PERMEABILITY CHARACTERIZATION OF ROCK SAMPLES FROM MAK-BAN

FIELD USING AUTOMATED CYCLIC PERMEABILITY APPARATUS

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree in
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

Baldovino, Marlo
Castillo, Mark Joseph A.
Maligaya, Princess Jessica S.

May 2022
1
 APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis proposal entitled “PERMEABILITY CHARACTERIZATION OF ROCK

SAMPLES FROM MAK-BAN FIELD USING AUTOMATED CYCLIC PERMEABILITY

APPARATUS” prepared and submitted by Baldovino, Marlo, Castillo, Mark Joseph

A., and Maligaya, Princess Jessica S. in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree in Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering has been examined and

recommended for Oral Examination.

ENGR. JOHN KEVIN M. DE CASTRO

Adviser

 Approved by the Committee on Oral Examination with a grade of PASSED.

ENGR. MICHAEL A. ALORIA

Chairman

ENGR. JULIE PEARL F. MARASIGAN ENGR. ARNEL M. MOLINA

Member Member

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING.

May 2022 DR. REYNATO A. GAMBOA

Date Dean, CEAFA

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 DEDICATION

The researchers would like to dedicate this study to the following individuals for

the help and support they have given.

To Almighty God for their life and wisdom, for giving them hope and strength to

continue.

To their parents, family and loved ones who have supported and inspired them

to do things with eagerness and grit.

To the faculty of Petroleum Engineering Department who have encouraged

them to strive harder and give their best

To their friends and classmates for giving them moral support and happiness.

Thank you for being encouragement.

Marlo

MJ

Princess

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The researchers would like to express their sincerest appreciation and gratitude

to the following, without whom this study would not be possible:

To Engr. John Kevin M. De Castro, who opens the door to entertain the

researchers’ queries in finishing this piece of work.

To our panel of cross examiners, Engr. Michael A. Aloria, Engr. Julie Pearl F.

Marasigan, and Engr. Arnel M. Molina, for their respected insights and suggestions

that help us improve and finish this study.

To our parents and families, who have provided the greatest possible support

and continuous encouragement that inspire them to drive beyond out limits in order to

pass through the journey towards the accomplishment of this study.

To our classmates and friends, who have contributed to the development of

this study by giving them encouragement and support and became an inspiration of this

study.

And most of all, to God Almighty, who gave the researchers the knowledge,

strength, guidance and love to pursue their study.

This accomplishment would not be possible without them. Thank you.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL SHEET ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND 1

Introduction 1

Objectives of the Study 3

Significance of the Study 4

Scope and Limitations of the Study 5

Conceptual Framework 7

Definition of Terms 8

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10

Conceptual Literature 10

Research Literature 33

Synthesis 36

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES 39

Experimental Protocol 40

Data Gathering 41

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 Model Assumptions and Simplifications 40
Data Validation 44
Development of the Model 43
Statistical Indicators 44
Reliability Test 45
BIBLIOGRAPHY

6
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figur Page
e No.
1 Research Paradigm of the Study 7

2 Conventional Geothermal 11

Geologic map of the Makiling Area. Inset shows

3 14
tectonic setting of Luzon

Summary of tracer tests conducted in Bulalo

4 17
over a six-year period

5 Sedimentary Rock 19

6 Metamorphic Rock 20

7 Igneous Rock 21

8 Permeameter 24

9 Research Design of the Study 39

10 Area of Investigation 40

11 Automated Cyclic Permeability Apparatus 41

7
 LIST OF TABLES

Tabl Page
e No.
1 Permeability of Different Rock Sample 23

8
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

The earth is a tremendous reservoir of heat, most of which is too deeply buried or

too diffuse to consider as recoverable energy. Some large areas are higher-

than-"normal" in heat content, particularly in regions of volcanic and tectonic activity.

Recovery of stored heat from these large areas may be economically feasible in the

future but cannot compete in cost now with other forms of energy.

Certain hot spring areas, commonly near active or recently active volcanoes, are

cischarging heat at rates per unit area of 10-1,000 times the "normal" (1.5 x l<.i6

calories per square centimeter per second) heat flow of the earth; some of the largest

and hottest areas have been explored for geothermal energy. These areas are

characterized by high permeability, at least locally on faults, fractures, and sedimentary

layers; this high permeability permits fluid circulation, most of the total heat flow being

transported upward in water or steam. The circulation has produced reservoirs of stored

heat closer to the earth's surface than is normally possible by rock conduction alone.

Local nearsurface thermal gradients are typically very high, but the gradient decreases

greatly, and even reverses, at greater depths in any single drill hole. (Donald E. White,

1965)

Among this formation, the two key properties that control reservoir behaviour are

porosity and permeability of the reservoir rocks (Jafari and Babadagli 2011). Porosity of

reservoir is the property that tells how porous a rock is. It is also defined as a measure

of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store fluids. The porosity is genetically

1
classified basing on standard sedimentologic description of reservoir rock. While,

permeability, is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its porous medium.

Permeability is one of important to determine the effective reservoir. Porosity and

permeability are two properties describing the reservoir rock capacity with regard to the

fluid continence. (oslo.spe.org)

Permeability controls the percolation of fluid in porous and fractured rock and is

one of the most crucial hydrologic parameters. In geothermal systems, permeability is

typically controlled by fractures and fracture connectivity within the rock mass. Because

of its complexity, permeability is often a very difficult parameter to evaluate and apply in

any meaningful way. This is especially true in the area of permeability enhancement.

For many problems, permeability should be regarded as a time-dependent parameter,

that can be enhanced or inhibited over time by various processes such as chemical

species dissolution and precipitation, changes in stress or pore pressure (effective

stress), and by thermo-elasto-plastic effects (thermal cracking) (www.nesi.org.nz).

The Philippines is one of the world’s top producers of geothermal power, as it is

located along the Ring of Fire zone of Pacific volcanoes. However, in 2018, the country

dropped in the global rankings for geothermal countries, just behind Indonesia. This

prompted the Philippines to consider revamping its geothermal development again. The

Philippines currently has seven geothermal fields which supply about 12 percent of the

nation’s energy, with a long-term plan to nearly double capacity by 2040.

(thinkgeoenergy.com) The Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban, also known as Bulalo)

geothermal field was the second geothermal resource (after the Tiwi Field) developed

2
by Chevron Geothermal Philippine Holdings, Inc. (CGPHI) under a service contract

executed in 1971 with the National Power Corporation.

An existing automated cyclic permeability apparatus will be used to conduct the

experiment that is located at Batangas State University-Alangilan Campus. The design

of the apparatus was conceptualized by Andal et al. (2019). The actual apparatus was

composed of oil pump, timer, pressurized chamber, oil storage tank, ball valve,

temperature controller, flow meter, thermocouple, coil heater, fuse, AC solenoid valve

and AC solenoid valve timer. The dimension of the rock samples used was 2 inches

length by 1-inch diameter according to the design and specification of the apparatus.

The proponents divided the operating time into three different phases: filling, retention,

and draining. Filling time was set to 5 seconds; draining time was set to 4 minutes; and

to determine the retention time, three different times were set to 5 minutes, 8 minutes,

and 11 minutes.

Therefore, this paper proposes to characterize rock permeability using the

automated cyclic permeability apparatus for different types of rocks in Mak-Ban field.

The automated cyclic permeability apparatus follows the concept of flooding the fluid in

the steel container until the rock samples are completely soaked and certain operating

time has been reached. The fluid drained from the steel tank will flow back to the

reservoir tank and will be used for another operation.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to characterize the permeability of rocks in

Mak-Ban field.

3
Furthermore, it specifically aims the following:

1. Perform site mapping based on topographic locations of the Mak-Ban and gather

various rocks samples:

1.1. Mt. Makiling

1.2. Mt. Banahaw

2. Conduct a series of experiment using the existing permeability apparatus for the

data gathering considering the following:

2.1. Operating pressure

2.2. Operating Time

3. Characterize the samples based on the results of permeability.

4. Create a GIS map showing the permeability distribution in Mak-Ban.

Significance of the Study

This study considers a great significance and benefits to the following groups of

individuals and sectors who may find the study on rock permeability in Mak-Ban field as

a substantial part of their study and focus.

For Batangas State University, the permeability characterization of rocks would

be beneficial to Petroleum Engineering Department for this would be great contribution

and help for the students and faculty in their specialization. These would be baseline of

their studies about the importance of geothermal systems.

For Petroleum Engineering Department, the permeability characterization of

rocks would be beneficial since the apparatus would be a valuable teaching apparatus

4
designed to educate Petroleum Engineering Department students especially those who

would take up Drilling subject; it would help them to understand the importance of

permeability of rocks.

For the researchers themselves, the study has acted as a guide for the

researchers to follow their line of work in understanding and taking on the responsibility

of passing on their knowledge to others.

Furthermore, for the future researchers, this would benefit them because the

data would serve as their baseline information for improving apparatus and enhancing

production for future innovation.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focused on the permeability characterization of rocks in Mak-Ban field

to determine the permeability of various types of rocks collected in the vicinity of Mt.

Makiling and Mt. Banahaw.

In the region of Mt. Makiling and Mt. Banahaw, site mapping will be carried out.

The rock samples will be collected and will be subjected to characterization to define

what type of rock it is. After the determination of the type of rock, it will be tested on the

automated cyclic permeameter. The testing of the permeameter will consider the

parameters such as operating pressure and operating time as the independent

variables and rock permeability being the dependent variable.

Varying the value of these parameters will provide enough data required for

determining permeability. The operating pressures that will be used 8 psi, 10 psi, and 12

5
psi and for the operating time; 5 mins, 6 mins, and 7 mins. These parameters are based

on the study of Andal et al (2019).

After testing and data gathering, permeability will be determined using Darcy’s

Law. The values of rock permeability will be used at any given condition in terms of

operating pressure and operating temperature. The relationship between the dependent

and independent variables will be established by graphing the independent variable in

x-axis and dependent variable in y-axis in a scatter plot.

Geographic Information System (GIS) will be used to create a mapping site to

show the permeability distribution in Mt. Makiling and Mt. Banahaw.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework “set stage” for the presentation of this research. In

Figure 1, it shows the conceptual paradigm of the study, which maps out the action

required in the study. For better understanding of this study, a conceptual framework is

presented to discuss the sequence or the stages of the research paradigm or the IPO

model shown in Figure 1.

Rock permeability is an important consideration in establishing a geothermal

system. The production should have highly permeable core to draw upon hot recharge.

Also, determining the initial permeability may take the researchers in possible ideas of

enhancement of permeability.

The input stage presents the research paradigm, which includes knowledge

requirements considering the geothermal field and different types of rocks such as

igneous, sedimentary, & metamorphic, and the two main properties are permeability

6
and porosity. Likewise, the technical requirements including MS Excel and GIS

software. Data and literature gave the study, concepts, and ideas on a basis to ensure

the reliability and validity of the study. The concepts are gathered from recognized

books and internet websites in the same field of study.

In the process stage, the researcher will conduct a series of experiment on the

rock samples that will be prepared; using the existing permeability apparatus for the

data gathering and Darcy’s law will be used to calculate the rock permeability. The GIS

software will be utilized for creating, analyzing, retrieving and designing map and

graphic display of geographic and spatial data. The data that will be gathered must be

evaluate and validate through data inventory and analysis. The rock permeability will be

developed considering the dependent variable; permeability, the independent variables;

operating pressure and operating temperature. In this stage also the develop correlation

will be validates using the experimental data.

The output stage depicts the objective of the study which is to create a GIS map

showing the permeability distribution in Mak-Ban Field.

Further understanding of the flow of the study, researchers use a research

paradigm in IPO (Input, Process, and Output) model as shown in Figure 1.

7
 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Knowledge Requirements  Calibration of Apparatus

 Geothermal Systems  Site Mapping

 Types of Rocks  Gathering of Rocks

 Igneous Rocks  Conduct series of PERMEABILITY
CHARACTERIZATION OF
 Metamorphic Rocks experiment ROCK SAMPLES FROM
MAK-BAN FIELD USING
 Sedimentary Rocks AUTOMATED CYCLIC
 Determining
PERMEABILITY
 Properties of Rocks Permeability using APPARATUS

 Permeability Darcy’s Law

 Porosity  Evaluating the
Technical Requirements permeability result
 Microsoft Excel  Create GIS mapping
 GIS Software

Figure 1. Research Paradigm

8
Definition of Terms

To facilitate understanding of the study, the following terms are defined

conceptually and/or operationally.

Core Sample. According to Sergio, O. V., it is the cylindrical section of a

naturally occurring substance. In this study, it is the sample that was tested to

identify the value of its permeability.

Darcy’s Law. It is an equation that defined as the ability of the fluid to

pass through a porous media. Also, it is used to calculate the permeability of a

given sample such as rock. (Springer, 2013)

Differential Pressure. It is the measurement of the force exerted by fluid

per unit cross sectional area subtracted from higher measurement of force

exerted by fluid per unit area. In this study, it is the difference in pressure

between two points.

Flowrate. It is amount of fluid that flows through rock in a given time.

Geothermal. Geothermal energy is heat within the earth. The word

geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat).

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because heat is continuously

produced inside the earth. People use geothermal heat for bathing, to heat

buildings, and to generate electricity.

(https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/geothermal/)

Number of Cycles. In this study, it is the number of times the fluid has

been filled, retained, and drained back to the reservoir tank from the pressurized

chamber.

9
 Operating pressure. It is pressured supplied to the apparatus for the

water to pass through rock. The pressure applied were 40 psi, 60 psi and 80 psi.

Operating Temperature. It is temperature of water to be supplied in the

apparatus. The temperature maintained was 27°C.

Permeability. It is the measured ability of rock to transmit a liquid to flow

in a porous medium. In accordance to AAPG, Permeability is a property of

porous media that characterizes the ease with which fluid can flow through the

media in response to an applied pressure gradient.

Permeameter. It is an instrument used to measure the permeability of the

rock using different methods such as water and air permeability with the sufficient

accuracy for many commercial and industrial purposes.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the theories, concepts and related studies that

served as the basis of this study. This section presents discussion in details of

the theories of the parameters used in determining the study’s objectives.

Conceptual Literature

This section presents the key factors, concepts, and presumed

relationship of variables presented in the study.

A. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal system is a natural heat transfer within a confined volume

of the Earth's crust where heat is transported from a heat source to a heat

sink, usually the free surface. Surface manifestations of this process may be

hot springs, geysers, and mud volcanoes. These manifestations are

associated with a special class of the natural seismic events. They occur as a

continuous geothermal tremor (noise) and/or the distinct short seismic events.

This chapter presents the examples of these seismic signals observed at

different geothermal systems of the world. Comparing with the seismic events

associated with volcanic eruptions, the geothermal seismic events are of

higher frequency indicating the smaller size sources of seismic vibrations.

(V.M. Zobine, 2017)

The Philippines is the world's second largest producer of geothermal

energy for power generation. As of end 2003, the total installed generating

11
capacity from geothermal power plants was 1,931 MW, accounting for about

19% of the country's power generation mix. (F.A. Benito et al., 2005)

Figure 2. Conventional Geothermal

One key feature of geothermal systems is the way the thermal energy

that is harvested from the ground is used via such systems. In shallow

geothermal systems, an indirect use of geothermal energy is typically made.

Machines or devices that modify (enhance or lower) the energy input

transferred between the ground and the target environment, in addition to

machines or devices that force a heat carrier fluid to flow (exchanging heat)

between them, are employed in such cases. In deep geothermal systems a

direct use of geothermal energy can be made when an indirect use is not

targeted. In contrast to the previous case, machines that modify the energy

input transferred between the ground and the target environment can be

12
avoided in this circumstance and only machines that force a heat carrier fluid

to flow between the ground and the target environment are required.

B. Mak-Ban Field

The Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban, also known as Bulalo) geothermal

field was the second geothermal resource (after the Tiwi Field) developed by

Chevron Geothermal Philippine Holdings, Inc. (CGPHI) under a service

contract executed in 1971 with the National Power Corporation. The deep

discovery well, Bul-1, was drilled in 1974. Commercial production began in

1979 with the operation of the first two 55MWe generating units. Capacity

was increased to 220MWe in 1980 and then to 330MWe in 1984, with the six

55MWe units installed in three power plants. Six binary bottoming-cycle

plants totaling 15.73MWe were installed in early 1994 followed by two

20MWe steam turbine units in 1995 and a further two 20MWe units in 1996,

bringing installed capacity to 425.73MWe. In 2004-05, four units were

rehabilitated bringing the current fieldwide installed capacity to 458.53MWe.

However, the present plan is to base-load Mak-Ban at 402MWe with 40MWe

on stand-by, plus the binary plants.

To date, 113 wells have been drilled to measured depths ranging from

655m to 3,625m to support the production and injection capacity

requirements. A total of 69 production wells presently provide steam to eight

separation stations, while 23 injection wells provide the injection capacity for

separated brine and power plant condensate re-injection. Generation in

recent years has been affected by steam supply limitations, power plant

13
availability and the introduction of a competitive wholesale electricity spot

market (WESM) resulting in decreased generation and operational concerns

when the units were used as load following rather than base load plants, but

this situation has improved in 2008.

Mak-Ban is a remarkable example of a stable, relatively problem-free

geothermal reservoir, based on its performance during these 30 years. During

the first few years, reservoir pressures drew down rapidly resulting in the

expansion of the two-phase zone with increased discharge enthalpy and

steam flash as the main effect on production. More recently, however, the

reservoir has been affected by marginal recharge, injectate and meteoric

water. The main effect of these fluids is seen in a decrease in average steam

flash which was greater than 50% up to 2001 and is about 43% in 2008.

Technical and operational measures have been taken to mitigate the effects

of these various fluids on the resource and on generation.

B.1. General Geology

The Mak-Ban Field is located in the Macolod Corridor, a 40-km “rift-

like feature” that traverses the SW portion of the Luzon Island, (Forster et

al., 1990; Pubellier et al., 2000; Aquino, 2004) separating the northern

“Bataan” and southern “Mindoro” arc segments (Defant et al., 1988).

Regional faults in the Macolod Corridor trend predominantly NE-SW, NW-

SE and N-S and the main structures that control the Mak-Ban geothermal

reservoir also trend NE-SW, NW-SE although some N-S faults are also

mapped (Golla et al., 2001; Aquino, 2004). Aquino (2004) stressed that

14
NE and N-trending faults are the best targets for permeability because

they are most likely extensional and the recent drilling campaign seems to

verify this. Bulalo is about 1000’ above sea level but has accumulated

approximately 5000’ of volcanic rocks in the past 500,000 years consistent

with the tectonic setting being locally extensional and facilitating rapid

deposition of volcanic and sedimentary units in the fault-bounded basin.

No sedimentary basement has been encountered in Bulalo to maximum

drilled depths of 11,000 feet, but some deep wells have encountered

intrusive rocks. Evidence for continuing volcanism includes reported

40Ar/39Ar ages of < 22,000 years on hornblende separates from the

Bulalo and Olila dacite domes (Stimac, 2003).

Figure 3. Geologic map of the Makiling Area. Inset shows tectonic setting

of Luzon

15
 The hydrothermal system developed at Bulalo is associated with

two dacitic domes (Mt. Bulalo and Mt. Olila) present on the SE flank of Mt.

Makiling. The geothermal system has a well-sealed reservoir cap, so only

minor surface thermal manifestations are found in the immediate area. An

extensive near-surface hydrothermal clay alteration was identified through

electrical resistivity surveys in 1972 and serendipitously, the discovery well

Bul-1 was right in the middle of it.

B.2. Development History

The discovery well (Bulalo-1) was drilled in 1974, and commercial

production began in 1979 with an installed plant capacity of 110 MWe.

This was increased to 220 MWe in 1980, and 330 MWe in 1984

(Sussman, et al., 1993). Binary units totaling 15.73 MWe were installed in

early 1994, and two 20 MWe generating units were added in 1995 (Units 7

and 8) and another two units in 1996 (Units 9 and 10), bringing installed

capacity to 425.73 MWe. In 2004-2005, Units 1-4 were rehabilitated and

their generation capacity was increased to 63.2 MWe each. The installed

capacity of Mak-Ban is now 458.53 MWe and this includes 15.73 MWe of

binary units’ capacity and the 40 MW of the standby units of Plant D.

Presently, the Steam Gathering System (SGS) consists of eight

separation facilities, 11 km of steam lines, 63 km of two phase lines and

17 km of injection lines.

As of 2005, 113 wells have been drilled throughout the field. Of

these, 69 wells provide the current steam requirements, 23 wells are used

16
for brine and condensate injection, while the remaining wells are inactive,

plugged and abandoned, or unproductive. Thus, 80% of the wells ever

drilled in Bulalo are still in service (including the discovery well Bul-1 which

still produces about 55 kph of dry steam), demonstrating an outstanding

35-year history of well targeting efficiency and completion durability. The

deepest well has a measured depth of 3,625 m (11,890’) while the

shallowest is 655 m (2,148’); average well depth is about 2214 m (7353’).

Average steam and brine flow rates are 14 and 16 kg/s (114 and 128

klbs/hr), respectively.

B.3. Production and Injection History

In the last 30 years, the Mak-Ban field operation has generated a

total of 61,827 GWh of electricity saving the government from importing

114.67 million barrels of oil equivalent (MBOE). From 2003 to 2005

production was curtailed due to operational (rehabilitation of Units 1-4)

and commercial factors. Makeup drilling and “banked steam” subsequently

resulted in record generation for 2007.

Initially fieldwide average flash was below 50% but after a few

years of pressure drawdown, the flash increased to 50- 60%, where it

remained stable until 2001. The reservoir responded well to the

substantial capacity and load increases during the 1980’s and 1990’s.

Decline rates have remained reasonable throughout the history of the

field. As the shallow portions of the reservoir were drawn down, make-up

drilling productivity has been sustained by adopting larger-diameter well

17
completions (13⅜” production casing) starting in the 1980’s, and by drilling

deeper to tap hotter, higher-pressure targets. In recent years the shallow

pressure drawdown has drawn in cooler marginal fluids and has

decreased field flash to 43%. But despite the marginal recharge problem,

overall decline rates remain moderate and the field is likely to sustain

excellent performance for decades to come.

Figure 4. Summary of tracer tests conducted in Bulalo over a six-year

period

B.4. Mak-Ban Geothermal Field: Another 30 years

The Mak-Ban geothermal resource has turned in an excellent 30-year

performance, with modest decline rates and few significant reservoir

problems, and we believe this quality of performance can be sustained for

decades to come. We can foresee a number of possible approaches that

could promote future resource sustainment:

18
  Continued optimization of plants to minimize steam consumption

and maximize generation. This may include additional binary

capacity.

 Mitigating the cooling effects of marginal recharge, for example by

devising well completions (or recompletions) that exclude the cool

aquifers.

 Better understanding of the extent and properties of the deeper

parts of the reservoir, so that the high pressures and temperatures

there can be tapped to compensate for depletion and cooling of the

shallower reservoir.

 Creation of an Enhanced Geothermal System southeast of the

existing field, to mine the untapped heat resource that exists in this

low permeability sector.

C. Types of Rocks

There are three main types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and

metamorphic. Each of these rocks are formed by physical changes—such

as melting, cooling, eroding, compacting, or deforming—that are part of the

rock cycle.

C.1. Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other existing rock

or organic material. There are three different types of sedimentary

rocks: clastic, organic (biological), and chemical. Clastic sedimentary

rocks, like sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock.

19
Organic sedimentary rocks, like coal, form from hard, biological

materials like plants, shells, and bones that are compressed into rock.

Figure 5. Sedimentary Rock

The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with

the weathering, or breaking down, of the exposed rock into small

fragments. Through the process of erosion, these fragments are

removed from their source and transported by wind, water, ice, or

biological activity to a new location. Once the sediment settles

somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become

compacted so tightly that they form solid rock.

Chemical sedimentary rocks, like limestone, halite, and flint,

form from chemical precipitation. A chemical precipitate is a chemical

compound—for instance, calcium carbonate, salt, and silica—that

forms when the solution it is dissolved in, usually water, evaporates

and leaves the compound behind. This occurs as water travels through

Earth’s crust, weathering the rock and dissolving some of its minerals,

20
transporting it elsewhere. These dissolved minerals are precipitated

when the water evaporates.

C.2. Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed from their

original form by immense heat or pressure. Metamorphic rocks have

two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock with flat or

elongated minerals is put under immense pressure, the minerals line

up in layers, creating foliation. Foliation is the aligning of elongated or

platy minerals, like hornblende or mica, perpendicular to the direction

of pressure that is applied. An example of this transformation can be

seen with granite, an igneous rock. Granite contains long and platy

minerals that are not initially aligned, but when enough pressure is

added, those minerals shift to all point in the same direction while

getting squeezed into flat sheets. When granite undergoes this

process, like at a tectonic plate boundary, it turns into gneiss

(pronounced “nice”).

21
 Figure 6. Metamorphic Rock

Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same way, but they do not

contain the minerals that tend to line up under pressure and thus do

not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks. Sedimentary rocks

like bituminous coal, limestone, and sandstone, given enough heat and

pressure, can turn into nonfoliated metamorphic rocks like anthracite

coal, marble, and quartzite. Nonfoliated rocks can also form by

metamorphism, which happens when magma comes in contact with

the surrounding rock.

C.3. Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin word for fire) are formed

when molten hot material cools and solidifies. Igneous rocks can also

be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed inside of

the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they

are formed outside or on top of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive,

or volcanic, igneous rocks.

22
 Figure 7. Igneous Rock

Granite and diorite are examples of common intrusive rocks.

They have a coarse texture with large mineral grains, indicating that

they spent thousands or millions of years cooling down inside the

earth, a time course that allowed large mineral crystals to grow.

Alternatively, rocks like basalt and obsidian have very small

grains and a relatively fine texture. This happens because when

magma erupts into lava, it cools more quickly than it would if it stayed

inside the earth, giving crystals less time to form. Obsidian cools into

volcanic glass so quickly when ejected that the grains are impossible

to see with the naked eye.

Extrusive igneous rocks can also have a vesicular, or “holey” texture.

This happens when the ejected magma still has gases inside of it so

when it cools, the gas bubbles are trapped and end up giving the rock

a bubbly texture. An example of this would be pumice.

D. Permeability

The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids,

typically measured in Darcies or millidarcies. The term was basically defined

by Henry Darcy, who showed that the common mathematics of heat transfer

could be modified to adequately describe fluid flow in porous media.

Formations that transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as

permeable and tend to have many large, well-connected pores. Impermeable

23
formations, such as shales and siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a

mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores.

Absolute permeability is the measurement of the permeability

conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. Effective

permeability is the ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid

through a rock when other immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for

example, effective permeability of gas in a gas-water reservoir). The relative

saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the

effective permeability. Relative permeability is the ratio of effective

permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute

permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a rock,

its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows for

comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each

other, since the presence of more than one fluid generally inhibits flow.

Table 1. Permeability of Different Rock Sample

Permeability Value
Rock Sample
(Millidarcy)
Chalk 0.001-0.0043
Gneiss 0.0044-0.025
Andesite 0.026-0.056
Basalt 0.057-0.100
Gabrro 0.101-0.1585
Marble 0.1586-0.1820
Granite 0.1821-0.2398
Rhyolite 0.2399-0.250
Slate 0.2519-0.316
Mudstone 0.317-0.4047
Conglomerate 0.4075-0.6160
Siltstone 0.6161-0.810
Breccia 0.811-1.2150

24
 Dolomite 1.2160-1.412
Sandstone 1.413-1.9953
Shale 1.9954-2.051
Limestone 2.052-2.72
Source: American Petroleum Institute, API recommended practice for
determining permeability of porous media

In Table 1 shows the standard permeability value of different rock

samples recommended by American Petroleum Institute.

D.1. Permeameter

Rock permeameter is designed to measure the permeability of core

specimens one inch in diameter and one inch in length. A core specimen

is placed into a core sleeve, which is then inserted into the "Modified

Hassler" style test cell. Nitrogen at a constant flow rate is forced through

the core and the differential pressure across the core is measured. The

flowrate is measured with calibrated flowmeters. Viscosity is easily

determined by the use of nitrogen property tables.

Figure 8. Permeameter
(OFITE, 2006)

25
 These variables are incorporated into Darcy’s law to calculate

sample permeability.

D.2.Darcy’s Law

The principle that governs how fluid moves in the subsurface is

called Darcy's law. It is an equation that defines the ability of a fluid to flow

through a porous media such as rock. It relies on the fact that the amount

of flow between two points is directly related to the difference in pressure

between the points, the distance between the points, and the

interconnectivity of flow pathways in the rock between the points. The

measurement of interconnectivity is called permeability here, pressure

refers to the excess of local pressure over the normal hydrostatic fluid

pressure which, due to gravity, increases with depth like in a standing

column of water. This factor of flow impedance is referred to as

permeability. Moreover, Darcy's law is a simple proportional relationship

between the instantaneous discharge rate through a porous medium and

the pressure drop over a given distance. In the study of Cark, A. I. entitled

"Water Permeability of Hardened Concrete (2010)", Darcy's law is written

as: k= where:

QL
k=
tAH

Where:

k = Darcy’s Coefficient of Permeability in m/min

Q = the volume of water in m3

26
 L = the length of the rock sample in m

t = the time elapsed in minute

h = the applied pressure head in meters of water

A = the area of the rock sample in m2

D.3. Factors Affecting Permeability

D.3.1. Grain Size

The permeability varies approximately as the square of grain

size. It depends on the effective diameter of the grain size (D 10).

K=C( D10 )2

Where:

K = Permeability in cm/sec

C = is constant and generally lies between 100 to 150

D.3.2. Temperature

As the viscosity of the pore fluid decrease with the temperature,

permeability increases with temperature, as unit weight of pore fluid

does not change much with change in temperature.

D.3.3. Void ratio

Increase in the void ratio increases the area available for flow

hence permeability increases for critical conditions.

D.3.4. Degree of Saturation

The permeability of partially saturated soil is less than that of

fully saturated soil.

27
 D.3.5. Properties of pore water pressure

Pore fluids are the fluids that occupy pore spaces in a soil or

rock. Permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of pore fluid

and inversely proportional to the viscosity of pore fluid.

D.4. Performance Parameters

D.4.1. Fluid Saturation

The fluid saturation of the rock sample was computed using this

formula according to A.Y. Dandekar (2013) to obtain the weight of the

rock sample initially and finally the weight of the saturated rock

samples.

Total Volume of the fluid

Fluid Saturation=
Pore Volume

The pore volume was acquired using the following formula

W sat - W dry
D.4.2. Pore Volume Pore Volume=
ρo

Where:

Wsat = Weight after testing

Wdry = Weight before testing

ρo = Density of oil

D.4.3. Rock Permeability

28
 The permeability of the rock samples was calculated using

Darcy’s formula according to L.P. Dake, 1983.

QμL
k=
(∆P)A

Where:

K = Permeability (Darcy)

cm 3
Q = Flow Rate of the fluid ( ¿
sec

μ = Viscosity (centipoise,cP)

L = Specimen Length (cm)

A = Cross Sectional Area (cm 2)

ΔP = Differential Pressure (atm)

E. Geographic Information System

GIS is a method of digital mapping that links data to its geographic

location. A GIS computer program creates maps from data that’s fed into
it, displaying layers of geographic information for the geographic area
you’re interested in. This can be done with all kinds of information, as long
as it has a geographic reference (i.e., as long as you can specify its
location). 
https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/assessment/assessing-
community-needs-and-resources/geographic-information-systems/main

29
 F. Existing Automated Cyclic Permeability Apparatus

Figure 9. Existing Automated Cyclic Permeability Apparatus

(Batangas State University – Alangilan Campus, 2019)

This apparatus has been conceptualized as the design and development

of an automated cyclic permeability apparatus for different types of rocks. Unlike

other permeability measuring devices, the cyclic method tests the rock sample

repeatedly instead of a single test cycle to confirm the reliability of the apparatus.

Research Literature

30
 This section presents the foreign studies and local studies related to the

mathematical modelling of rock permeability, also it presents the synthesis for the

studies.

Foreign Studies

The study of Fuyong Wang (2018), Apparent gas permeability, intrinsic

permeability and liquid permeability of fractal porous media: Carbonate rock

study with experiments and mathematical modelling, develops mathematical

models for predicting apparent gas permeability, intrinsic permeability and liquid

permeability of carbonates based on fractal capillary tube model. First, the

modified Hagen–Poiseuille equation for the fluid flow in a single capillary tube

with fractal characteristics of tortuosity was derived. With the assumption of

fractal pore size distribution in carbonates, the intrinsic permeability of fractal

capillary tube model was developed. Then, considering gas slippage effect and

liquid boundary-layer effect, the mathematical models for predicting apparent gas

permeability and liquid permeability were proposed, respectively. Finally, the

proposed mathematical models for permeability prediction were validated with

the experimental permeability data measured from 22 carbonate core plugs.

The study of J.J. Liu, A simple mathematical model for determining the

equivalent permeability of fractured porous media, proposed a simple

mathematical model to determine the equivalent permeability of fractured porous

media. The model consists of square blocks placed in an array with vertical and

horizontal fractures between the blocks. An analytical expression valid for all

31
macroscopic flow directions has been derived for the equivalent permeability of

the fractured porous media, assuming a horizontal flow through the blocks placed

in a porous medium. The analytical expression agrees well with the existing

equations and also with the microscopic numerical results carried out using a unit

structure with periodic boundary conditions. The foregoing two-dimensional

model has been extended to a three dimensional case in which the cubic rocks

are arranged in a cubic array. The resulting three-dimensional analytical

expression for the equivalent permeability is found to agree very well with both

existing formula and microscopic numerical simulation.

The study of I.C Wallis et al. (2012), entitled “The Nature of Fracture

Permeability in the Basement Greywacke at Kawerau Geothermal Field, New

Zealand”, the Mesozoic basement at Kawerau Geothermal Field comprises well

indurated, inter-bedded sandstones and argillites with a complex structural

history. This study reported the fracture hosted permeability within the basement

greywacke at Kawerau Geothermal Field as observed in a deep injection well

KA50, and in PK8, another deep injector ~ 1 km away. The researchers show

that permeability in KA50 can be correlated to where fractures are large aperture

and where there is a greater density of fractures intersecting each other at the

borehole wall. These fracture characteristics correlate with lithology. Through

comparisons between fractures imaged in both wells and field scale faults

inferred from stratigraphic offset between wells, we infer that field scale

structures influence the orientation of fractures observed at the wellbore scale.

This study demonstrates the value of a combined multi-proxy approach to

32
understanding permeability in the basement greywacke, and supports the value

of seeking fossil analogs to geothermal prospects. It is also a step toward

understanding, and therefore mapping, permeability in the basement greywacke

at Kawerau Geothermal Field.

In the study of Shao, et al. (2016), Effect of Temperature on Permeability

and Mechanical Characteristics of Lignite. The permeability and mechanical

characteristics of lignite from the Pingzhuang Mine Area in Chifeng have been

examined using the high-temperature triaxial permeability test equipment for

different ranges of temperature and pore pressure. The results show that, at

constant confining pressure, the elastic modulus of lignite decreases with

increasing temperature. For temperature up to approximately 75°C, the elastic

modulus is close to the modulus under the uniaxial state. Moreover, the

permeability change rule in the lignite is complex, and it is governed by the

temperature and pore pressure. Hence, for different temperature range and pore

pressure, the variations in the permeability are different.

According to the study of Evangelista, et al. (2008) was Development of a

Laboratory Scale Relative Permeability Apparatus. The modified laboratory scale

relative permeability was developed to render petroleum engineering students in

actual operation and to enhance the student’s knowledge about the importance

of this apparatus during oil and gas exploration. This laboratory scale relative

permeability apparatus was fabricated using locally available materials and

taking materials specification, layout and system components into consideration.

33
 A preliminary test was conducted and the parameters such as working

pressure, flow rate and time of operation were established. After doing the tests

the performance of the laboratory scale relative permeability apparatus was

evaluated in terms of pressure drop, rock permeability and efficiency.

This study showed that applying different pressure at different time interval

affected the performance of the equipment as a differential pressure increased,

number of cycles also decrease, and as pressure increased, permeability

decreased or vice versa. The principle of operation of the modified laboratory

scale relative permeability was similar to the conventional approach.

Local Studies

The study of Andal et al. (2019) fabricated an automated cyclic

permeability apparatus for different types of rocks. Unlike other permeability

measuring devices, cyclic method tests the rock sample repeatedly instead of a

single test cycle to confirm the reliability of the apparatus. The automated cyclic

permeability apparatus follows the concept of flooding the fluid in the steel

container until the rock samples are completely soaked and certain operating

time has been reached. The fluid drained from the steel tank will flow back to the

reservoir tank and will be used for another operation.

The study of Capuno et al. (2010) focused on the Mak-Ban Geothermal

Field. It states that Mak-Ban is a remarkable example of a stable, relatively

problem-free geothermal reservoir, based on its performance during these 30

years. During the first few years, reservoir pressures drew down rapidly resulting

in the expansion of the two-phase zone with increased discharge enthalpy and

34
steam flash as the main effect on production. More recently, however, the

reservoir has been affected by marginal recharge, injectate and meteoric water.

The main effect of these fluids is seen in a decrease in average steam flash

which was greater than 50% up to 2001 and is about 43% in 2008. Technical and

operational measures have been taken to mitigate the effects of these various

fluids on the resource and on generation.

Synthesis

The literature cited in this study helped the researchers in acquiring the

needed information for the characterization of the permeability of rock in Mak-

Ban field. Different data and information were presented for the conceptualization

of the and parameters used in the study.

The study of Fuyong Wang (2018), develops mathematical models for

predicting apparent gas permeability, intrinsic permeability and liquid permeability

of carbonates based on fractal capillary tube model. While in the present study,

the researchers will develop a mathematical model for the permeability of

collected rocks.

The study of Evangelista, et al. (2008) focused on the modified laboratory

scale relative permeability. Generally, the literature cited greatly helped the

researchers to fully understand the Darcy’s Law and the permeability of

sedimentary rocks. This study helped the researchers to understand the relation

of differential pressure and permeability. Differential pressure increased as

permeability decreased or vice versa same as the conventional approach.

35
 The study of J.J. Liu also developed a simple mathematical model

etermine the equivalent permeability of fractured porous media. The model

consists of square blocks placed in an array with vertical and horizontal fractures

between the blocks. An analytical expression valid for all macroscopic flow

directions has been derived for the equivalent permeability of the fractured

porous media, assuming a horizontal flow through the blocks placed in a porous

medium. While the present study used, operating temperature and operating time

as the variables in the modelling.

The apparatus of Andal et al, the Automated Cyclic Permeability

Apparatus tests the rock sample repeatedly instead of a single test cycle to

confirm the reliability of the apparatus. This apparatus was used in determining

the permeability of rock samples.

The study Capuno et al. (2010) focused on the Mak-Ban Geothermal

Field. It states that Mak-Ban is a remarkable example of a stable, relatively

problem-free geothermal reservoir, based on its performance during these 30

years. This study has led the researchers to pick the Mak-Ban field as the source

of rock samples.

Unlike the abovementioned existing studies, the present study will develop

a mathematical model using different variables such as operating temperature

and operating time. Also, this study will use different kind of rocks collected from

the vicinity of Mak-Ban field, specifically Mt. Makiling and Mt. Banahaw. To

confirm the reliability of this study, statistical methods will be applied.

36
 CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMENT METHODS AND PROCEDURE

This chapter presents the development stages and the methods of testing

and procedures that we will analyses for the characterization of permeability of

rocks in Mak-Ban field.

Research Design

This study will employ engineering knowledge, development of stages,

and the methods of conducting a series experiment using the rock permeability

determining apparatus for the data gathering and procedures that we will use to

characterized the permeability.

Perform Site Mapping

Rock Collection

Identification of Rock Samples

Rock Testing

Determination of the Permeability

GIS Mapping
37
 Figure 10. Research Design of the Study

Area of Investigation

The researchers will consider the Mak-Ban field vicinity for the collection

of rock samples. The geothermal field lies at the foot of Mt. Makiling and within

the Macolod corridor, a 40-km wide “rift-like feature” that crosses the Luzon arc

and separates the northern “Bataan” and southern “Mindoro” segments of the

volcanic arc. It is characterized by spas, thermal baths and hot springs prevalent

near the town of Los Banos.

Figure 11. Area of Investigation

As shown in the figure above, the area within the smaller square indicated

the Mak-Ban field, while the red circle highlights the vicinity where the

38
researchers will collect rock samples. Approximately 1.6 km 2 vicinity of both Mt.

Makiling and Mt. Banahaw will be considered for the collection of rocks.

Experimental Protocol

Figure 12. Automated Cyclic Permeability Apparatus

Calibration Procedure

Calibration of the electronic flow meter should be done before doing test,

to manually calibrate the flow meter, the following steps should be followed:

1. Long press the Cal key. The words “Fact” and “USER” indicate which

of the two factors (factory or user) is currently in use.

2. Long press the Reset key.

3. Without pressing any key, start dispensing into the sample container.

39
 4. The Meter is informed that the calibration dispensing operation is

finished. Make sure dispensing is correctly finished before performing

this operation. To calibrate the Meter, the value indicated by the partial

totaliser (example 9.800) must be forced to the real value marked on

the graduated sample container. In the bottom left part of the display

an arrow appears (upwards and downwards), that shows the direction

(increase or decrease) of the value change displayed when the

following operations 6 or 7 are performed.

5. Press the Reset key.

6. The Meter is informed that the calibration procedure is finished. Before

performing this operation, make sure the INDICATED value is the

same as the REAL value. The Meter calculates the new USER K

FACTOR ; this calculation could require a few seconds, depending on

the correction to be made.

Data Gathering

This section covers the process of testing, from preparation of the sample

up to the operational procedure of the apparatus after testing. Each one was

further discussed below:

Collection of Rock Samples

The rocks were collected from Mak-Ban field, specifically Mt.

Makiling and Mt. Banahaw. It will be identified at Industrial Incorporated

located at Dumantay, Batangas City.

40
 The dimension of the rock samples to be used was 1” diameter and

2” length. The rock samples were cored in cylindrical shape using the dual

rock coring apparatus that is located in the petroleum engineering

laboratory in Batangas State University.

Operational Procedure

1. Open the ball valves at the inflow of the steel cylinder and also on the

pressure gauges.

2. Open the air supply for the confining pressure.

3. Pump the water inside the steel cylinder.

4. Record the readings in the flowmeter and pressure gauges.

5. Once finished testing, release the confined pressure inside the steel

cylinder using the outflow valve, then open the steel cylinder, and

remove the rubber sleeve and the sedimentary rock sample.

6. Repeat these steps for the next trials.

Method of determining the Operating Time

For the determination of the operating time, series of tests and trials

were conducted. The operating time of the study was the sum of the three

different phases of operation: filling time, retention time, and draining. The

filling time was set to 5 seconds, because it was identified as the time

which the core sample was soaked completely in the chamber. To

determine the retention time, different time was set to 5 minutes, 8

41
 minutes, and 11 minutes. The retention time with the least number of

cycles was used as the established operating time. The draining time was

set to 4 minutes, because it is the time the oil from the chamber was

drained completely. (Andal et al,. 2019)

Method of Determining the Optimum Number of Cycles

To determine the number of cycles, different cycles were set by the

researchers. The least number of cycles that resulted to a constant, or

almost the same experimental value was the established number of

cycles.

Determining the Permeability Using Darcy’s Law

Darcy's law is a simple proportional relationship between the

instantaneous discharge rate through a porous medium and the pressure

drop over a given distance. In the study of Cark, A. I. entitled "Water

Permeability of Hardened Concrete (2010)", Darcy's law is written as: k=

where:

QL
k=
tAH

Where:

k = Darcy’s Coefficient of Permeability in m/min

Q = the volume of water in m3

L = the length of the rock sample in m

42
 t = the time elapsed in minute

h = the applied pressure head in meters of water

A = the area of the rock sample in m2

Creating GIS Map

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Suman, GO & Ellis, RC 1977, Cementing Handbook, AMF Tubescope; Baker

International Corp; Dowell Schlumberger; Oil Tool Division; PENGO

Industries; Lynes, Inc; Texas Iron Works; and Varco International, Inc,

Houston, Texas

Vilma T. Capuno, Roman B. Sta. Maria and Emy B. Minguez, 2010, Mak-Ban

Geothermal Field, Philippines: 30 Years of Commercial Operation.

Abrigo, F. V., Bayon, F. E., See, F., Siega, F. and Sunio, E. G.: General Trends

and Characteristics of Philippine Geothermal Gases: A Joint Scientific

Study of PNOCEDC and UNOCAL Philippines (2006).

Clemente, W. C. and Villadolid-Abrigo, F. L.: The Bulalo Geothermal Field,

Philippines: Reservoir Characteristics and Response to Production,

Geothermics, 22, (1993), 3810394.

Golla, G. U., Abrigo, F. V., Alarcon, B. O., Molling, P. A. and Stimac, J. A.: The

Bulalo Geothermal Field, Philippines: Conceptual Model of a Prolific

43
 Geothermal System, Proceedings, 22nd Annual PNOEDC Geothermal

Conference, Makati, Philippines (2001).

B. JOURNAL

I.C Wallis, D. McNamara, J.V Rowland &C. Massiot, 2012, The Nature Of

Fracture Permeability in the Basement Greywacke at Kawerau

Geothermal Field, New Zealand

J.J. Liu, Yoshihiko Sano, Akira Nakayama, 2009, A simple mathematical model

for determining the equivalent permeability of fractured porous media.

Fuyong Wang, Liang Jiao, Peiqing Lian, Jianhui Zeng, 2019, Apparent gas

permeability, intrinsic permeability and liquid permeability of fractal porous

media: Carbonate rock study with experiments and mathematical

modelling.

C. ELECTRONIC SOURCES

Petroleum In National Geographic. Available from:

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/petroleum/

#:~:text=Today%2C%20petroleum%20is%20found%20in,extracted

%20with%20giant%20drilling%20machines.

Petroleum System In Geology In. Available from:

https://www.geologyin.com/2014/08/petroleum-system.html

Reservoir Rock Properties In SPE Org. Available from:

44
http://oslo.spe.org/blogs/donatien-ishimwe/2014/09/29/reservoir-rock-

properties

45