between 10 and 15 percent of your total speaking time. At the outset, you need to try and establish your credibility, by showing that you are qualified to speak on the subject of the presentation. An attention getting opener should be developed, using techniques such as humor, dramatic questions, an interesting story, a quotation or a startling statement. Example Do you know that the number of road accidents last year touched the 100,000 mark Once audience attention has been captured, the main idea

should be stated clearly, followed by a preview of the entire presentation, so that people know what to expect.

10.Planning the Conclusion The conclusion of a presentation should be shorter than the introduction and occupy only 5 per cent of the entire presentation. Generally, every conclusion should have a review and a closing statement. The review is essentially a reinforcement of the key idea and a summary of the main points. The main points can be enumerated, as in the outline of the presentation. The closing statement should be as strong as your opening statement, so that your audience will remember the presentation. Therefore, the same techniques used to capture audience attention may also be used to prepare a good closing statement. In the case of persuasive presentations, the closing statement can include a call for immediate action. Example Now that you have seen what our vacuum cleaner can do, walk into our store today to place your order and avail of an early bird discount!

11. Selection of a Delivery Style Once your presentation has been adequately prepared in terms of content, you also need to ensure that it will be delivered effectively, by selecting an appropriate style of delivery. Five different delivery styles are available to speakers : Speaking Impromptu In this case, the speaker is called upon to say a few words without any warning or advance notice. Since there is little or no time given for preparation, it is suited for only expert speakers. Impromptu speeches should be brief, simple and direct, compared to prepared speeches.

 Speaking Extemporaneously This is different from speaking impromptu. While impromptu speeches are delivered on the spot and not rehearsed, an extemporaneous speech is prepared and rehearsed in advance, but delivered naturally, without the support of notes or other aids. This is the delivery style used by experienced professionals, who have sufficient knowledge of the subject to be able to speak without relying on notes. Memorizing the Presentation This is the least appealing style of delivery, since it comes across as unnatural and monotonous to the audience. A speaker who memorizes and delivers a presentation word for word will also be at a disadvantage if he forgets a part of the speech, since he or she will be unable to speak naturally. Reading from Written Notes This consists in reading the entire presentation from notes. It is a method used by government or business officials and may be appropriate when the material to be presented is highly technical or complex. However, it has some limitations. First, it gives the impression that the speech is very long and heavy. Secondly, it prevents the presenter from making eye contact with the audience. Speaking from Notes This is generally the most effective style of delivery. It consists in jotting down the main ideas in point form on index cards and then referring to these cards merely as a trigger while speaking. If the main ideas are put down briefly on the cards, the speaker can elaborate on these ideas in his own words and speak for any length of time. The presentation is likely to be more effective, since it comes across as natural and permits eye contact with the audience.

PLANNING AND CONDUCTING TEAM MEETINGS

Whatever the nature of the presentation however, the same steps in planning and preparation are to be followed. We shall discuss each of these steps in detail.