FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI

P.M.B 1526

A TERM PAPER

ON

BIG BANG THEORY, OLBERS PARADOX, BLACK

HOLE, BERMUDA TRIANGLE, CONTINENTAL DRIFT,
SEA-FLOOR SPREADING AND EXISTENCE OF LIFE
IN OTHER PLANETS.

BY

CHUKWU WISDOM CHIZURUMOKE

20201219115

SUBMITTED TO
GEOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF THE FEDERAL
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI IN
PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR REQUIREMENTS FOR
GPH 202 COURSE.
 MAY, 2023.

DEDICATION.
This work is dedicated to God Almighty.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My acknowledgement goes to my Course Lecturer and
supervisor, Dr Sabinus Ibeneme Ifeanyi and the Head of
Department (Geology), Professor E.U Ikoro
My profound gratitude goes to my parents, Dr and Mrs Marcylo
Chukwu Jonah, and my friends who assisted me in the course of
doing this work.

DECLARATION.
I, Chukwu Wisdom Chizurumoke declare that this work is an
original work, done by me and has not been published by any
other media.

Chukwu Wisdom Chizurumoke.

LIST OF FIGURES.
 Figure 1: Image depicting the Big Bang. Source: Alfred
Pasieka/Science photo via Getty images.
 Figure 2: Illustration of Olbers Paradox. Source:
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F
%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons
%2Fthumb%2Fc%2Fcd%2FOlbers%2527_Paradox.svg
%2F1200px-Olbers
%2527_Paradox.svg.png&tbnid=oS9jAOV7JK0C-
M&vet=1&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F
%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AOlbers
%2527_Paradox.svg&docid=mlMKQH_jpLVKRM&w=12
00&h=900&source=sh%2Fx%2Fim
 Figure 3: A.I depiction of a black hole. Source:
https://www.google.com/ingres?/black-hole/%File
 Figure 4: Image of the Bermuda Triangle. Source:
NBCNews
 Figure 5: Image of the continental drift over 2 million
years. Source: World Atlas.
 Figure 6: Image of Seafloor Spreading and Magnetic
Stripping. Source: Britannica.com
 Figure 7: Image of the Earth and other planets. Source:
IFLScience.com
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

 Title.
 Dedication
 Acknowledgement
 Declaration
 List of Figures.

 Chapter One
Big Bang Theory.

 Chapter Two
Olber’s Paradox.

 Chapter Three
Black Hole.
 Chapter Four
Bermuda Triangle.

 Chapter Five
Continental Drift.

 Chapter Six
Sea-floor Spreading

 Chapter Seven
Existence of life in other planets.
 Reference.
CHAPTER ONE.
WHAT IS BIG BANG THEORY?
It is the idea that the universe began as an infinitely hot and
dense single point which then expanded and stretched to grow
as large as it is right now- and is still stretching.
It began to stretch at unimaginable speeds and then at a more
measurable rate -over the next 13.7billion years to the still
expanding cosmos as we know it now (Andrew May, 2023).
When cosmic inflation came to a sudden and still-mysterious
end, the more classic descriptions of the Big Bang took hold.
A flood of matter and radiation, known as “reheating,” began
populating our universe with the stuff we know today:
particles, atoms, the stuff that would become stars and
galaxies and so on.
 Figure 1: The universe sprang into existence some 13.7
billion years ago. (Image credit: ALFRED
PASIEKA/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY via Getty Images)

With the current technology and knowledge available,

astronomers have been able to see the “echo” of the expansion
through a phenomenon known as the Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB).

Though there has been some theorists with alternative

explanations besides the Big Bang theory- such as the eternal
inflation or an oscillating universe, the theory of the Big Bang
stands strong as every test astronomers and mathematicians
throw at it brings back result in support of the Big Bang Theory.

CHAPTER TWO.
OLBER’S PARADOX.
Olber’s Paradox also know as the dark night sky paradox relates
to the problem of why the sky is dark at night since the universe
is endless and uniformly populated with stars, then every line of
sight must eventually terminate at the surface of a star. The issue
was resolved by American poet Edgar Allan Poe.

Figure 2: Illustration of Olber’s Paradox.

The darkness of the night sky is one of the pieces of evidence
for a dynamic universe, such as the Big Bang model. That model
explains the observed non-uniformity of brightness by
invoking expansion of the universe, which increases
the wavelength of visible light originating from the Big Bang
to microwave scale via a process known as redshift. The
resulting microwave radiation background has wavelengths
much longer (millimeters instead of nanometers), which appears
dark to the naked eye and bright for a radio receiver.
Other explanations for the paradox have been offered, but none
have wide acceptance in cosmology. Although he was not the
first to describe it, the paradox is popularly named after the
German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers.

CHAPTER THREE.
BLACK HOLE
A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls are so much
that even light cannot get out. The gravity pulls are so strong
because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space. This cam
happen when a star is dying.
Black holes are invisible to the naked eye but emit High Energy
Light when close to a star and only space telescopes (like James
Webb’s) fitted with special tools can help find black holes.
Black holes range in size from as small as an atom to a
supermassive. (Supermassives are what the largest black holes
are called).
Figure 3: Astronomers made a groundbreaking discovery by
detecting a dormant stellar-mass black hole, the closest one to
Earth yet found in the Milky Way. This first unambiguous
detection of such a black hole presents an exciting opportunity
for study, as it is only 1,600 light-years away and can provide
insights into the evolution of binary systems.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/
Every galaxy has a supermassive black hole at it’s centre. The
supermassive at the center of the Milky Way is called
“Sagittarius A” while the two black holes closest to earth are
called Gaia BH1 and Gaia BH2.
Stellar black holes are made when the center of a very big star
falls in upon itself, or collapses. When this happens, it causes a
supernova. A supernova is an exploding star that blasts part of
the star into space.
Scientists think supermassive black holes were made at the same
time as the galaxy they are in.

CHAPTER FOUR.
BERMUDA TRIANGLE.
Bermuda Triangle (also called the Devil’s Triangle) is an urban
legend.
It is a region in the western part of the North Atlantic Ocean in
which ships, planes, and people are alleged to have mysteriously
vanished.
For decades, the Atlantic Ocean’s fabled Bermuda Triangle has
captured the human imagination with unexplained
disappearances of ships, planes, and people.
Some speculate that unknown and mysterious forces account for
the unexplained disappearances, such as extraterrestrials
capturing humans for study; the influence of the lost continent
of Atlantis; vortices that suck objects into other dimensions; and
other whimsical ideas.
Figure 4: Image of the Devil’s Triangle on a map. Source:
NBCNews.

Some explanations are more grounded in science, if not in

evidence.  These include oceanic flatulence (methane gas
erupting from ocean sediments) and disruptions in geomagnetic
lines of flux.
Environmental considerations could explain many, if not most,
of the disappearances.  The majority of Atlantic tropical storms
and hurricanes pass through the Bermuda Triangle, and in the
days prior to improved weather forecasting, these dangerous
storms claimed many ships.  Also, the Gulf Stream can cause
rapid, sometimes violent, changes in weather.  Additionally, the
large number of islands in the Caribbean Sea creates many areas
of shallow water that can be treacherous to ship navigation. And
there is some evidence to suggest that the Bermuda Triangle is a
place where a “magnetic” compass sometimes points towards
“true” north, as opposed to “magnetic” north. 
The Bermuda Triangle is one of only two places on Earth where
a compass points to true north rather than magnetic north. If this
compass variation or error is not compensated for, ships and
planes could find themselves far off course. The ocean has
always been a mysterious place to humans, and when foul
weather or poor navigation is involved, it can be a very deadly
place.  This is true all over the world.  There is no evidence that
mysterious disappearances occur with any greater frequency in
the Bermuda Triangle than in any other large, well-traveled area
of the ocean. (Source: National Ocean Service.
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bermudatri.html).

CHAPTER FIVE.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Continental drift describes one of the earliest
ways geologists thought continents moved over time.
Today, the theory of continental drift has been replaced by the
science of plate tectonics. The theory of continental drift is most
associated with the scientist Alfred Wegener. In the early 20th
century, Wegener published a paper explaining his theory that
the continental landmasses were “drifting” across the Earth,
sometimes plowing through oceans and into each other. He
called this movement continental drift. Pangaea Wegener was
convinced that all of Earth’s continents were once part of
an enormous, single landmass called Pangaea. (National
Geographic,
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/continental-
drift/).

Figure 5: Continental drift over 2 million years from the

continent of Pangaea to today's continents. Source: World Atlas
Forces for Drifting.
Wegener proposed that the movement accountable for the
drifting of the continents was instigated by tidal force and pole-
fleeing force.
 The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth.
 The shape of the earth
 The second force that was proposed by Wegener, the tidal
force.
Though, most of the scholars considered these forces to be
insufficient.

CHAPTER SIX.
SEA-FLOOR SPREADING.
The theory of seafloor spreading states that the Earth’s crust is
in a continual state of growth and evolution. It happens as plates
on the Earth’s surface move away. The space left behind
between the plates is filled with new material, which slowly
pushes the plates apart. This process is what we call seafloor
spreading. There are many pieces of evidence to support this
theory, including:
– The ocean floor’s magnetic stripes 
– Seafloor spreading and plate tectonics
Palaeomagnetism sea floor spreading is the idea that the Earth is
slowly moving and spreading its crust due to the interaction
between its interior and the mantle. This movement is thought to
be responsible for the creation and destruction of continents, the
shifting of ocean floors, and the movement of tectonic plates. 

Figure 6: Seafloor spreading and magnetic stripping. Source:

https://Britannica.com/

While the evidence for palaemagnetism is still being gathered,

there are several reasons why this theory might be correct.
 First, studies have shown that the Earth’s crust is slowly
moving north-south.
  Second, evidence suggests that the Earth’s mantle is hotter
than the core, which would explain why it is constantly
expelling hot molten rock and magma. 
 Third, studies have shown that certain areas of the Earth are
richer in certain minerals than others, which would suggest
that they have been brought down from the mantle.
How does Sea-floor Spreading occur?
Seafloor spreading is the process by which the ocean floor
gradually widens. This widening occurs as the new oceanic crust
is created at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards. The
process is driven by convection within the Earth’s mantle.
Molten rock (magma) rises through the cover and solidifies on
the ocean floor to form a new crust. It drags the older, colder,
and denser crust beneath it downwards as the crust spreads. It
creates a Rift Valley-like feature along the crest of the mid-
ocean ridge. This process is constantly occurring and has made
the ocean floor we see today.
Sea Floor spreading theory was pronounced by Harry Hess. The
theory states that the continents on Earth are slowly moving
across the planet’s surface due to the shifting of the Earth’s
crust.
Evidence of Sea Floor Spreading.
The evidence for seafloor spreading comes from a variety of
sources.
The most direct evidence comes from seafloor mapping, which
has shown that the oceanic crust is spreading at the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge. Other evidence includes the discovery of transform faults
and young oceanic crust in the Pacific Ocean and the discovery
of volcanic activity along the ridge( Ring of Fire-  a string of
452 volcanoes stretches from the southern tip of South America,
up along the coast of North America, across the Bering Strait,
down through Japan, and into New Zealand).
How is sea floor spreading calculated?
There are a few ways to calculate seafloor spreading, but the
most common is the tidal model. This model uses data from tidal
gauges to calculate the distance between the high and low tide
points. It then uses this information to calculate how much the
seafloor has moved. 
Another method is the geoid model, which uses GPS data to
calculate seafloor spreading. Finally, the Kraken model is a
simplified version of the geoid model that uses information from
only a few tide gauges.
Whichever method you choose, it is essential to use reliable data
sources and ensure that the results are accurate. Additionally, it
is vital to be aware of any significant changes that might be
affecting seafloor spreading so that you can make adjustments to
your calculations. Finally, remember to keep in mind the global
conservation of ocean resources when deciding how to use these
models!
Rate of spread = Distance to sea level/length of time
or r = d/t
Normally cm/yr. is expressed as
1 km = 1000 square meters
1 meter = 100 cm
1 km = 100,000 cm 
The ramifications of seafloor spreading are far-reaching. (Notes
on Sea-floor Spreading,
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/world-
geography/sea-floor-spreading/).
The theory explains the creation of our ocean basins and
continents. It also accounts for the age of Earth’s rocks and how
the ocean floor is constantly renewed. Additionally, seafloor
spreading can help us understand earthquakes and
volcanoes. The theory is still being explored, and scientists
constantly learn new information. Seafloor spreading occurs at
divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates slowly move away
from each other, heat from the mantle’s convection
currents makes the crust more plastic and less dense. The less-
dense material rises, often forming a mountain or elevated area
of the seafloor. Eventually, the crust cracks. 

CHAPTER SEVEN.
EXISTENCE OF LIFE IN OTHER PLANETS
This topic has been debated on and oft for hundred of years,
right from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers and
scientists to our modern day
Are there other intelligent beings out in space?
Are aliens from space real?
Can humans survive in other planets besides earth?
Can man build colonies outside earth?
The rumored sightings of UFO’s ( Unidentified Flying Objects)
and the rise of science fiction also called sci-fi by the younger
generation has fueled this questions.

Figure 7: Image of the Earth and other planets. Source:

https://IFLScience.com/

Astrobiologists and other scientist are working really hard to

provide us answers to this questions and douse our curiosity.
But the probability of Earth not being the only habitable planets
for humans is very high as planets such as Mars and the two of
Jupiter’s moons, Europa and Titan look quite conducive to allow
humans live.
SpaceX believes that multi-planetary life is the next step of
evolution, and that the exploration and settlement of other
planets is a worthy and crucial endeavor, with Mars being the
next logical step. While this kind of life in space may still be
several years away, SpaceX and NASA are working actively
(with the historic launch of the first rover on planet Mars)
towards this long-term goal and mission.

CONCLUSION
Summary on the Big Bang Theory: The Big Bang Theory is a
scientific model that describes the origins and evolution of the
universe. It suggests that the universe began as an extremely hot
and dense singularity, around 13.8 billion years ago, and has
been expanding ever since. The theory is supported by various
lines of evidence, including the observed redshift of galaxies,
the abundance of light elements, and the cosmic microwave
background radiation.
Summary on Olbers' Paradox: Olbers' Paradox is a concept in
cosmology named after the German astronomer Heinrich
Wilhelm Olbers. It raises the question of why the night sky is
dark if the universe is infinite and filled with an infinite number
of stars. The paradox assumes a static, infinitely old, and
uniformly distributed universe. However, modern understanding
of the universe, including the Big Bang Theory, expansion, and
the presence of cosmic microwave background radiation,
explains that the night sky appears dark due to the finite age of
the universe and the limited speed of light.
Summary on Black Holes: Black holes are extremely dense
regions in space where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even
light, can escape their gravitational pull. They are formed from
the remnants of massive stars that have undergone gravitational
collapse. Black holes have various properties, including a
singularity at their center, surrounded by an event horizon,
which marks the boundary beyond which nothing can escape.
They are important in astrophysics and the study of general
relativity, and their existence has been confirmed through
indirect observations of their effects on nearby matter and
gravitational waves.
Summary on the Bermuda Triangle: The Bermuda Triangle, also
known as the Devil's Triangle, is a region in the western part of
the North Atlantic Ocean where numerous aircraft and ships
have reportedly disappeared under mysterious circumstances.
However, scientific investigations and research have not found
any evidence to support the existence of supernatural or
extraordinary phenomena in this area. Many of the
disappearances can be attributed to natural causes such as
human error, adverse weather conditions, and the high volume
of traffic in the area.
Summary on Continental Drift: Continental drift is the theory
that suggests that Earth's continents have moved over geological
time due to the movement of tectonic plates. The theory was
first proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century and
has since been supported by various lines of evidence, including
the fit of continental coastlines, the distribution of fossils and
rock types, and the matching geological features across different
continents. Continental drift is now incorporated into the
broader theory of plate tectonics, which explains the movement
of Earth's lithospheric plates and the associated geological
processes.
Summary on Sea Floor Spreading: Sea floor spreading is a
geological process that occurs at the mid-oceanic ridges, where
new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then
spreads away from the ridge. This process was proposed by
Harry Hess in the 1960s and is an essential component of the
theory of plate tectonics. As molten rock rises to the surface and
solidifies, it creates new oceanic crust, pushing the existing crust
aside. As a result, the sea floor moves apart, creating a
symmetrical pattern of magnetic anomalies that can be observed
in the rocks on either side of the ridge.

REFERENCES.
Andrew May and Elizabeth Howell. (2023). What is Big Bang
Theory?(Page 5) : https://www.space.com/25126-big-bang-
theory.html/

National Ocean Service. (2010) Bermuda Triangle(Page 13) :

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bermudatri.html/

National Geographic.(2022) Continental Drift(Page 14) :

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/continental-
drift/

NASA Archives: (2020)What is a black hole?(Page 10) ;

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-
knows/what-is-a-black-hole-k4.html/

NCERT Notes(2021): Continental Drift. [ Geography Notes For

UPSC] : https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/ncert-notes-geography-
continental-drift/
Notes on Sea-floor Spreading: (Page 12)
(2021)https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/ncert-notes-geography-
continental-drift/

Olber’s Paradox: What is Olber’s Paradox?(Page 8) : (2023)

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox/
Unique American Geological Society. (2023)SpaceX
Exploration with the Aim of Enabling Life on Other Planets
(Page23) : https://ubiqueamericangeo.org/company-and-not-for-
profit-spotlights/spacex-space-exploration-with-the-aim-of-
enabling-life-on-other-planets/