Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub module unit, the trainees should be able to:
 State the methods of speed control of three phase.
 Describe the methods of speed motor control
 Explain the maintenance activities done to the control and protection devices
Introduction
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an
electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to
another.[1][2] The mechanism of a switch may be operated directly by a human
operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a keyboard button),
may be operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may
be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A
relay is a switch that is operated by electricity. Switches are made to handle a
wide range of voltages and currents; very large switches may be used to
isolate high-voltage circuits in electrical substations.

1. Mercury switch
A mercury switch is a switch which opens and closes an electrical circuit when
a small amount of the liquid metal mercury makes contact with metal
electrodes to close the circuit. There are several different basic designs (tilt,
displacement, radial, etc.) but they all share the common design strength of
non-eroding switch contacts.
The most common is the "mercury tilt switch". It is in one state (open or
closed) when tilted one direction with respect to horizontal, and the other state
when tilted the other direction. This is what older style thermostats used to
turn a heater or air conditioner on or off.
The "mercury displacement switch" uses a 'plunger' dipping into a pool of
mercury and thereby causing the level inside the container to rise to an
elevated height where at least one electrode is present. This design is currently
used as part of relays in industrial applications when high current loads need to
be switched frequently. These relays use electromagnetic coils to pull steel
sleeves, inside hermetically sealed containers.

Another mercury switch design

Description
Mercury switches have one or more sets of electrical contacts in a sealed glass
envelope which contains a bead of mercury. The envelope may also contain air,
an inert gas, or a vacuum. Gravity is constantly pulling the drop of mercury to
the lowest point in the envelope. When the switch is tilted in the appropriate
direction, the mercury touches a set of contacts, thus completing the electrical
circuit through those contacts. Tilting the switch the opposite direction causes
the mercury to move away from that set of contacts, thus breaking that circuit.
[1]
The switch may contain multiple sets of contacts, closing different sets at
different angles, allowing, for example, single-pole, double-throw (SPDT)
operation.

Advantages
Advantages of the mercury switch over other types are that the contacts are
enclosed, so oxidation of the contact points is unlikely. In hazardous locations,
interrupting the circuit will not emit a spark that can ignite flammable gases.
Contacts stay clean, and even if an internal arc is produced, the contact
surfaces are renewed on every operation, so the contacts don't wear out. Even
a small drop of mercury has a low resistance, so switches can carry useful
amounts of current in a small size.
The sensitivity of the drop to gravity provides a unique sensing function, and
lends itself to simple, low-force mechanisms for manual or automatic operation.
The switches are quiet, as there are no contacts that
abruptly snap together. The mass of the moving mercury drop can provide an
over center effect to avoid chattering as the switch is tilted. Multiple contacts can
be included in the envelope for two or more circuits.

Disadvantages
Mercury switches have a relatively slow operating rate due to the inertia of the
mercury drop, so they are not used when many operating cycles are required
per second. Glass envelopes and wire electrodes may be fragile and require
flexible leads to prevent damaging the envelope. The mercury drop forms a
common electrode, so circuits are not reliably isolated from each other if a
multipole switch is used. Mercury switches are sensitive to gravity so may be
unsuitable in portable or mobile devices that can change orientation or that
vibrate.
Mercury compounds are highly toxic and accumulate in any food chain, so
mercury is not permitted in many new designs.

2. Rotary switch
A rotary switch is a switch operated by rotation. These are often chosen when
more than 2 positions are needed, such as a three-speed fan or a CB radio with

multiple frequencies of reception or "channels".

Three-deck rotary switch allows controlling three

different circuit functions
 Bottom view of a 12-position rotary switch showing
wiper and contacts.

A rotary switch consists of a spindle or "rotor" that has a contact arm or

"spoke" which projects from its surface like a cam. It has an array of terminals,
arranged in a circle around the rotor, each of which serves as a contact for the
"spoke" through which any one of a number of different electrical circuits can
be connected to the rotor. The switch is layered to allow the use of multiple
poles, each layer is equivalent to one pole. Usually such a switch has a detent
mechanism so it "clicks" from one active position to another
rather than stalls in an intermediate position. Thus a rotary switch provides
greater pole and throw capabilities than simpler switches do.
Rotary switches were used as channel selectors on television receivers until the
early 1970s, as range selectors on electrical metering equipment, as band
selectors on multi-band radios, etc.
Modern rotary switches utilise a "star wheel" mechanism to provide the
switching positions, such as at every 30, 45, 60, or 90 degrees. Nylon cams are
then mounted behind this mechanism and spring-loaded electrical contacts
slide around these cams. The cams are notched or cut where the contact
should close to complete an electrical circuit. Some rotary switches are user
configurable in relation to the number of positions. A special toothed washer
that sits below the holding nut can be positioned so that the tooth is inserted
into one of a number of slots in a way that limits the number of positions
available for selection. For example, if only four positions are required on a
twelve position switch, the washer can be positioned so that only four switching
positions can be selected when in use.

3. Limit switch
In electrical engineering a limit switch is a switch operated by the motion of a
machine part or presence of an object. They are used for controlling machinery
as part of a control system, as a safety interlocks, or to count objects passing a
point. A limit switch is an electromechanical device that consists of an actuator
mechanically linked to a set of contacts. When an object comes into contact
with the actuator, the device operates the contacts to make or break an
electrical connection.
Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because
of their ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of operation. They can
determine the presence or absence, passing, positioning, and end of travel of
an object. They were first used to define the limit of travel of an object; hence
the name "Limit Switch".

A limit switch with a roller-lever operator; this is installed on a gate on a canal

lock, and indicates the position of a gate to a control system. Standardized
limit switches are industrial control components manufactured with a variety of
operator types, including lever, roller plunger, and whisker type. Limit switches
may be directly mechanically operated by the motion of the operating lever. A
reed switch may be used to indicate proximity of a magnet mounted on some
moving part. Proximity switches operate by the disturbance of an
electromagnetic field, by capacitance, or by sensing a magnetic field.
Rarely, a final operating device such as a lamp or solenoid valve will be directly
controlled by the contacts of an industrial limit switch, but more typically the
limit switch will be wired through a control relay, a motor contactor control
circuit, or as an input to a programmable logic controller.
Miniature snap-action switch may be used for example as components of such
devices as photocopiers, computer printers, convertible tops or microwave
ovens to ensure internal components are in the correct position for operation
and to prevent operation when access doors are opened. A set of adjustable
limit switches are installed on a garage door opener to shut off the motor
when the door has reached the fully raised or fully lowered position. A
numerical control machine such as a lathe will have limit switches to identify
maximum limits for machine parts or to provide a known reference point for
incremental motions.
4. Time switch
A time switch (also called a timer switch, or simply timer) is a timer that
operates an electric switch controlled by the timing mechanism. The switch
may be connected to a electric circuit operating from mains power, including
via a relay or contactor; or low voltage, including battery-operated equipment
in vehicles. It may be built into power circuits (as with a central heating or
water heater timer), plugged into a wall outlet with equipment plugged into the
timer instead of directly into the power point; or built into equipment as, for
example, a sleep timer that turns off a television receiver after a set period.
The mechanism may be mechanical (e.g., clockwork; rarely used nowadays),
electromechanical (e.g., a slowly rotating geared motor that mechanically
operates switches) or electronic, with semiconductor timing circuitry and
switching devices and no moving parts.
The timer may switch equipment on, off, or both, at a preset time or times,
after a preset interval, or cyclically. A countdown time switch switches power,
usually off, after a preset time. A cyclical timer switches equipment both on and
off at preset times over a period, then repeats the cycle; the period is usually
24 hours or 7 days.
For example, a central heating timer may supply heat for a specified period
during the morning and evening every weekday, and all day on weekends. A
timer for an unattended slow cooker may switch on automatically at a time and
for a period suitable to have food ready at mealtime. Likewise, a coffee maker
may turn itself on early in the morning in time for awakening residents to have
fresh coffee already brewed for them.
Timers may do other processing or have sensors; for example, a timer may
switch on lights only during hours of darkness, using a seasonal algorithm[1] or
light sensor. Combining the two allows a light to come on at sundown and go off
at midnight, for example.
An astronomical (or astronomic) timer calculates dawn and dusk times for
each day of the year based on the latitude and longitude (or just
north/central/south and time zone on more cheaply made ones), and the day
of the year (month and date), programmed by the user upon installation in
addition to the usual time of day. This eliminates the need for a photocell
(which may be repeatedly triggered on and off by the light which it operates)
or for repeatedly re-setting a regular timer for seasonal changes in the length
of day or for daylight-saving time. This allows exterior lighting like a porch light
fixture to be controlled by simply replacing its indoor wall switch, or doing the
same for a lamp in a dark interior corner (away from a window) by simply
plugging-in a self-adjusting lamp timer.
Time switches can be used for many purposes, including saving electric
energy by consuming it only when required, switching equipment on, off, or
both at times required by some process, and home security (for example
switching lights in a pattern that gives the impression that premises are
attended) to reduce the likelihood of burglary or prowling.
Among applications are lighting (interior, exterior, and street lighting), cooking
devices such as ovens, washing machines, and heating and cooling of buildings
and vehicles.[2] Built-in automatic washing machine controllers are examples of
very complex electromechanical and electronic timers cycles, starting and
stopping many processes including pumps and valves to fill and empty the
drum with water, heating, and rotating at different speeds, with different
combinations of settings for different fabrics.
A simple 24-hour cyclical electromechanical time A 24-hour cyclical
electromechanical UK time With a French socket switch showing
current time 06:15 and set to be
on from 07:00 to 07:45 and 20:00 to
22:00 switch

Digital in-wall timer switch with battery for

uninterrupted time keeping

Relays
Field-effect transistors (FETs) and thyristors are often used in
applications where a direct interface is required in an output device
requiring high power (such as a motor or siren).
A relay may be used in circuits where it is not possible to have a direct
electrical connection between the control circuit and the output device: e g due
to the risk of damage to the circuit from back electromotive force (EMF). A
relay is a special type of switch turned on and off by an electromagnet. When a
current flows through the coil an electro-magnetic field is set up. The field
attracts an iron armature, whose other end pushes the contacts together,
completing the circuit. When the current is switched off, the contacts open
again, switching the circuit off.

A useful property of relays is that the circuit powering the coil is completely
separate from the circuit switched on by the relay. For this reason relays are
used where a safe low-voltage circuit controls a high- voltage circuit. The
symbol for a relay makes the separation of the two circuits clear by separating
the coil symbol from the switch symbol. The relays used in schools generally
have a voltage between 6V and 15V. When using a diode with a relay, be sure
that it is connected across the poles (terminals) of the relay to prevent damage
to the transistor from back EMF, generated when the relay coil switches off.

Contactors
A Contactor is a control device that uses a small control current to
energize or de-energize the load connected to it.
About:
• A contactor has a frame, plunger, and a solenoid coil.
• The action of the plunger is used to close (or open) sets of contacts.
• A contactor does not include overload protection.
• The closing of the contacts allows electrical devices to be controlled from
remote locations.
Construction
A contactor has three components. The contacts are the current carrying part of
the contactor. This includes power contacts, auxiliary contacts, and contact
springs. The electromagnet (or "coil") provides the driving force to close the
contacts. The enclosure is a frame housing the contact and the electromagnet.
Enclosures are made of insulating materials like Bakelite, Nylon 6, and
thermosetting plastics to protect and insulate the contacts and to provide some
measure of protection against personnel touching the contacts. Open-frame
contactors may have a further enclosure to protect against dust, oil, explosion
hazards and weather.
A basic contactor will have a coil input (which may be driven by either an AC or
DC supply depending on the contactor design). The coil may be energized at
the same voltage as a motor the contactor is controlling, or may be separately
controlled with a lower coil voltage better suited to control by programmable
controllers and lower-voltage pilot devices. Certain contactors have series coils
connected in the motor circuit; these are used, for example, for automatic
acceleration control, where the next stage of resistance is not cut out until the
motor current has dropped.

Operating principle
Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors are designed to be directly
connected to high-current load devices. Relays tend to be of lower capacity
and are usually designed for both normally closed and normally open
applications. Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated more
than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Apart from optional auxiliary
low current contacts, contactors are almost exclusively fitted with normally
open ("form A") contacts. Unlike relays, contactors are designed with features
to control and suppress the arc produced when interrupting heavy motor
currents.
When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic field is produced;
this attracts the moving core of the contactor. The electromagnet coil draws
more current initially, until its inductance increases when the metal core enters
the coil. The moving contact is propelled by the moving core; the force
developed by the electromagnet holds the moving and fixed contacts together.
When the contactor coil is de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the
electromagnet core to its initial position and opens the contacts.

Thermal overload relay

A thermal overload relay is a small electromechanical device that protects

motors from overheating. These relays help to control the electrical current
that goes to the motor to prevent it from overheating. If the motor pulls too
much electricity for an extended period of time, the relay may flip and cut the
power to the motor to prevent damage.
Working Principle of Thermal Relay
The coefficient of expansion is one of the basis properties of any material. Two
different metals always have different degree of linear expansion. A bimetallic
strip always bends when it heated up, due to this inequality of linear expansion
of two different metals.
A thermal relay works depending upon the above-mentioned property of
metals. The basic working principle of thermal relay is that, when a
bimetallic strip is heated up by a heating coil carrying over current of the
system, it bends and makes normally open contacts.

Construction of Thermal Relay

The construction of thermal relay is quite simple. As shown in the figure above
the bimetallic strip has two metals – metal A and metal B. Metal A has lower
coefficient of expansion and metal – B has higher coefficient of expansion.
One heating coil is would on the bimetallic strip. When over current flows
through the heating coil, it heats up the bimetallic strip. Due to the heat
generated by the coil, both of the metals are expanded. But expansion of metal
B is more than expansion of metal A. Due to this dissimilar expansion the
bimetallic strip will bend towards metal A as shown in the figure below.
The strip bends, the No contact is closed which ultimately energizes the trip coil
of a circuit breaker.
The heating effect is not instantaneous. As per Joule’s law of heating, the

amount of heat generated,

Where I is the over current flowing through the heating coil of thermal relay. R is
the electrical resistance of the heating coil. t is the time for which the current I
flows through the heating coil. Hence from the above equation it is clear that,
heat generator by the coil is directly proportional to the time during which the
over current flows through the coil. Hence there is a prolonged time delay in the
operation of thermal relay.

The methods of Motor speed control

1. Ward Leonard speed control method
In this method, the voltage source supplying the field current is different from
that which supplies the armature. The adjustable voltage for then armature is
obtained from an adjustable-voltage generator while the field circuit is supplied
from a separate source. This is illustrated in Fig. (5.5).
The armature of the shunt motor M (whose speed is to be controlled) is
connected directly to a d.c. generator G driven by a constant-speed a.c. motor
A. The field of the shunt motor is supplied from a constant-voltage exciter E.
The field of the generator G is also supplied from the exciter E.
The voltage of the generator G can be varied by means of its field regulator. By
reversing the field current of generator G by controller FC, the voltage applied
to the motor may be reversed. Sometimes, a field regulator is included in the
field circuit of shunt motor M for additional speed adjustment. With this
method, the motor may be operated at any speed up to its maximum speed.
This method avoids the disadvantages of poor speed regulation and low
efficiency as in armature control method. However, it is quite expensive.
Therefore, this method of speed control is employed for large size motors
where efficiency is of great importance.

Advantages:
(a) The speed of the motor can be adjusted through a wide range without
resistance losses which results in high efficiency.
(b) The motor can be brought to a standstill quickly, simply by rapidly reducing
the voltage of generator G. When the generator voltage is reduced below the
back e.m.f. of the motor, this back e.m.f. sends current through the
generator armature, establishing dynamic braking. While this takes place,
the generator G operates as a motor driving motor A which returns power to
the line.
(c) This method is used for the speed control of large motors when a d.c. supply
is not available.
The disadvantage of the method is that a special motor-generator set is
required for each motor and the losses in this set are high if the motor is
operating under light loads for long periods.
2. Rheostatic method
Field Diverter: A Rheostat is connected parallel to the series field as shown in
fig (a). This variable resistor is also called as a diverter, as desired value of
the current can be diverted through this resistor and hence current through
field coil can be decreased. Hence flux can be decreased to desired amount and
speed (N) can be increased.
Armature Diverter: Rheostat (Divider) is connected across the armature of
the coil as shown in fig (b). For a given constant load torque, if armature
current is reduced, then flux must increase.
As armature torque Ta α ØIa. This will result in an increase in current taken
from the supply and hence flux Ø will increase and subsequently speed of the
motor will decrease.

Field Armature
Methods of Starting Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motor is not self starting. It is necessary to rotate the rotor at a
speed very near to synchronous speed. This is possible by various methods in
practice. The various methods to start the synchronous motor are,
1. Using pony motors
2. Using damper winding
3. As a slip ring induction motor
4. Using small d.c. machine coupled to it.

1. Using pony motors

In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of
some external device like small induction motor. Such an external device is
called 'pony motor'.
Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is
switched on. Once the synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The
motor then continues to rotate as synchronous motor.
 • Start the machine using a pony motor (Q, M, C1 and C3 closed)
• When near synchronous speed switch on dc supply to rotor (C2 closed, C3
open)
• Rotor synchronous motor catches up with the rotating field
• When at synchronous speed short out pony motor stator windings (C1
open)

2. Using Damper Winding

In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the additional
winding consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. The bars
are short circuited with the help of end rings. Such an additional winding on the
rotor is called damper winding. This winding as short circuited, acts as a
squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor. The schematic representation
of such damper winding is shown in the Fig.1.
Once the rotor is excited by a three phase supply, the motors starts rotating as
an induction motor at sub synchronous speed. Then d.c. supply is given to the
field winding. At a particular instant motor gets pulled into synchronism and
starts rotating at a synchronous speed. As rotor rotates at synchronous speed,
the relative motion between damper winding and the rotating magnetic field is
zero. Hence when motor is
running as synchronous motor, there cannot be any induced e.m.f. in the
damper winding. So damper winding is active only at start, to run the motor as
an induction motor at start. Afterwards it is out of the circuit. As damper
winding is short circuited and motor gets started as induction motor, it draws
high current at start so induction motor starters like star-delta, autotransformer
etc. used to start the synchronous motor as an induction motor.

3. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor

The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction
motor does not provide high starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of
shorting the damper winding, it is designed to a form a three phase star or
delta connected winding. The three ends of this winding are brought out
through slip rings. An external rheostat then can be introduced in series with
the rotor circuit. So when stator is excited, the motor starts as a slip ring
induction motor and due to resistance added in the rotor provides high starting
torque. The resistance is then gradually cut off, as motor gathers speed. When
motor attains speed near synchronous. D.C. excitation is provided to the rotor,
then motors gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at synchronous
speed. The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings. The initial
resistance added in the rotor not only provides high starting torque but also
limits high inrush of starting current. Hence it acts as a motor resistance
starter.
The synchronous motor started by this method is called a slip ring induction
motor is shown in the Fig.1(b).

Fig. 2 Starting as a slip ring I.M.

It can be observed from the Fig. 1(b) that the same three phase rotor winding
acts as a normal rotor winding by shorting two of the phases. From the positive
terminal, current 'I' flows in one of the phases, which divides into two other
phases at start point as 1/2 through each, when switch is thrown on d.c. supply
side.

4. Using Small D.C. Machine

Many a times, a large synchronous motor is provided with a coupled d.c.
machine. This machine is used as a
d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Then the
excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous
motor, the same d.c. machine acts as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field
of the synchronous motor is then excited by this exciter itself.