CHEMISTRY NOTES FOR 2"! YEAR CLASS (PUNJAB) Binary compounds of oxygen are called oxides ‘Onxides can be classified in many ways. (On the basis of acidic and basic nature, there are three classes of oxides (1) Acidic oxides (2) Basic oxkles (3) Amphoteric oxides Ne,0 ‘The oxides of alkali and alkaline earth metals except beryllium are basic and contain O* ions. This ian has high affinity for water. So, it acts immediately with water to form OH" ions and thus basic solution is produced. OF +H, > 20H Acidic and basic oxides feact with each other to form salts Na,O + SO, > Na,SO, AMPHOTERIC OXIDES . ces freaioly les ectroosiv element suchas BeO, ‘Al,0s and ZnO are amphoteric. . show properties of both acidic and basic oxides. . Thee bee ieee eg ZnO +2NaO0H+H,O —> Na,(Zn(OH)J * These behave as bases towards strong acids. eg. %mO+HSOQ —> ZnS0,+H.0 ‘Along Period Generally, basicity of oxides decreases and acidity increases from left to right “The increasing acidic order from left to right is shown in Period 3 oxides Naz MgO AlOs SiO, PO; SO, C10, ‘Strongly Basie. Amphoreric © Weakly Acidic ‘Strongly Very Bone Acie ‘Acidic strony oxide In « Group, © Basicity of main uroup oxides iacreases from top to bottom. ‘e.g. decreasing basicity order is BeO < MgO < CaO < Sr < BaO Basicity of transition metals decreases from top to botiom. NOTE: Oxidation states of metal also effect acid/base character. ‘The acidity increases with increasing oxidation slates. eg, Increasing acidity order is MnO < MnO, < MnO, < Mn,O;CHEMISTRY NOTES FOR 2™ YEAR CLASS (PUNJAB. =: = Binary compounds of hydrogen with metals are called hydrides. ‘On the basis of nature of bonding, hydrides are divided into three types. 1) Fonte 2) Covalent. 3) Intermediate un | Bett | Bry | cH | nny | 10 | Me NeHt_| Matty ‘Ally | Su, | PH, | 14S | HCL KH | Call, | ?nhh | Getty | Get, | AsHt, | H,Se | HBe RoHt_| Sal, | Cary | tatty | Sot, | soit, | Hite | on] con |_ Batt, | ver, | am, TONIC INTERMEDIATE | __ ‘COVALENT Jomac Hyparves Elements of group IA and heavier members of [1A form ionic hydrides. These hydrides are formed by elements ‘with electronegativity values greter than 1.8, In these hydrides, H is present as H1" (hydride ion) Properties © These are crystalline solids, ‘+ These have hich meltina points and boilina points. © These can conduct electricity in molten state, © They form basic solution with water NaH +H,0 — > NaOH +H; ‘Covatent Hypmipes Non-metals of groups IIIA to VILA form covalent hydrides. + These have covalent bonds. © These are mostly gases or volatile liquids. © These have low melting points. © These are generally non-conductor. INTERMEDIATE HYDRIDES Hydrides of Be, Mg otc are intermediate. © These have + These have polymeric structure. * Their properties are intermediate between ionic and covalent hydrides ‘Along Period * Generally, ionic character of hydrides decreases and covalent character increases from left to right. Thus ~ Group iA and lower members of IIA form ionic hydrides. Be, Mg etc form intermediate hydrides 4 ile nore of groupe WA VA, WA, VIA ard VA fon cova bos its boone secronogety of E21, thus on moving from lef to right, electronegatvity of other elemen‘s increases, hence H-element bond becomes polar. Thus stability increases, ‘+ Due to high polarity, H,O and HF form H-bond among their molecules na Group “Thus hydrides of F are more table, while that of T, Pb and Bi are last table + Bolling points of covalent hydrides generally increases from top to bottom except NH, H,O and HF. ‘+ NH, HO and HP have strong H-boring, thus their boiling points are higher.CHEMISTRY NOTES FOR 2™ YEAR CLASS (PUNJAB) Binary compounds of halogens with other elements are called halides Physical properties of halides mainly depends upon the riature of binding force On the basis of bonding, Halicies are classified into following classes (a) Ionic halides (b) Covalent halides (c) Polymeric halides Melting Tonic Hauipes ‘Strong electropositive elements form ionic halide. It is because they |_MaCl 715 Partly tonic have large electronegativity difference with halogens. [aicy 192 | Partly tonic * Halides of group 1A are purely ionic. L Sich ~68__Partly covalent * These have 3-D crustal lattice. [rc =93_ | Partly covalent * Among pure ionic halides, fluorides are most ionic. Hence these |_S:Cle “| ~80 _| Partly covslent have highest melting and boilina points than others, Generally order of melting and boiling points luorides > Chlorides > Bromides > lodides POLYMERIC HALIDES . elect ments suck Ga hal © These have partial ionic bonding with laver ot chain lattices, * In polymeric halides, an atom of halogen acts as bridge between two atoms. ‘COVALENT HALIDES In covalent halides, weak intermolecular forces are present. ‘Thus these are generally present as gases, liquids or low melting solids. Lattice of SiCly consists of single molecules which have hi lar bonds Bonds in PCly_and S,Cik aré less polar than SiC, Physical properties of covalent halides depend upon the size and polartzability of halogen atom. lodices are largest and more polarizable: Therefore, these have strongest van der waal's forces. Hence they have higher melting points and boiling points than other covalent halides. Along period Generally, ionic character of halides decreases end covalent character increases from left to right and vice versa. Itis due to decrease in electronegativity difference between halogen and elements. This change is shown below for period 3 NaCl MgC, AIC, = SIC PCC SC, tonic Part ~=— Partly, «= “Polar - Polar Polar onl’ Fonte’. Conclent — Conslemt Consent Ina Group Generally, ionic character of halides decreases from-top to botiom in halogen group. The order of decreasing ionic character of metal halide is prides > Chlorides > Bromides > lodides Thus . _ Affyisa pure ionic halide with mp. 1290 °C While . Afly is mainly covalent halide with m.p. 198 °C fan element can form more than one halide, then metal halide with higher oxidation state of metal is covalent, 9g. PbCi, with Pb** is ionie while PbCI, with Pb** is covalent. Itis due to high polarizing power of Pb** than Pb!CHEMISTRY NOTES FOR 2™ YEAR CLASS (PUNJAB) [Exerciee Q 12. Why the oxidation site of rable gues is usualy nero? + Oxidanor' fate of group VILA elements (noble gases) i usually zor, It ls Because thete valonce challs are complete and! no vacancy js present In their valence shell. Thus, these are also called zero group elements Deen aaa aon mee ee or {VI} and Mn ( Vil) Metals are grod conductor of electricity, while non-metals are bad conductor of elechicity “This property depends upon, ‘+ Bresence of loose electrons in valence shell of elements and . removal of loose electrons, Electrical conductance shows ebnormal behaviour in periodic table ‘Typical Elements + Inmetale of sani clectrical conductivity generally incteases from top to bottom © ciibush te Soon of diamond & ronetestatgy (el becnne'al Ss valrce doctors we wed ip making tetrahedral structure, So, no free electron js present in it, However, Carbon in the form of graphite is 2 good conductor. It is because it forms three bonds with other carton atoms in graphite hexegonal structure. So, fourth valence electron of carbon is free, These free valence electrons can move parallel to the Javers. + Lower members of group IV A ie-tin and leed are good echductors, Their electrical conductivities ore very ‘similar to group IA elements, ‘Transition Elements In Transition series, electrical conductivities show fnuch abn jour Transition, metals of 1B group (Cu, Aa, Au} are excellent conductor of electricity. These are also called coinage metal EN It is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when I mole of fons dissolce in H,O 10 give infinitely difu ‘solution. i Example ‘When 1 male of gaseous hydrogen ions are dissolved in water, 1075 kd energy is released. ‘ eae. Siivdision cas doverva inci hana sc into li, Generally, greater the charge to size ato, higher is the hydration eneray and vice versa, ‘Along Period ‘Since charge to size ratio increases from left to tight. Herice. hydration energy increases, |_AP* |" -4613 “This behaviour is very cls period 3 elements. a er a_| 384 Inve Group Be 5H ‘Charge to ske ratio decreases from top to bottom. Hence hydration energy decreases, Sar