Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Pablo Borbon Main II, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
Petroleum Engineering Department

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF PERMEABILITY APPARATUS

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree in
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

Baldovino, Marlo
Castillo, Mark Joseph A.
Maligaya, Princess Jessica S.

February 2022
 APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis proposal entitled “MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF

PERMEAMEABILITY APPARATUS” prepared and submitted by Baldovino,

Marlo, Castillo, Mark Joseph A., and Maligaya, Princess Jessica S. in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree in Bachelor of Science in Petroleum

Engineering has been examined and recommended for Oral Examination.

ENGR. JOHN KEVIN M. DE CASTRO

Adviser

 Approved by the Committee on Oral Examination with a grade of

PASSED.

ENGR. MICHAEL A. ALORIA

Chairman

ENGR. JULIE PEARL F. MARASIGAN ENGR. ARNEL M. MOLINA

Member Member

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING.

February 2022 DR. REYNATO A.

GAMBOA
Date Dean, CEAFA
 DEDICATION

The researchers would like to dedicate this study to the

following individuals for the help and support they have given.

To Almighty God for their life and wisdom, for giving them hope

and strength to continue.

To their parents, family and loved ones who have supported and inspired

them to do things with eagerness and grit.

To the faculty of Petroleum Engineering Department who have

encouraged them to strive harder and give their best

To their friends and classmates for giving them moral support and

happiness.

Thank you for being encouragement.

Marlo

MJ

Princess
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The researchers would like to express their sincerest appreciation and

gratitude to the following, without whom this study would not be possible:

To Engr. John Kevin M. De Castro, who opens the door to entertain the

researchers’ queries in finishing this piece of work.

To our panel of cross examiners, Engr. Michael A. Aloria, Engr. Julie

Pearl F. Marasigan, and Engr. Arnel M. Molina, for their respected insights and

suggestions that help us improve and finish this study.

To our parents and families, who have provided the greatest possible

support and continuous encouragement that inspire them to drive beyond out

limits in order to pass through the journey towards the accomplishment of this

study.

To our classmates and friends, who have contributed to the

development of this study by giving them encouragement and support and

became an inspiration of this study.

And most of all, to God Almighty, who gave the researchers the

knowledge, strength, guidance and love to pursue their study.

This accomplishment would not be possible without them. Thank you.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL SHEET ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND 1

Introduction 1

Objectives of the Study 3

Significance of the Study 4

Scope and Limitations of the Study 5

Conceptual Framework 7

Definition of Terms 9

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 12

Conceptual Literature 12

Research Literature 31

Synthesis 37

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES 40

41

42

42
 Experimental Protocol

Data Gathering

Preparation of Cement Sample

Model Assumptions and Simplifications 44

Data Validation 44
Development of the Model 44
Statistical Indicators 46
Reliability Test 46
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figur Page
e No.
1 Research Paradigm of the Study 8

2 Cementing 13

3 Cement 16

4 Permeameter 24

5 Research Design of the Study 40

 LIST OF TABLES

Tabl Page
e No.
1 ASTM C150 Portland Cement Types 20

2 Formulation of Hardened Paste Cement 42

 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Drilling is an operation that extracts hydrocarbon from the formation. It is

important because it supplies that increasing demand of oil and gas today. Once

a well has been drilled, completion operation must be undertaken. Well

completion incorporate steps to transform a drilled well to producing well. This

operation include different steps, one of those is cementing.

Cementing is one of the most critical steps in well completion due to its

primary task that affect the production of oil and gas, which includes keeping the

casing in place, avoiding the influx of fluids or gases into the annular space,

controlling corrosion and preventing them from migrating to upper or lower

zones. According to Erik B. Nelson (1990), without proper zonal isolation wells

are unlikely to reach their full producing potential.

Cementing is a critical procedure in the well construction process. The

cement sheath provides a hydraulic seal that establishes zonal isolation,

preventing fluid communication between producing zones in the borehole and

blocking the escape of fluids to the surface. The cement sheath also anchors

supports the casing string and protects the steel casing against corrosion by

formation fluids. Failure to achieve these objectives may severely limit the well’s

ability to reach its full producing potential.

1
 Based on Concrete Society Technical Report 31 (1998), permeability is

define as the flow property of a porous medium which characterizes the ease

with which a fluid would pass through it under the action of a pressure

differential. The primary function of well cement is to isolate or seal the casing

from wellbore. This seal prevents the migration of fluids into the annulus and

upwards to the surface. Therefore, it is imperative that a well cement exhibit very

low permeability.

Cementing encounters different problems that affect the production of oil

and gas; one of these is the cement being permeable. If the cement exhibits this

characteristics, migration of fluid in the annulus could occur and this may result to

other problem like damage of the formation and decrease in the supply of oil and

gas. A problem in reaching full potential production of the well may occur without

considering the permeability of cement used. (Añonuevo et al., 2016)

Considering the importance of low coefficient of permeability is for

governing the flow into and through the cement pores. It can ensure the safe life

of the well by providing isolation of aquifers from hydrocarbon zones, and also

safer abandonment well. Moreover, such low coefficient of permeability limits the

cement/CO2 interactions over the active period of storage complex (of the order

of 100 years) to a few meters. It can also resist more to corrosive brines and less

bulk shrinkage as a cement sets that can result in superior isolation through time.

Leaks from cased and cemented well, if any can be lessened if the drilling

cement exhibit low permeability. In addition, low coefficient permeability of drilling

cement limits the invasion. Problems occurs if drilling cement unveil high

2
permeability like tight hole condition, poor log quality, lost circulation and worst,

formation damage.

To address the abovementioned problems which is the well integrity after

cementing, it is important to make sure that the formulation of drilling cement can

provide a good sealing capability. And this can be done by conducting

experiment to gather data and developed a model to predict the permeability of

the hardened cement. Experimentation will utilize the Automated Cyclic

Permeability Apparatus which was developed last 2019 by Andal et al. The

permeability apparatus is placed at Petroleum Engineering laboratory and is still

functional, however, calibration is needed to ensure the validity of the testing.

With the above reasons, this study proposes to develop a mathematical

model using MatLab and Python to predict the permeability of the hardened

cement in terms of differential pressure, operating time, and optimum number of

cycles.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to develop a correlation for permeability

apparatus to predict its permeability through mathematical modeling.

Furthermore, it specifically aims the following:

1. Prepare the following materials considering the type of cement:

1.1. Type I

1.2. Type G

2. Evaluate the properties of the cement slurry considering the following:

3
 2.1. Cement rheological properties

2.2. Compressive strength

2.3. Thickening time

2.4. Fluid loss

3. Conduct a series of experiment using the existing permeability apparatus

for the data gathering considering the following:

3.1. Operating temperature

3.2. Operating differential pressure

3.3. Type of cement

4. Develop a model for the prediction of hardened cement permeability

considering the following variables.

4.1. Permeability vs Operating Differential Pressure

4.2. Permeability vs Operating Temperature

5. Evaluate the reliability of the developed correlation by comparing the

actual and predicted values using the following statistical indication:

5.1. Absolute Average Relative Error (AARE)

5.2. Root-mean square error

5.3. R-squared

6. Test the developed correlation for validation using the experimental data.

Significance of the Study

The Mathematical Modeling of a permeability apparatus would be

beneficial to following sectors:

4
 For Batangas State University, the mathematical model for permeability

apparatus would be beneficial to Petroleum Engineering Department for this

would be great contribution and help for the students and faculty in their

specialization. These would be baseline of their studies about the importance of

drilling cement and its coefficient of permeability.

For Petroleum Engineering Department, the model would be beneficial

for the apparatus would be a valuable teaching apparatus designed to educate

Petroleum Engineering Department students especially those who would take up

Drilling subject; it would help them to understand the importance if permeability

cement.

Furthermore for the future researchers, this would benefit them because

the data would serve as their baseline information for improving apparatus and

enhancing production for future innovation.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focused on the Mathematical Modelling of permeability

apparatus to determine the cement permeability of different types of Portland

cement; Type I and Type G which were all produced by Republic cement &

building Materials

The preparation of cement will include mixing of water and cement. This

will be done in all types of cement. Water requirement for each type of cement

will be based on the book of Neal Adam, 1985 entitled “Drilling Engineering”.

After mixing, the cement slurry will undergo testing of rheological properties,

5
compressive strength, thickening time and fluid loss at CSA inc. located at

Malabanban, Candelaria, Quezon.

After testing of the properties, the cement slurry will undergo curing and

setting time to hardened the cement which was based on the API Recommended

Practice 13B. Then the hardened cement will be utilized in testing using the

cement permeameter.

The testing of the hardened cement permeameter will consider the

parameters such as operating differential pressure and operating temperature as

the independent variables and cement permeability being the dependent

variable. After testing the permeability of one sample, it will be sent to the

laboratory of Republic Cement at Taysan, Batangas to validate the results from

the permeability apparatur.

Varying the value of these parameters will provide enough data required

for modelling. The operating pressures that will be used are 40 psi, 45 psi, 50 psi,

55 psi, 60 psi, 65 psi, 70 psi, 75 psi and 80 psi from the of study Viraj V.

Deshmukh, B. E., and for operating temperature are 25 ⁰C, 26 ⁰C, 27 ⁰C, 28 ⁰C and

29⁰C based on the study of Monther Hadi Monsoor.

After testing and data gathering, the development of model will be

performed using the MatLab and Python. The model will be used to predict the

values of hardened cement permeability at any given condition in terms of

operating pressure and operating temperature. The relationship between the

6
dependent and independent variables will be established by graphing the

independent variable in x-axis and dependent variable in y-axis in a scatter plot.

Evaluation of the reliability of the model will be done using correlation

coefficient (R2) root mean square error (RMSE) and average absolute relative

error (AARE). This will be done by predicting the values of cement permeability

using the developed model and will be compared to the experimental values of

cement permeability.

Conceptual Framework

In drilling operation, the cement permeability of cement was an important

consideration to seal the casing in place and to prevent migration of fluid in the

formation.

The input stage presents the research paradigm which included

knowledge requirements considering the cement permeability, types of Portland

cement, Portland cement chemical properties and Darcy’s law

In the process stage, the researcher will conduct a series of experiment on

the cement samples that will be prepared; using the existing permeability

apparatus for the data gathering and the software for analyzing, predicting and

making a diagram of the data of the cement permeability correlation. The data

that will be gathered must be evaluate and validate through data inventory and

analysis. The cement permeability will be developed considering the dependent

variable; permeability, the independent variables; operating pressure, operating

7
temperature, operating time, and type of cement. In this stage also the develop

correlation will be validates using the experimental data.

The output stage depicts the objective of the study which is to develop a

mathematical model of the hardened cement paste permeameter.

8
 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Knowledge Requirements  Preparation cement

 Cementing slurry and hardened

 Process cement.

 Types of Cement  Conducting series of MATHEMATICAL

MODELLING OF
 Cement Permeability experiment on the PERMEABILITY
APPARATUS
 Portland Cement apparatus.

 Darcy’s Law  Gathering data.

Technical Requirements  Evaluating the gathered

data.
 MatLab
 Developing a
 Python
Mathematical Model.
 Microsoft Excel
 Testing the developed

model.
Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study

9
Definition of Terms

To facilitate understanding of the study, the following terms are defined

conceptually and/or operationally.

Cement. It is gray-colored powder that is mixed with water and additive to

achieve that desired strength of the cement. In drilling operation, cement hold the

casing place to prevent fluid migration.

Cement Clinker. It regulates the setting time and gives the most

important property of cement, compressive strength. It also prevents

agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill wall

(civiltoday.com).

Cement permeability. It is the property that controls the rate of flow of

fluids into a porous solid. It largely depends on the size of pores, connectivity of

pores, and how tortuous the path is for the permeating fluid.

Concrete. It is a mixture of water, aggregate, cements, and regularly

additives are added to achieve the desired strength of the concrete. (Portland

cement Association, 2013)

Compressive Strength. One of the properties used to test the reliability

of cementing and is the ability of a material to withstand deformation when load is

applied. (Ajagbe BM 2013). Also, an important parameter in the cement design

which indicates the maximum load sustained by the consolidated cement before

failure. (K. Abid, et al. 2019)

10
 Darcy’s Law. It is an equation that defined as the ability of the fluid to

pass through a porous media. Also, it is used to calculate the permeability of a

given sample such as cement. (Springer, 2013)

Flowrate. It is amount of fluid that flows through hardened paste cement

in a given time.

Hardened Cement Paste. It is formed by the reaction (hydration) of

portalnd cement clinker with water. The reaction although initially rather rapid,

can continue for many years to result in an intimate, microporous mixture of

several crystalline and poorly crystalline phases (annualreviews.org).

Mathematical Model. It is the process of using various mathematical

structures - graphs, equations, diagrams, scatterplots, tree diagrams, and so

forth - to represent real world situations. The model provides an abstraction that

reduces a problem to its essential characteristics. A model is a description of a

system, theory, or phenomenon that accounts for its known or inferred properties

and may be used for further study of its characteristics.

Operating pressure. It is pressured supplied to the apparatus for the

water to pass through the hardened cement paste. The pressure applied were 40

psi, 60 psi and 80 psi.

Operating Temperature. It is temperature of water to be supplied in the

apparatus. The temperature maintained was 27°C.

Permeability. It is the measured ability of cement to transmit a liquid to

flow in a porous medium. In accordance to AAPG, Permeability is a property of

11
porous media that characterizes the ease with which fluid can flow through the

media in response to an applied pressure gradient.

Permeameter. It is an instrument used to measure the permeability of the

cement using different methods such as water and air permeability with the

sufficient accuracy for many commercial and industrial purposes.

Portland Cement. This is the most common type of cement which is

extensively used. It has good resistance to cracking and dry shrinkage but less

resistance to chemical attack.

Root-Mean Square Error (RMSE). Residuals are a measure of how far

from the regression line data points. It is the standard deviation of the residuals

(prediction errors). The equation for RMSE calculation is square root of the

summation of actual minus predicted squared over the total number.

Setting Time. As a specified time required for concrete or mortar to

change from liquid state to plastic state and plastic state to solid state so that

surface becomes sufficiently rigid to withstand a definite amount of pressure.

(Gharpedia, 2016).

Slurry Rheology. A dynamic property of the microstructure of the slurry

and is affected by various attributes such as the shape, size, density and mass

fraction of the suspended solid particles and the density and viscosity of the

carrier liquid. (aaltodoc.aalto.fi, 2014)

12
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the theories, concepts and related studies that

served as the basis of this study. This section presents discussion in details of

the theories of the parameters used in determining the study’s objectives.

Conceptual Literature

Well Cementing

The cement is used as a sealing material while drilling an oil and gas well.

Pumping cement behind the casing provides a barrier to the fluids flow from or

into the formation, and bonds the casing to the formation. This is called a primary

cement job. Cement is also pumped for other reasons like sealing off perforated

casing or plugging zones.

Cementing is the process of pumping a mixture of cement slurry, cement

additives and water into a well through the casing. The main aim of cementing a

wellbore is to hold the casing in place and ensure there is no fluid leakage

between the subsurface formations. Cementing a well also helps in bolstering the

well casing, making it corrosion free, and preventing pollution of fresh water

zones.

Cementing is performed when the cement slurry is deployed into the well

via pumps, displacing the drilling fluids still located within the well, and replacing

them with cement. The cement slurry flows to the bottom of the wellbore through

the casing, which will eventually be the pipe through which the hydrocarbons flow

to the surface. From there it fills in the space between the casing and the actual

13
wellbore, and hardens. This creates a seal so that outside materials cannot enter

the well flow, as well as permanently positions the casing in place. Cementing

operations can be divided into two broad categories: primary cementing and

remedial cementing. The objective of primary cementing is to provide zonal

isolation.

Used for a number of different reasons, cementing protects and seals the

wellbore. Most commonly, cementing is used to permanently shut off water

penetration into the well. Part of the completion process of a prospective

production well, cementing can be used to seal the annulus after a casing string

has been run in a wellbore. Additionally, cementing is used to seal a lost

circulation zone, or an area where there is a reduction or absence of flow within

Figure 2. Cementing
the well. In directional drilling, cementing is used to plug an existing well, in order
(Drilling Course, 2010)

14
to run a directional well from that point. Also, cementing is used to plug a well to

abandon it.

The basic raw material for cementing operations is Portland cement. It is

characterized by a certain percentage of clinker, which is obtained by the

appropriate selection of raw materials: limestone (or chalk) - providing calcium

oxide and clay particles (clay, shale) - introducing into the composition of silica

and alumina. Sometimes a marguer is also used as a rock constituting a mixture

of limestone and clay materials. The technological process of cement production

is quite complicated, which is related to the high requirements of its properties

(proper grinding, specific surface area, etc.).

A. Main Components of Well Cementing

 Portland clinker (K)

 Granulated blast furnace slag (S) - material with latent hydraulic

properties, for instance, exhibits hydraulic properties by appropriate

activation. It is produced by the rapid cooling of the liquid slag of the

appropriate composition obtained by smelting the iron ore in the blast

furnace.

 Natural pozzolans (P - volcanic / sedimentary rocks) and natural

firing (Q – thermally activated clays / slates) - silicate or alum

inosilicate materials; they do not harden but finely ground and in the

presence of water they react at normal temperature with calcium

hydroxide (portlantide), forming compounds with hydraulic properties

(hydrated silicates and calcium aluminates).

15
  Fly ashes (V) - siliceous - pozzolanic properties and (W) - calcareous -

hydraulic and pozzolanic properties. Fly ash is obtained by

mechanical/electrostatic deposition of dusty particulate flue gases from

coal-fired furnace burners.

 Slate (T) - in particular bituminous slate fired at 8000C.

 Limestone (L, LL)

 Silica dust (D) - consists of very fine, spherical particles with an

amorphous silica content. It is produced during the reduction of high

purity quartz with carbon in electric blast furnaces for the production of

silicon or ferroalloys.

 Secondary components - specially selected inorganic materials with

less than 5% share - mineral inorganic and clinker mineral materials

and main components, if less than 5%.

Cement

Cement are the binding materials used in building and civil engineering

construction. Cements of this kind are finely ground powders that, when mixed

with water, set to a hard mass. Setting and hardening result from hydration,

which is a chemical combination of the cement compounds with water that yields

submicroscopic crystals or a gel-like material with a high surface area. Because

of their hydrating properties, constructional cements, which will even set and

harden under water, are often called hydraulic cements. The most important of

these is Portland cement.

16
 To ensure a level of consistency between cement-producing plants,

certain chemical and physical limits are placed on cements. These chemical

limits are defined by a variety of standards and specifications. For instance,

Portland cements and blended hydraulic cements for concrete in the U.S.

conform to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C150

(Standard Specification for Portland cement), C595 (Standard Specification for

Blended Hydraulic Cement) or C1157 (Performance Specification for Hydraulic

Cements).

A. Types of Cement

 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

This is the most common type of cement which is extensively used. It

has good resistance to cracking and dry shrinkage but less resistance to

chemical attack. OPC is not suitable for the construction work which is
Figure
exposed to sulphates in the soil.3. Cement
(SidleyChem, 2000)
 Rapid Hardening Cement

17
 Rapid hardening cement is very similar to ordinary Portland cement

(OPC). The early strength is achieved by adding excessive C3S in the mix

and by lowering the C2S content in the cement. As the name itself

resembling that, this type of cement is used where there is a need for high

early strength. Ex. Pavements, busiest roadways

The strength of Rapid Hardening cement at age of 3 days is almost

same as the 7 days strength of Ordinary Portland cement. It requires

same water-cement ratio as OPC. This type of cement is not used for

massive concrete constructions.

 Low Heat Portland Cement

This type of cement is manufactured by lowering the C3S content and

increasing the C2S content. It possesses less compressive strength than

ordinary Portland cement. It has less lime content than OPC. This type of

cement is mostly used in the construction of retaining walls and it is strictly

not suitable for thin concrete structures.

 Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement

It is manufactured by keeping the percentage of C3A below 5%. This

type of cement is used where the structure is prone to severe sulphate

attacks (alkaline conditions) such as construction in the foundation of soil,

marine conditions, and sewage treatment tanks.

 High Alumina Cement

This type of cement has rich alumina content about 35% which helps in

gaining ultimate high strength within a short period. This type of cement is

18
used where a structure is subjected to the action of sea water, chemical

plants and furnaces.

 Blast Furnace Slag Cement

This type of cement is cheaper than Ordinary Portland cement. it is

manufactured by intergrinding of OPC clinker and blast furnace slag. Blast

furnace slag cement develops low heat of hydration and has less early

strength.

 Colored Cement

This type of cement is also known as Colcrete. It is manufactured by

adding coloring pigment to the OPC. It is used in joining tiles.

 Pozzolana Cement

The pozzolana is a material which is formed due to the volcanic

eruptions. It is a siliceous material having about 80% clay in it. Pozzolana

cement is manufactured by mixing 30% of pozzolana to Ordinary Portland

cement clinkers. This type of cement is used in construction of dams and

weirs.

 Air-entraining Cement

This type of cement is manufactured by adding 0.025–0.1% of air

entraining agents to the ordinary Portland cement clinker. Air entraining

agents are generally made up of wood resins, calcium agents, vegetable

oils and animal fats.

 Hydrophobic Cement

19
 This type of cement is manufactured by grinding ordinary Portland

cement clinker with water oleic acid or stearic acid. These acids forms as

a water repellent film around the cement particle which increases the shelf

life of cement. The formed around each grain of cement reduces the rate

of deterioration of the cement during long storage, transport, or under

unfavourable conditions. The film is broken out when the cement and

aggregate are mixed together at the mixer exposing the cement particles

for normal hydration.

 Expansive Cement

This type of cement is manufactured by adding stabilizer which

stabilizes the cement to expand. This can be achieved by adding 8-20% of

sulphoaluminate & 15% of stabilizer to the ordinary Portland cement

clinker.

Concrete made up of OPC shrinks while setting due to loss of free

water. Concrete also shrinks continuously for a long time. Cement used

for grouting should not shrink or change volume for this, we use expansive

cement. The expansive cement doesn’t show any volume change after

hardening.

 White Cement

This type of cement is obtained by lowering the iron oxide content in the

Ordinary Portland cement. The strength and durability is same as OPC.

This type of cement is used for joining tiles and other interior works.

 Waterproof Portland Cement

20
 This type of cement is manufactured by adding small percentages of

metal sereates in OPC during grinding. This type of cement is used in

foundations, water tanks & other water retaining structures.

 Oil-well Cement

In order to extract oil from the stratified sedimentary rocks, Oil wells

are dug to a greater depth. For safe pumping out of extracted oil steel

casing is inserted. It is likely that if oil is struck, oil or gas may escape

through the space between the rock formation and steel casing. To fill this

space Oil well cement is used. Oil well cement is manufactured by adding

retarders (Starches or cellular products) to Ordinary Portland cement.

B. Types of Portland Cement

In the US, three separate standards may apply depending on the category

of cement. For Portland cement types, ASTM C150 describes:

Table 1
ASTM C150 Portland Cement Types

Cement Type Description

Type I Normal
Type II Moderate Sulfate Resistance
Moderate Heat of Hydration (and
Type II (MH)
Moderate Sulfate Resistance)
Type III High Early Strength
Type IV Low Heat Hydration
Type V High Sulfate Resistance
Source: ASTM International

 Type I

21
 Type I is ordinary Portland cement, and it is available in white or gray.

Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for all uses where

the special properties of other types are not required. It is used where

cement or concrete is not subject to specific exposures, such as sulfate

attack from soil or water, or to an objectionable temperature rise due to

heat generated by hydration. Its uses include pavements and sidewalks,

reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway structures, tanks,

reservoirs, culverts, sewers, water pipes and masonry units. It is also

known as Class A cement in API drilling cement. (The Concrete Mix,

2011)

 Type II

Type Il is moderate sulfate resistant cement, important when concrete

is cast against soil that has moderate sulfate levels. This type offers

moderate hydration heat as well as some sulfate resistance. Type Il is

often used in areas with elevated sulfate levels in the soil. It is also known

as Class C cement in API drilling cement. (The Concrete Mix, 2011)

 Type V

Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement used only in concrete exposed to

severe sulfate action - principally where soils or groundwater have a high

sulfate content. Type IV and V are often used in special construction

applications where high sulfate resistance is required or a low heat of

hydration is important. Neither of these types are practical choices for

22
 countertops. It is also known as Class H cement in API drilling cement.

(The Concrete Mix, 2011)

C. Applications in Drilling

The material used to permanently seal annular spaces between casing

and borehole walls. Cement is also used to seal formations to prevent loss of

drilling fluid and for operations ranging from setting kick-off plugs to plug and

abandonment. The most common type by far is API Oilwell Cement, known

informally as Portland cement. Generally speaking, oilfield cement is thinner

and exhibits far less strength than cement or concrete used for construction

due to the requirement that it be highly pump able in relatively narrow annulus

over long distances. Various additives are used to control density, setting

time, and strength and flow properties. Additionally, special additives are

often used to reduce the occurrence of annular gas flow. The cement slurry,

commonly formed by mixing Portland cement, water and assorted dry and

liquid additives, is pumped into place and allowed to solidify (typically for 12 to

24 hours) before additional drilling activity can resume. The cement usually

must reach a strength of 5,000 psi [34,474 KPa] before drilling or perforating.

More advanced oilfield cements achieve higher set-cement compressive

strengths by blending a variety of particle types and sizes with less water than

conventional mixtures of Portland cement, water and chemical additives.

Permeability

The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to transmit fluids, typically

measured in Darcies or millidarcies. The term was basically defined by Henry

23
Darcy, who showed that the common mathematics of heat transfer could be

modified to adequately describe fluid flow in porous media. Formations that

transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as permeable and tend

to have many large, well-connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as

shales and siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a mixed grain size, with

smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores.

Absolute permeability is the measurement of the permeability conducted

when a single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. Effective permeability is the

ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when other

immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability

of gas in a gas-water reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as well as

the nature of the reservoir affect the effective permeability. Relative permeability

is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to

absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in

a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows

for comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each

other, since the presence of more than one fluid generally inhibits flow.

Cement Paste Permeability

Cement paste permeability is a key parameter to understand the hydro-

mechanical behavior of cement-based materials, i.e., rhelogical properties and

static stability. However, its permeability measurement is not easy to assess. The

porous medium is not rigid and tends to change due to hydration kinetics

(Picandet et al., 2011).

24
Permeameter

Cement permeameter is designed to measure the permeability of core

specimens one inch in diameter and one inch in length. A core specimen is

placed into a core sleeve, which is then inserted into the "Modified Hassler" style

test cell. Nitrogen at a constant flow rate is forced through the core and the

differential pressure across the core is measured. The flowrate is measured with

calibrated flowmeters. Viscosity is easily determined by the use of nitrogen

property tables.

Figure 4. Permeameter
(OFITE, 2006)

These variables are incorporated into Darcy’s law to calculate sample

permeability.

Darcy’s Law

The principle that governs how fluid moves in the subsurface is called

Darcy's law. It is an equation that defines the ability of a fluid to flow through a

porous media such as rock. It relies on the fact that the amount of flow between

25
two points is directly related to the difference in pressure between the points, the

distance between the points, and the interconnectivity of flow pathways in the

rock between the points. The measurement of interconnectivity is called

permeability here, pressure refers to the excess of local pressure over the normal

hydrostatic fluid pressure which, due to gravity, increases with depth like in a

standing column of water. This factor of flow impedance is referred to as

permeability. Moreover, Darcy's law is a simple proportional relationship between

the instantaneous discharge rate through a porous medium and the pressure

drop over a given distance. In the study of Cark, A. I. entitled "Water Permeability

of Hardened Concrete (2010)", Darcy's law is written as: k= where:

QL
k=
tAH

Where:

k = Darcy’s Coefficient of Permeability in m/min

Q = the volume of water in m3

L = the length of the cement sample in m

t = the time elapsed in minute

h = the applied pressure head in meters of water

A = the area of the cement sample in m2

Factors Affecting Hard Paste Cement

A. Water to Cement Ratio

26
 Water to cement ratio influences cement paste permeability to a great

extent. The higher the w/c ratio the greater the paste permeability. In this

case, not only does sizable free water remain in paste after completion of

cement hydration but also particles of cement and aggregate would not be as

compact as in the case of low water to cement ratio.

B. Compaction

When cement paste is adequately compacted, air-voids and trapped bleed

water in paste is eliminated. As a result, pores and more importantly

interconnected pores are avoid and eventually concrete permeability is

declined.

C. Curing

Sufficient curing allows proper cement hydration. Subsequently, pores in

concrete would be filled with hydration product.

D. Other Factors

There are other factors that affect permeability, but are not as influential

as those discussed above. For example, age, cement properties, aggregate,

use of admixtures, and loss of mixing water.

Mathematical Model

Definition

Mathematical modelling is the process of using various

mathematical structures - graphs, equations, diagrams, scatterplots, tree

27
diagrams, and so forth - to represent real world situations. The model

provides an abstraction that reduces a problem to its essential

characteristics. A model is a description of a system, theory, or

phenomenon that accounts for its known or inferred properties and may

be used for further study of its characteristics. By extension, a

mathematical model is a mathematical structure that can be used to

describe and study a real situation. Mathematical models are based

upon descriptions of physical phenomena through mathematical

equations. The equations are then solved numerically for the parameters

of interest by a numerical model, generally in a computer program.

Mathematical models let scientists to express complex processes in the

form of concise formulas. The data included in models is generally

confined to a limited set of variables selected for the problem at hand.

There is no general model for all purposes at present. (Lehman, 2008)

In analyzing mathematical models alongside the real data, we often

have the situation of having to check whether data fits an equation. If the

relationship is linear, i.e. of the form y = mx + b, then it is comparatively

simple to see whether the data matches the straight line and to ascertain

the gradient m and intercept b. On the other hand, if the relationship is

non- linear this is not so easy. A technique which can be used is to

transform the non-linear equation into a linear one by changing the

variables. Thus, if we have a relationship of the form 𝑦𝑦=𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥2+ , instead

of plotting y against x to provide a non-linear graph we can plot y against

28
𝑥𝑥2 to give a linear graph with gradient a and intercept b. If we have a

relationship of the form 𝑦𝑦=𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 it is possible that we can plot a graph of

y against 1 𝑥𝑥 to give a linear graph with a gradient of a. (Fox and Bolton,

2002)

Since the modeling of devices and phenomena is important for both

engineering and science, engineers and scientists have very practical

reasons for mathematical modeling. In addition, architects, scientists and

mathematicians want to feel the sheer pleasure of formulating and

addressing mathematical problems.

Mathematical Modelling and the Practice of Engineering

Engineers are involved in the design of structures, processes and

systems. That's beyond observing how the world works, engineers are

involved in making objects that have not yet come to life.

As noted by Herbert A. Simon (in The Sciences of the Artificial),

“Design is the distinguishing activity of engineering.” Thus, engineers must

be able to describe and analyze objects and devices into order to predict

their behavior to see if that behavior is what the engineers want. In short,

engineers need to model devices and processes if they are going to

design those devices and processes.

While the scientific method and engineering design have a lot in

common, there are variations in motivation and methodology that are

worth noting. In science and engineering practice, models are also used to

29
predict what will happen in a future scenario. However, in engineering

design, forecasts are used in ways that have much different implications

than merely predicting the result of the experiment. For example, any new

building or aircraft represents a model-based prediction that the building

will stand or the aircraft will fly without dire, unanticipated consequences.

Thus, beyond merely validating a model, prediction in engineering design

means the resources of time, creativity, and money can be invested with

confidence since the anticipated outcome would be a successful

Principles of Mathematical Modelling

Mathematical modeling is a principled practice that has both

principles behind it and techniques that can be implemented effectively.

Principles are overarching or meta-principles, phrased as concerns

regarding the intentions and purposes of mathematical modeling. These

meta-principles are almost philosophic in nature. We will now outline the

principles, and we will briefly discuss some of the approaches in the next

section.

These principles of methodological modeling are also included in

the following list of questions and answers:

 Why? - What are we looking for? Identify the need for the model.

 Find? - What do we want to know? List the data we are seeking.

 Given? - What do we know? Identify the available relevant data

 Assume? - What can we assume? Identify the circumstances that

apply.

30
  How? - How should we look at this model? Identify the governing

physical principles.

 Predict? - What will our model predict? Identify the equations that

will be used, the calculations that will be made, and the answers

that will result.

 Valid? - Are the predictions valid? Identify tests that can be made to

validate the model, i.e., is it consistent with its principles and

assumptions?

 Verified? - Are the predictions good? Identify tests that can be

made to verify the model, i.e., is it useful in terms of the initial

reason it was done?

 Improve? - Can we improve the model? Identify parameter values

that are not adequately known, variables that should have been

included, and/or assumptions/restrictions that could be lifted.

Implement the iterative loop that we can call “model-validate-

verifyimprove-predict.”

 Use? - How will we exercise the model? What will we do with the

model?

This list of questions and instructions is not a good mathematical

model algorithm. However, the underlying concepts are important to

mathematical modeling, as they are key to the general formulation of

problems. As a consequence, we should expect individual questions to

31
 recur frequently during the modeling process, and we should see this list

as a fairly general approach to mathematical modeling thinking.

Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is a software program created by Microsoft that

allows users to systematize, format and calculate data with formulas using

a spreadsheet system. This software is one of the Microsoft Office suite

and is compatible with other applications in the Office suite. Excel has the

same fundamental features as all spreadsheet applications, which use a

collection of cells arranged into rows and columns to organize and

manipulate data. They can also present data as charts, histograms and line

graphs. Excel alow users to arrange data so as to view various factors from

different perspectives. Programmers are given a choice to code directly

using the Visual Basic Editor, including Windows for writing code,

debugging and code module organization. (Technopedia, n.d.)

The main reason for Mathematical Modelling Using Microsoft Excel

is to provide directions and examples for using the spreadsheet program

Microsoft Excel to support an extensive range of mathematical modelling

applications. Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet program which

allows the user to arrange numerical data into an easy to follow on- screen

grid of columns and rows. (Emmons, 2007)

Research Literature

32
 Relevant to this research were the past studies which were considered in

order to model this topic. Thus, existing studies on permeameter were reviewed

in this chapter.

Foreign Studies

In the study conducted by Castro, Javier, Spragg, Robert, et al., (2010),

the fluid transport properties of concrete pavements and one of the three

mechanisms that can be used to describe transport of fluid in cementitious

systems that is permeability were evaulated. Permeability properties were

needed to be measured and used in quality control procedures and service life

prediction according to the study. The researchers used two methods of

measuring permeabilty which were the Water Permeability and Gas Permeability.

They also compared the results of the said methods were also compared.

In this study entitled “Experimental Study on Permeability of Concrete” by

Yang, et al., (2018), it stated that to study the influencing factors on permeability

of pervious concrete, adding inorganic organic composite materials obtained

experimental results that show different aggregate size, aggregate cement ratio

of different water cement ratio on the permeability performance.

According to the study entitled “Water permeability of cement paste” by

Banthia and Mindess (1989), The permeability of cement paste to water was

determined by using a triaxial permeability cell. A new technique of specimen

conditioning, based on cyclic flow reversal, was used for the early attainment of

equilibrium flow conditions. Effects of cement type, age, and silica fume addition

were investigated. With the specimen conditioning used, equilibrium flow

33
conditions were achieved on the first day of the test itself. The coefficient of

permeability was found to decrease with an increase in the degree of hydration.

The use of silica fume was found to decrease the permeability. However, the

permeability did not particularly depend upon the amount of silica fume added.

According to the study of Hager et al., (2019) entitled “Effect of Cement

Type on the Mechanical Behavior and Permeability of Concrete Subjected to

High Temperatures,” it stated that type of cement influences compressive

strength and permeability of 90-day concrete. Concretes with CEMIII presented

lower permeability and higher compressive strength for both basalt and riverbed

aggregate concretes.

According to the study of Pokharel and Fall (2013) entitled “Combined

influence of sulphate and temperature on the saturated hydraulic conductivity of

hardened cemented paste backfill,” it presents an experimental study that

focuses on the investigation of the coupled effects of temperature and sulphate

on the permeability of hardened cemented paste backfill (CPB). Hydraulic

conductivity tests and a microstructural analysis are conducted on mature CPBs

prepared with various amounts of sulphate (0, 5000, 15,000, and 25,000 ppm)

and cured at various temperatures (2 °C, 20 °C, 35 °C, and 50 °C). Important

findings and valuable results are gained. It is found that the coupled effects of

sulphate and temperature can lead to decrease (i.e. improvement of the

environmental performance of CPBs) or increase of the hydraulic conductivity of

CPBs. There is competition between the permeability decreasing and increasing

34
factors. The dominant influencing factors depend on the curing temperature and

initial sulphate content.

In the dissertation of Raymond Walker entitled "Measurement of Concrete

Permeability (1989)." Different methods of measuring the permeability of cement

paste or concrete were studied. Different information about concrete were stated

such as the properties and different factors to be considered. A comparison was

also made between a number of laboratory and in-situ concrete permeability test

methods including the Water/Liquid Permeability Tests. In his study, different

pressure was applied on both sides of the specimen.

The Darcy formula was chosen for evaluating water permeability, wherein

the apparatus was run at pressures up to 100psi (0.69N/mm), depending on the

permeability and strength of the specimens. Low strength specimens were run at

pressures as low as 10psi. Flow was measured by recording the change of level

in the measuring column every 24 hours. Specimens were tested for 14 days,

and values of the coefficient of permeability. K, were calculated using Darcy's

equation.

According to the study of Monther Hadi Mansoor entitled "Pore Size

Distribution and permeability of Cement Pastes Containing Varying Proportions

of Fly Ash or Blast furnace Slag (1983)", by applying direct hydrostatic pressures

to specimens and measuring the flows in a specially constructed apparatus at 20

°C, water permeabilities were measured. Darcy's law was also applied to

determine the permeability coefficient of cement paste. In his study, the

35
coefficient of permeability depending on the change in temperature and pressure

was evaluated. Temperatures of 20°C, 27°C, and 34°C were used.

According to Kelvin Leong in his study entitled "Discontinuity in Pore

Structure and its Effect on Mass Transfer Through Hardened Cement Paste

(1998)", low pressure permeability test, high pressure permeability tests and

water vapor transmission tests were conducted to evaluate the postulated effect

of discontinuous pore structure in hardened cement paste (HCP) on two different

mass transfer mechanisms: saturated water transfer and water vapor transfer.

Theoretical mass transfer mechanisms and measurement of discontinuity where

models and theories or estimating permeability were also studied and conducted.

Meanwhile for their experimental, the researcher used different testing equipment

such as the Low Pressure Permeameter. High Pressure Permeameter and Vapor

Transmission Cell were used by the researchers.

. In the study of Viraj V. Deshmukh entitled "A Laboratory Analysis of

Permeability of Typical Cement Mixtures used in the Permian Basin (2007)", a

laboratory analysis that could measure the coefficient of permeability using

different ranges of pressures was conducted. The range of 60psi up to 100 psi

and ranges from 40 psi up to 100 psi were included. From Indian Standard 3085-

1965, "Method of Test for Permeability of Cement Mortar and Concrete"

considered the operating pressure, operating temperature, specimen size and

Darcy's law were considered. In IS 3085-1965, the standard pressure head of 10

kg/cm² to be applied to the water and could be reduced to 5 kg/cm² and could be

increased up to 15 kg/cm was also considered.The test should also preferably be

36
carried out at a temperature of water 27+2°C. An approximate correction may be

made on the basis that each 5°C increase of the temperature above could be

added. This standard also focused on measuring the permeability of cement

using Darcy's law and also considered the standard size of the specimen which

should be cylindrical in shape with height equal to the diameter.

The standard size of the specimen was a diameter and height of 150mm

Based on the research paper entitled "Research and Development of Concrete

Sample Characteristics by Alireza Biperva (2011)", 1-6 hours-operating time was

used. Based on his study it was more efficient to use 6 hours in testing the

coefficient of permeability of concrete when applying 40 psi-80 psi. In the book of

Cement Chemistry by HFW Taylor, the common accelerator used is Calcium

Chloride. It has the ability to lessen the curing time of a cement paste to 6 hours

by adding 4% of calcium chloride to the water-cement mixture. The study was

based on the earlier studies of Murakami and Tanaka.

. In the study of Dhir, Ravindra, Hewlett, P. C., et al., entitled "Innovation

and Development in Concrete Materials and Construction (2002)", a concrete

cylinder/hardened cement paste with a diameter of 100mm and a height that

varied between 45mm and 50mm was used to test the cement 32 permeability.

He also noted that the applied pressure and temperature could vary in getting the

coefficient of permeability of a concrete material. In the study of Li and Chau, the

test set-up in getting the coefficient of permeability of a cement sample is

essentially consists of a water-tight cell that houses another cell containing the

hollow concrete specimen. The specimen was water-tightly sealed at top and

37
bottom using rubber gaskets. It was then subjected to a constant water pressure

and the steady-state flow of water through the thickness of the hollow specimen

was measured for calculation of permeability using the Darcy's formula. The

researchers also considered different pressures, temperatures and time in

getting the coefficient of permeability of a concrete. (2011)

Local Studies

The study of Andal et al. (2019) fabricated an automated cyclic

permeability apparatus for different types of rocks. Unlike other permeability

measuring devices, cyclic method tests the rock sample repeatedly instead of a

single test cycle to confirm the reliability of the apparatus. The automated cyclic

permeability apparatus follows the concept of flooding the fluid in the steel

container until the rock samples are completely soaked and certain operating

time has been reached. The fluid drained from the steel tank will flow back to the

reservoir tank and will be used for another operation.

Based on the previous research of Añonuevo et al., (2016) covers the

design and fabrication of Hardened Cement Paste Permeameter. The main focus

was to develop a Hardened Cement Paste Permeameter to determine the

permeability of three types of samples: Portland cement type I; Portland cement

type II; and Portland cement type V. The researchers held a preliminary testing

38
considering their parameters: operating temperature; operating pressure and

operating time. The performance of the Hardened Cement Paste Permeameter

was compared to the study of Shamsad Ahmad et al (2005).

Synthesis

Research literature served as a guide in the analysis of the factors that

helped the researchers in the mathematical modeling of hardened cement paste

permeameter. The conceptual literature presented information about cement, its

types and properties, the researchers was able to perform the mathematical

modeling of hardened cement paste permeameter.

Upon analyzing the past studies, researchers decided to adapt the

following parameters from the related studies: (1) operating pressure 40 psi, 60

psi and 80 psi from the study of Viraj V. Deshmukh, B.E. (2007) entitled "A

Laboratory Analysis of Permeability of Typical Cement Mixtures used in the

Permian Basin" and on Indian standard 3085-1965, "Method of Test for

Permeability of Cement Mortar and Concrete"; (2) operating temperatures of

25°C, 27°C and 29°C from the Study of Monther Hadi Monsoor entitled "Pore

Size Distribution and Permeability of Cement Pastes Containing Varying

Proportions of Fly Ash or Blast furnace Slag"; (3) operating time of 1-6 hours

based on the study of Alireza Biperva entitled "Research and Development of

Concrete sample Characteristics (2011)".

The research literature as well as the existing studies cited different

methods in measuring the permeability of cement that were considered to

provide a better output. Castro, Javier, Spragg, Robert, et al., (2010) and Walker,

39
Raymond (1989) provided two methods in measuring the permeability of cement:

the water permeability and air permeability. The study was related on the process

used in the apparatus which was water permeability. Considering these studies

was important for a better understanding of the background of the study. The

study of George Abraham et al. (2010) that focused on size of the specimen is

different with the study of Dhir, Ravindra, Hewlett, P. C., et al., (2002) entitled

"Innovation and Development in Concrete Materials and Construction" that also

focused on the size of the specimen.

The study of Ravindra et al was the basis in the cement-paste sample raw

dimension that is 100 mm diameter and 45-50 mm height. In the book of HFW

Taylor that is, Cement Chemistry, the common accelerator used was calcium

chloride. To lessen the curing time of the cement to 6 hours, 4% by mass of

cement should be added to the water-cement ratio. The hardened cement paste

permeameter also considered the design of the permeability cell of the

apparatus; it stated that the permeability cell should be sealed with the used of

O-ring. Also, the researchers consider the size of the permeability cell in relation

with the study of Li and Chau (2011).

Some differences for the fabricated hardened cement paste permeameter

were taken into consideration from the existing apparatus and studies; (a) the

used different testing equipment such as low pressure permeameter, high

pressure permeameter and vapor transmission cell from the study of Kelvin

Leong (1988); (b) The size of cement paste based on Indian Standard, that is

150 mm in diameter and height. (c) In the study of Raymond Walker (1989)

40
entitled "Measurement of Concrete Permeability" the use of different pressures

applied on both sides of the sample. The past studies were great contributions

for the study to desired and appropriate design of the fabricated laboratory

apparatus.

CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMENT METHODS AND PROCEDURE

This chapter presents the development stages and the methods of testing

and procedures that we will analyses for the development of a permeability

apparatus through mathematical modeling using Matlab and Python.

Research Design

This study will employ engineering knowledge, development of stages,

and the methods of conducting a series experiment using the cement

permeability determining apparatus for the data gathering and procedures that

we will use to develop of a mathematical model for permeability through

mathematical modeling using MatLab.

41
 Data Gathering

Data Analysis Validation

Development of the model

Statistical Test

Reliability Test

Figure 5. Research Design of the Study

Experimental Protocol

Operational Procedure

1. Open the ball valves at the inflow of the steel cylinder and also on the

pressure gauges.

2. Open the air supply for the confining pressure.

3. Pump the water inside the steel cylinder.

4. Record the readings in the flowmeter and pressure gauges.

5. Once finished testing, release the confined pressure inside the steel

cylinder using the outflow valve, then open the steel cylinder, and

remove the rubber sleeve and the sedimentary rock sample.

6. Repeat these steps for the next trials.

Method of determining the Operating Time

42
 For the determination of the operating time, series of tests and trials

were conducted. The operating time of the study was the sum of the three

different phases of operation: filling time, retention time, and draining. The

filling time was set to 5 seconds, because it was identified as the time

which the core sample was soaked completely in the chamber. To

determine the retention time, different time was set to 5 minutes, 8

minutes, and 11 minutes. The retention time with the least number of

cycles was used as the established operating time. The draining time was

set to 4 minutes, because it is the time the oil from the chamber was

drained completely. (Andal et al,. 2019)

Method of Determining the Optimum Number of Cycles

To determine the number of cycles, different cycles were set by the

researchers. The least number of cycles that resulted to a constant, or

almost the same experimental value was the established number of

cycles.

Data Gathering

This section covers the process of testing, from preparation of the sample

up to the operational procedure of the apparatus after testing. Each one was

further discussed below:

Preparation of the Cement Sample

43
 The three types of Portland cement namely Type I and Type G that

were provided by Republic Cement and Building Materials, Inc. Batangas

Plant and Schlumberger in Quezon, in a moulder having a diameter of 100

mm and a height of 150mm that resulted in a constant volume. This

cement was mixed into the water and an accelerator specifically calcium

chloride, (CaCl2).

The cement and water was first mixed with a water-cement ratio of

1:0.40. The calcium chloride having a range of 4% by the weight of the

cement was added to a mixture. The 28 days standard curing time of the

cement was lessen and cured the cement in just 3-6 hours with the help of

calcium chloride.

Table 2
Formulation of Hardened Paste Cement

Type of Water – Weight Volume Additives

Curing
Portland
Source: AñonuevoCement
et al., 2016 of of (CaCl2)
Duration
Cement Ratio Cement Water Content
Type I 1 : 0.40 1000g 400mL 40g 6 hours
Type G 1 : 0.40 1000g 400mL 40g 6 hours
According to the National Precast Concrete Association the

standard curing time of the hardened cement paste is 28 days to reach its

100% strength. But from the information gathered by the researchers, in

the formulation of a hardened cement paste, the curing time of the

hardened cement paste will be lessen if added by an additive. Upon

gathering data in reference for the proper formulation of hardened cement

44
 paste, a calcium chloride was used as an additive for the said formulation

since it has the ability to accelerate cement hydration and reduce setting

time. CaCl2 aids curing by (1) having moisture loss early in hydration by

evaporation; (2) releasing the heat of hydration sooner; (3) accelerating

hydration, which reduces the time needed for curing and protection.

(Añonuevo et al., 2016) Based on the study of Murakami and Tanaka,

addition of calcium chloride increases heat evaluation at early ages. This

indicates that the effects on setting and hardening are due to acceleration

of hydration reactions. The following are the step by step procedure of

preparation of the cement sample:

1. One (1) kg of cement sample, 400 ml of water and 40 g of calcium

chloride was prepared.

2. The cement was mixed with water then calcium chloride was added

to the mixed cement.

3. The mixed water – cement was placed in the cement moulder

having 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height.

4. The cement was hardened for about 3-6 hours.

5. The hardened cement paste was ready to be place in the

permeability cell.

Model Assumptions and Simplifications

The following assumptions and simplifications will be observed in pursuing

the present study:

45
 1. The mathematical model will consider 40 psi, 45 psi, 50 psi, 55 psi, 60 psi,

65 psi, 70 psi, 75 psi and 80 psi as the operating pressure.

2. The mathematical model will consider 25°C, 26°C, 27°C, 28°C and 29°C

as the operating temperature.

Data Validation

The testing of the permeability apparatus will consider the parameters

such as operating differential pressure and operating temperature as the

independent variables and cement permeability being the dependent variable.

Varying the value of these parameters will provide enough data required for

modelling. After conducting series of experiments, the data gathered will be

tabulated using Microsoft Excel and will be compared to the data acquired from

the study of Añonuevo et al. (2016). If the gathered data from the experiment and

data acquired from the past study has close values, it will be then inputted to

MatLab to generate the model.

Development of the Model

Mathematical models were developed using MatLab and Python to identify

the effects of the independent variables to the dependent variable.

1. Permeability vs Operating Pressure

The applied pressure allows water to pass through the

specimen being tested. This pressure affects the calculation of the

coefficient of permeability. As the pressure increases, the flow of

water also increases. In line with this, the operating pressure was

40 psi, 60 psi, and 80 psi based on the Indian standard 3085-1965

46
 and on the study conducted by Viraj V. Deshmukh, B.E. (2007).

The pressure was applied after the water enters the system and

ends as soon as the set time reached.

The pressure was released in the apparatus to push the

water into the cement sample. The pressure used in testing is 40

psi, 45 psi, 50 psi, 55 psi, 60 psi, 65 psi, 70 psi, 75 psi and 80 psi.

Test results for each pressure were recorded.

2. Permeability vs Operating Temperature

The temperature of de-aired water affects the ability of water

to flow into the testing sample due to change in density. The lower

the temperature of water, the higher the density as well as its

viscosity. Therefore, the water supply was maintained from 27±1oC

based on the Indian standard 3085-1965.

The water was cooled to 25°C, 26°C, 27°C, 28°C and 29°C

using ice and heater. The temperature of the water was ensured to

be at its desired temperature by using a thermocouple. Test results

for each pressure were recorded.

Statistical Indicators

The formulas will be inputted also in the software for the evaluation and

reliability of the data that will be gathered from the testing:

Method of Determining Absolute Average Relative Error (AARE)

| |
n
100 actual−predicted
AARE= ∑
n i=1 actual

Method of Determining Root Mean Square (RMSE)

47
 √∑
n
RMSE= ¿¿ ¿ ¿
i =1

Method of Determining R-squared or coefficient of determination

RSS
R2=1−
TSS

Reliability Test

The effectiveness of the study will be obtained by comparing the result

given by the software versus the actual data and by measuring the percentage

error of each data input. The summation of the data and results will be gathered

to define the actual value error of the software.

The correlation graph and line that will be gathered from the testing will

show the permeability of the rocks that will be tested in different condition. The

line the goes downwards to the right shows the negative weak correlation if the

plot is scattered this shows that the cement is slowly hardening and the

permeability of the cement is slowly decreasing or negative strong correlation if

the plot is forming on the same line shows that the permeability of the cement

decreasing rapidly. The line the form that aiming towards the upper right shows

that the cement`s permeability is increasing. While the line that was not form a

slope means that the cement`s permeability is not affected. The cement`s

mineral contents affects the permeability of the cement because some of them

will be dissolve and causes a crack in the cement, and the other minerals that

evaporated from heating the cement, also reduces the cement`s permeability.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Adams, NJ & Charrier T 1985, Drilling Engineering, PennWell Books, Tulsa, Okla

Nelson, EB & Guillot, D 1990, Well cementing, Cementing, Schlumberger,

North America

Suman, GO & Ellis, RC 1977, Cementing Handbook, AMF Tubescope; Baker

International Corp; Dowell Schlumberger; Oil Tool Division; PENGO

Industries; Lynes, Inc; Texas Iron Works; and Varco International, Inc,

Houston, Texas

Walker,R 1989, Measurement of Concrete Permeability., R.W. Hudd,

Leicestershire, UK

B. E-BOOKS

Abraham, GT, Dauod WZ & Renken KJ 2010, Experimental Measurements on

the Permeability Coefficient of a Concrete Sample under Low Pressure

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Deshmukh, VV 2007, A Laboratory Analysis of Permeability of Typical

Cement Mixtures used in the Permian Basin. Texas. Available from:

Internet [March 2015]

Indian Standard 3085-1965 –Method of Test for Permeability of Cement Mortar

and Concrete 1970, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals.

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Leong, K 1998, Discontinuity in Pore Structure and Its Effect on Mass Transfer

50
 Through Hardened Cement Paste, Ottawa, Canada. Available from:

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Tran, T 2011, Fluoride Mineralization of Portland Cement, Denmark. Available

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Cementing operation (2011) In Petrowiki. Available from:

http://petrowiki.org/Cementing_operations.

Cement slurry design (2011) In Petrowiki. Available from:

http://petrowiki.org/Cementing_operations.

Darcy’s Law. (2016). In Fracfocus. Available from:

https://fracfocus.org/groundwater-protection/fluid-flowsubsurface

darcys-law.

King, GE 2013, George E King Consulting, Available from:

http://www.gekengineering.com/id6.html.

Nygaard, R 2010, Well Design And Well Integrity Wabamun Area CO2

Sequestration Project (WASP), Available from:

https://fracfocus.org/groundwater-protection/fluid.flow-subsurface-darcysla

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