SAREEN COURSES

Atomic Structure
Cathode ray Experiment & Discovery of Electrons:- Julius like Molybdenum,
plucker in 1859 use the hard
Tungsten.
glass tube called discharge (8) They produce greenish fluorescence when strike against
tube of about 60 cm length & fitted with two metal
zinc sulphide.
electrode which are connected to a source of
high voltage. (9) They show penetration effect through thin foils.
The discharge tube is filled with a gas &
following (10) They effect photoelectric plate it is called
observations are made: So from above, it is concluded that cathode
fo8ging
(1) Under normal pressure (1 atm.) nothing is observed rays are made up
of negatively charged particles called electrons.
even by applying high (Electron
voltage of 10, 000 volts. This means was named by stoney). J.J. Thomson studied the combined
gas does not conduct electric current. effect of electric & magnetic fiels on cathode
rays & calculate
(2) When pressure is reduced is to .001 atm. Of mercury it charge/mass=e/m. of an electron
and it was
the gas is found to emit white light.
1.76 X10' C/g.
(3) When pressure is further reduced to .001 atm, the
Millikan through his oil drops experiment calculated charge
emission of light ceases but the walls of discharge tube on electron & it was 1.6 x 10" C Therefore mass of electron
opposite cathode begins to glow with greenish light
to
called fluorescence. The experiment shows some rays
=
e/ (e/m) = 1.6 *10 /1.76 10° =9.11 '10
*
Kg. So,
electron is a sub atomic particle having unit negative charge
might be coming from cathode & strike at anode &these
&mass of 9.11 * 10 Kg which is 1/1837 times mass of
are known as Cathode rays.
Glass wall stafts
nlowing yith-afoint
hkdroge
Discharge Tube greenis lignt Note: The mass bf electron is called rest were first produced
form metaleleetron is much less than velocity of light.
Cathode rays Shadow
Cathode Solid Object
Anod
To the gas to
be filled into
To vacuumsumpR
the discharge tube
OODOD
High voltage

Properties of cathode rays

(1) They cast shadow of object placed in their path & it
shows that cathode rays travel in straight line. Anode
(2) They can rotate light paddle wheel (made for mica)
place in their path shows that they are made up of
Cathode Anode
material particle.
(3) When strong electric field is applied, all cathode ray
moves toward the positive field. This shows that they are
negatively charged.
(4) They are reflected by magnetic field also (towards
north side).
Cathode rays
(5) They cause heating effect when strike against metal. Rotating wheel is set

(6) They ionise the gas through which they pass. into motion by the
cathode rays
(7) They produce X-rays when strike against heavy metals

Dr. Ashish Sareen

HIS EXCELLENT (OACHING CENTRE 1 Ph.D. in Chemistry
 Origin of cathode rays:- Cathode rays were first produced bath which means they are made up of material particies
from metal electrode, thern the fast moving cathode
rays (ii) In the presence of electric field anode rays band towaros
knock out the electrons from gaseous atom. These negative field which means they are positively charged.
From above properties we concluded that anode rays
are
electrons also start moving towards anode & are called
cathode rays so cathode rays are first produced form made up of positively charged particles. But for different
material of cathode & then from within the gas. were produced. So
gasses, different positively charge particles
Electronisa Universal particle: Electron may origin from their e/m ratio is also different. In H, gas particles produces
a no. of sources. H.It is called proton (because the name of hydrogen is
(i) From any sample of gas taken in discharge tube,
protium:) It's e/m ratio was 9.58 10 C/g (because hydrogen
cathodes rays are produced which are nothing but is the lightest element & charge on proto is 1.6 * 10 C .
electrons. Therefore, mass of proton is e/(e/m) 1.6 * 10 C/9.58 * 1 0
(i) When metal filament is heated electrons are
produced. 1.6728 10 g Forany other sample of gas the total
(ii) When UV radiation fall on the surface of metal positive charge come out to be whole number multiple of
electrons are produced (photoelectric effect). proton. So, It is a sub-atomic particle having unit +ve & mass
(iv) A radioactive substance emit rays which are nothing 1.672 * 1 0 "g.

but electrons. It is noted that charge, mass & e/m ratio

remains the same but ever it may be source of origin. Radioactivity:- Discovered by Henry Becquerel on a substance
Therefore electron is a universal particle. potassium Uranyl sulphate.
Definition: Phenomenon of spontaneous emission of
Discovery of proton or anode rays: Atom on the whole is Fadiation with disintegration of radioactive substance is called
neutral but by discharge tube experiment we know that it radioactivity. Radioactivity substance emit three types of
has negative charge electrons. Thus negative chàrgesoit radiations t emits a,8, V, rays to attain stability.
must be having some positively charged particles an td| eysAThey are nothing but helium nuclei with +2 charge
discover thenm Goldstein used a perforated cathode 4 uhtmass, They have maximum ionizing power & least
coated cathode end with zinc sulphide andtharn a penetratins power
potential. 10,
Difference of applied acrosa
000 V was its ('B-rays;/They are nothing but electrons. Their penetrating
two ends at pressure of .001 mm we find that cathode power moré than alpha-rays but ionizing power is less than
ends being to glow with green color. It meanssömerays alpha-rays
are coming anode side & striking at cathode. These are ii) y rays: They have no charge, no mass & simply
known as anode rays or positive rays or carnal rays. [iv)Electromagnetic radiation. They travel with velocity of
light. They have maximum penetrating power & least ionizing
Cathode Positive
rays rays power.
y-rays
-rays
d-rays

Anode Perforated
cathode Leac
Cavity

Origin of anode ray:- They are formed inside the

discharge tube from gas. Anode rays do not come form
canoed but past moving cathode rays knockout electrons
producing positive ions these positive ions starts moving
cathode & they are called as anode rays. So anode rays Behavior ofa, P, and y emissions
subjected to an electric field
are produced in the space b/w
cathode & anode.

Thomson model of Atom: Acc. To J.J Thomson, an atom is a

Properties of anoderays embedded
(i) They cast shadow of the object placed in their path positive sphere of 10 cm in which electrons are
lack of
which means they travel in straight line. like plums in a pudding. This model is failed due to
(i) They can rotate a light paddle wheel placed in their experimental background.

Dr. Ashish Sareen

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE ge
No. 2 Ph.D. in Chemistry
 Conclusion form scattering experiments:
() Since most of alpha-particles went undeflected so most o
An elettron the space in atom is empty of hollow
(1i) Few alpha-particles change their path because they mignt
be passing from very close to small heavy field.
ii) Very-Very few alpha-particles almost come back because
A sphere of uniform
they might e collided with small heavy field & since the
positive change
number is small as compared to total volume of atom. So
form above conclusions Rutherford put toward a model of
Rutherford Model of Atomhomson's atomic model atom.
Observations: (i) 99.9% of the alpha-particles past Nucleus: A very small heavy positive field present in the
undeflected. center of atom is called nucleus& whole mass of atom is
(i) Some of very few alpha-paricles suffered deflaction BY concentrated in nucleus.
90° OR even larger angles. Extra nuclear part: Space around the nucleus in which
(iii) Very-very few alpha-particles (1-20000) almost come electron revolves is called extra nuclear part. Electron&
back suffering a deflection of 180°. nucleus are held together by columbic forces of attraction.
Note: Size of the atom is the order of 10 cm. Size of the
Movable ZnS
screen nucleus is the order of 10 cm. So it means nucleus 10 times

Gold Foil
smatterthan atom.
a- Particles Failure of Rutherford model: Rutherford suggested that
eleetrons ate not stationary but they are revolving around
nucleus. So they èmit radiations & loose energy. As a result
: electron wiN not able to withstand the attraction of nucleus &
Radioactive
thereferefolowsspiral path & fall into the nucleus & atom
substance Lead slit shouldcolapse-But atom is stable so there is some thing

Large
J 4ndrterord
Nucleus
mode
deflections
Slightly deflected
a- particles

Largely deflected Nucleus Slightly deflected

a-particles
particles

Electron following
Undeflected
a spiral path
particles

Discovery of neutron: In 1920 Rutherford found that except

Slightly deflected
hydrogen mass of all the portion. So for here is conclude that
a-particles some have neutral species must be present in the nucleus of
the atom but the could not discovered. later on 1932
Failures of Thomson model: These observations could not chadwick bombarded. Berelliumwith alpha-particles&found
explain by Thomson model because the -ve charge spread that along with carbon a neutral particle called neuron is also
over10 cm would deflect alpha-particles only though produced Which has mass nearly equal proton.
to so neutron

small angles & deflection through large angles is possible are also present n nucleus along with proton.

only when positive charge spread over 10 cm. Be +He-C+H

Definition: Neutron is a sub-atomic particle having no charge
but has a mass of 1.67*10 Kg.

Note: Electron, Proton& neutron are called fundamental

particles. Other particles present in the nucleus are meson,

Dr. Ashish Sareen

HIS EXCELLENT COACHINGCENTRE No. 3 Ph.D. in Chemistry
 neutenoes, position etc. Protons & Neutrons are radiations & this energy is known as radiant energy.

collectively called nucleons. radiations are associated with electric & magnetic.
(ii) These
Field which are perpendicular to each other & perpendicular
Atomic number: It is given by Moseley formula to the direction of wave.
Frequency (v) of x-ray=a (z-b) A electrons are magnetic radiations travel with the
(ii)
velocity of light.
Definition: Atomic number (z)=No. of protons in the (iv) These rays do not require any medium for propagation.
nucleus or no. of electrons present in neutral atom. Wave length A.

Note: Atomic no. is equal to no. of electrons in a neutral rough

atom only. In the positive charged ion the the no. of
Crest
electrons decreases while negatively charge ion the no. of
electron increases. Thus in ions atomic no is not same as Wave length
no of electron increases. Thus in ions atomic no is not
same as n0 of electrons. For eg:-Na as 10 electrons but
still its atomic no. is 11. Characteristics of wave
(1) Amplitude (a):- The maximum height of crest or depth of
Mass no. (A):- Sum of no. of proton & neutrons in a trough is known as amplitude. It tells about intensity or
nucleus of an atom i.e. A=Z +n or n= A-Z. Where n is the brightness of radiation.
no. of neutrons. In general element is expressed in atomic (li) Wavelength (ul:- Distance b/w two adjacent crest or
no.& mass no. trough of a wave is known as wavelength. Wave length can be
expressedindifferent units, All of them related to 5.I unit m
Some definitions: (i) Istope: Same atomic no-differentor cmas folows.
mass no. 'H, H, 'H Lightest radioactive isptage-hydrogen (1) ÎA=10or 10"cm
Isotopes have similar chemical property (2) 1pm 10" mor 10cm
or 10 cm
am 10 m
Isobar: Atoms of different elements having amelhassho) mioom 10 m or 10 cm

areknown as isobars. E.g.Ar,Ca AB) m-10'mor 10 cm

(ii) Velocityof wave (c or v):- Distance travel by wave per sec
Isotones: Atoms of different elementshaving aameno of is known as ityvelocity. Unit m/sec or cm/sec.
neutrons. E.g. "C, "o, ",N. iv)Freguency of wave (v):- No. of waves passing through
Isodiapheres:- Spices having same (neutron-proton no.Jappointper se. Is called frequency. Unit cycle/Sec or Hertz.
are known as isodiapheres. For e.g. "Al, Na, n-p 14 T0) Wave no. (v): No. of waves present in 1 cm length. It is
reciprocal of wavelength. Unit:- cm/sec or m/sec. v=1/^.
13 1 n-p 12-11 =1
Isosteres Different molecules having same no. of atoms
& same no., of electrons are known as isoteres. E.g.:- Co,, Kelationship b/w velocity of light frequency & wavelength:
V-c/a, v=cv
N,O 3atom & 22 electron.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:- Arrangement of

Isoelectronic:- Atoms or ions of different elements having
wlwctromagnetic radiations in increasing order ofwavelength
same no. of electrons e.g.: N* O", F, Ne, Na, Mg, A or decreasing order of frequency is called electromagnetic
Nuclear Isomers: Atoms of some no., mass no. same spectrum. For e.g.:
physical & chemical properties but have different radio Y- rays High energy radiation
active properties are known as nuclear isomer. E.g.:-C-X,raus Medicinal
U-Z. UV-rays Structure Elucidation
Visible VIBGYOR
Electromagnetic wave theory (Clark Maxwell): Infrated for red Structure, Elucidation, heating purpose,
The main points are: medicinal
() Energy is emitted by a body continuously in the form of Microwave Oven

Page 4 Dr. Ashish Sareen

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE No. Ph.D. in Chemistry
 Radiowaves Radio, TV tramission
Dual nature of radiations:- Acc. To Clark Maxwell, light
radiation are nothing but electromagnetic waves. If we
consider light as wave, we can explain its some properties
like Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Interference but
we can not explain Black body radiations & Photoelectric
effect.
Black body radiations:- Radiations emitted by black body
are known as black body radiations. A black body is a Plank's Quantum Theoy:
perfect absorber &emitter of radiations. When it is
heated continuously, then that at a particular or high
temperature, it emit red radiation, at still higher
temperature color changes to orange then yellow &
finally white wave character can not explain this change
in color because acc. To wave theory red color deepens
on increasing energy (Energy intensity).
Source of
()Cathode Anode (+)
light
Photoelectrons
Pototelectric Efect (Hertz):- Phenomenon ofpemoval of radiationofcertain frequency nu. Continuous heating atoms
electrons from surface of metal by radiationsofsúitabie absorb moré & more energy & as a result emit radiations of
frequency is called phototelctric effect.
(1) Any radiation can not eject electron from metali
surface only radiations having energy Thresh hold energy
of metal can eject electrons. The value of thresh hold
frequency depends upon the nature of metal used.
(2) Increase in frequency of radiations results in increase radiations (Thresh hold energy or binding energy, work
in kinetic energy of electro.
(3) Increase in intensity does not effect K.E of electron.
(4) Increase in intensity of radiation results in increase in +ve (in this case electron is emitted) K.E = -ve (In this case
no. of electrons ejected per unit time.
(5) There is very little time lag10 lag b/w the light
striking the surface & emission of electron.
Proton Photoelectron
Mechanism of the Phtotelectron ejection due to
phototelectric effect
HIS EXCELLENTCOACHING CENTRE No. 5
An experimental set up
for the photoelectric effect
Frequency of light (v)
Frequency of light (v)
(b)
(a)
(1) Radiations are emitted absorbed by a body discontinuosly
in the form of packets called Quantum (Plural Quanta) and in
case of light it is called photon.
(2) Energy of these photons is directly proportional to
frequency of radiations i.e.:-E v E=hv v=c/ E=hc/.
h= plank's constant (6.62*110 Kg m'/ sec or J sec.
Conclusion: If we consider light as a wave we can explain sone
of its properties like reflection, refraction, diffraction &
interference but we can not explain black body radiations &
photoelectric effect. But if consider light particle we
we as a
Canexplain plack body radiations & photo electric effect but
we cannotéxplain reflection, refraction, diffraction etc. So in
Prdartoexplainallof its properties it is conducted that light
haldual niature particle as well as wave.
Explanationof hlack body radiations: When some substance
is heated the atoms of substance start oscillating & emit
higher&higher frequency which corresponds to red, orange,
yellow & finally white. (Energy is directly proportional to mu.)
Explanation of photo electric effect:- When a photons strike
on a surface of metal a part of its energy is used to emit
function, wave mechanical energy, ionization energy.) & rest E
(Photon) = E+ K.E hv=hv,+ K.E K.E=hv-hvo if =v< v, KE
electron will not emitted)
Anode (+)
(Cathode
Photoelectrons
Dr. Ashish Sareen
Ph.D. in Chemistry
ola spectrum:- When sun light or white light is passed &emit energy in the form of radiations (Blusih color). Ihese
a prism it
througn split up into a pattern of seven colors & radiations are recorded on the recorder & "five series of line
it is called solar spectrum. It is a continuos spectrum areobtained. This is called hydrogen spectrum. The line of
Decause nere one color emerge into another color band. hydrogen spectrum are named after discovers. Spectrum is
It is noted that red color with Pfund
longest wavelength Lymen Balmer Paschen Brckett
deviated least & violet color with shortest
wavelength is Uv visible infrared
deviated most. Balmer first of all studied lines in visible region & gave a
relation b/w wavelength of light energy level. i.e.
Atomic spectrum: It is different from solar This is called Balmer formula. In general for all the lines in the
spectrum
because it is discontinuous spectrum. It is of two types: spectrum of hydrogen the formula is.
(1) Emission spectrum:- In this spectrum radiations
emitted by a excite substance are recorded on a
Where R,=Rydburg constant = 109678 cm.Z=atomic no. for
spectroscope or spectrograph. It is called emission
hydrogen Z=1, n, & n, are (Whole nos.) natural no. For a
spectra. Here we obtain white line separated by dark
band e.g.: Sodium when heated gves particular series n, is constant & n, varies.
two lines in yelow
for lymen n,= 1, n, 2, 3, 4,.
=
region at 5890 A & 5896 A". It is a discontinuous
Balmer = n, 2, n, = 3, 4, 5,.
spectrum. Its is called as line spectrum or atomic
spectrum. Emission spectrum is also known as a finger Paschen n,=3, n, =4, 5, 6,.
Brackett n, = 4, n, = 5, 6, 7,.
print spectrum because emission spectrum of two
different elements can never be same just like finger PFUND n, =5, n,= 6, 7, 8, 9,
prints of human bein8

EL ymam
Prism
H I S (0y Balmer
(Visible)

Discharge Tube Emission Line

Containing some gas Spectru (Infra Red Region)
Note:- ForHUMPHREY SERIES; n, = 6, n, = 7, 8, 9,
(2) Absorption spectrum:- Here sunlightis passed
through solution of a substance, the solution absorb BORHR'S THEORY:
some radiations & remaining radiations
are transmitted.(1Electrons revolves around the nucleus in well defined
Transmitted radiations are recorded in a
spectroscope,it cirular path called orbit, energy shell, energy level or energy
is called absorption spectrum. Here we obtain dark line in state.
They are designated as K, L, M, N or 1,2, 3, 4.. Energy
otherwise continuos spectrum. E.g.:- When sunlight is level can have maximum of 2n electron.
passed through vapours of sodium two dark lines are (2) As long as electron reain in same energy level it neither
obtain in yellow region at 5890A" &5896A" looses energy nor it gain energy. So an
energy level is known
Dark as stationary state.
Stationary state ever means the electron is
Lanes stationary, it simple means that the electron is living with
same energy.
Vapors or Prism
solution of
the substance
Bright
Bands
(3) Only those orbits are allowed where angular momentum is
Film
Lamp quantized. It means that shell has a definite value of angular
momentum & it is mvr nh/2 Where n=no. of
energy level,
=
,

Absorption Line Spectrum m=mass f electron, r=radius,

v=velocity fo revolving electron.
(4) An electron can jump form one energy level to higher
Atomic Spectrum of H,: energy level by absorbing a definite amount of energy &
When electric discharge is passed through a discharge excited electron falls back to same energy level by emitting
tube containing a H, gas,
H, molecules will disassociate to same amount of energy. So it means each energy level has a
give hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atoms by gaining definite amount of energy & electron in a particular energy
energy get excited & in the excited state they are unstable have fixed energy. It means energy of electron is quantized.

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE No. 6 Dr. Ashish Sareen

Ph.D. in Chemistry
 Lyman Que. Why electron energy is taken negative?
Series Ans. When electron is at infinite distance from the nucleus,
Balmor
Series there is no attraction b/w the nucleus & electron. So energv Is
zero, but as electrons come closer to nucleus, attraction takes
Brackett place no energy is released & it decreases from zero.
Serics MNO Note: An orbit can contain maximum of 2n
Paschan electrons.
Series
Numerical formula is used:- 1312*Z
KJ/mol
Application of Bohr's model: =
-2.16-10 *z/n° J/atom
(1) It explain stability of electron revolve around the
nucleus in a circular path called orbit & as long as electron
-1.312*z'/n° s/mol
= 13.6*Z/n ev
remain in the same energy level it neither looses
energy For H Z= 1 For (hydrogen like atom)
nor gain energy. So it does not fall in a nucleus. He, Be, Li Z=2, 4 & 3
(2) It explain the spectrum of hydrogen: Acc. To Bohr an
Failures of Bohr Model:
electron get exited from lower energy level (E,) to higher (1) It fails to explain the
line spectrum of multielectron atom.
energy level (E) by absorbing definite amount of energy. (2) It fails to explain formation & shape of molecules.
In excited state emitting energy E-E, in the form of (3) It fails to explain why some lines are bright & some lines
radiation, In this same way, he calculate the wavelength are faint in the spectrum of
hydrogen.
of different theoretical possible line & when he compared (4) It fails to Zeeman effect (splitting of spectral line in the
them with experimental results, theoretical & presence of magnetic field).
experimental wavelength have same value, Sote explain (5)Itfails to explain Stark effect (splitting of spectral line in
the spectrum of hydrogen. the presence of electric field).
(6)1t does not agree with heisenbergs uncertainty principle.
Que. Why do we obtain large no. of lines in spectrum of (7) It does not agree with De-brogile relation.
hydrogen ? 8 t sivàs nejustification by angular momentum value is the
Ans. Atomic no. H s, it has 1 electronjonly, so it
shou mitiple f h/2T & why not h/3 & h/4n& so on.
give one or few lines in the
spectrum, butitgive larg L
no. of lines because when we take
hydrogen by gaimng Dual natúre of matter: Acc. To de-brogile, with every moving
energy these molecules dissociated to give hydrogen materiál partiçles there is associated a called matter
wave

atoms. The electron in different H-atoms get excited te
higher energy level. In this excited state it isuistable &
falls to ground state in one or more jump. For eath jump Derivation:- Acc. To plank's quantum theory:: E=hc/...(1)
a line is obtained. Since a large no. of jumps are possible
so large no. of lines are obtained in the spectrum of
hydrogen.
Note: No. of spectral line obtain by electron in nth energy
level of hydrogen N(N-1)/2 for e.g:- If an electron present
Sth energy level it will give 10 lines. To calculate 5(5-TT
1/2=10.
Energy of electron in nth energy level of hydrogen or
hydrogen like atoms Bohr gave a formula:- E,-2m
me'z/n'h.
T=3.14)
wave & he gave a relation to find wavelength of that wave i.e.
A hmy
AcC. To mass-energy equivalence E=mc. ...2)
From (1) & (2) hc/A= mc A=h/mc
In general, replace c=v thereforeA=h/mv orA =h/p
because=p=mv]
because=K. E=P44
A=h/ 2 K.E*m
[Because K.E=1/2 mv, 2K.E=mv, 2K,E=-P, K.E=P°/2m]
Significance of De-Brogile relation: In a daily life, we come in
contact with macroscopic object & the wave formed in them
is so small that is it can not be detected. But this principle is of
great significance for subatomic particle like e.

Plund Series
BracketSeries (1.R) Ball:: m-0,1 Kg, V=100 ms' M-9.1 10." Kg, v=10
Paschan
Series thereforeA=h/m A=6.62-10 m(say) A=h/mA=7x10 "m
Balmer Series (Visible) Can not be detected Can be detected.
Lyman Series(UV)
(a) Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

7 Dr. Ashish Sareen

HISEXCELLENT COACHINGCENTRE No. Ph.D. in Chemistry
 Experimental Proff for dual nature of mater:-(e')-(1) Particle Wave
Particle nature::- When a beam fr is allowed to fall on the
ZnS screen. For each e', a dot or i1. It is laralized. 1. It is de-loralized.
spot is produced called 2. Sum of particle in space 2. Sum of all the waves in
scintillation. Since, dot or spot can be
produce by particle niual to total no of narticles, Space is not equal to
only. So electronis a particle. tOld
number of wave.
(2)J.J Thomson through his experiment calculate (e/m)
ratio of e It means e' has mass & we know that 3. Space occupied by one 3. Space occupied by one
.

only particle cannot be occupied waves can be occupied by

particles has mass.
by other particle. i.e. Particles other wave Waves interfere
do not interfere.
(10) Wave Nature:- (1) Davisson & Germer
experiment:
When beam of e' is allowed to pass through Ni 4. Particles can produced dot 4. They do not produced dot
crystal & or spot.
fall on the photographic plate, concentric ring are or spot.
produced on photographic plate. Similar rings are Difference Between Electromagnetic & Matter Waves:
produced by x-rays. Since x-rays are waves. So, e have
eave character. Electromagnetic Matter
1. They are associated with 1. They may not be
associated
ncident Electron Photographic
Beam Plate elect. &magnetic field. with elect. &magnetic field.
2. They do not require any
2. They require medium for
medium for propagation. propagation.
Nickel Crystal | 3. Velocity of all elect. Waves 3. Vel. Of matter wave is less
Ve of light. than vel. Of light.
4Wavelength
. is given by:A=c/v 4. A= h/mv
5. Theseare àctually emittedS. Ihese are simply associated
with particle & not emitted by
by sama sourcès.
pa
Diffraction Pattern L Wavè length of E.M waves 6. They have very short
Derivation of BOHR'S Postulate of Angular
from DE-BROGLIE'S relation:- Let
momentum ovèrll tange ofspectrum. wavelength.
consider an e evóving Physical concept of uncertainty principle:- To see an object,
around the nucleus in acircular path in a form ofwaves. photonsoflight are allowed to fll on it, then scattering of
Let it form n waves & all are in-phase. light takes place & then scattered radiations of our eyes, only
Circumference 21t r 2ttr=nA, 2tr n(h/mv) mvr =
then can bésee the object. Acc. To principle of vision accuracy
=nh/2Tt ie.less uncertainty in position. But radiations of lesserA will
Note: Ceo bulky balls or fullerenes also possess wave have high energy, that can change the momentum of e'. So we
character. can not calculate them simultaneously.
A=h/mv or h/p or h/J2 K.E * m h=6.62* 1 0 Js or
Incident
Microscope Photon
Kgm's
[1A 10 m, 1p.m = 10", In.m = 10", lev = 1.6* 10"]

New Trajectory
Original Track
of Microscopic
Particle

V Uncertainty Principle
Wave in Phase Wave out of Phase Significance in Daily Life:- It is of no of significance in our daily
Electron is revolving round the nucleus in a wave like motion life, because in daily life we can come in contact with
in circular orbits of radius r. For wave motion to be macroscopic object & we can easily calculate position as well
continuously in phase, circumference (2Ttr) as velocity. Of such objects. But it is of great significance for
must be integred multiple of A. microscopic particle like electron.

Difference Between Particle & Wave::

Uncertainty principle & Bohr concept: Acc. To Bohr theory, e"

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE Page 8 Dr. Ashish Sareen

No Ph.D. in Chemistry
 revolve around the nucleus in a well defined circular
path 7. It does not agree with 7. It agree with Heisenbergs
called orbit. Thus it is possible to determine the exact
position & velocity simultaneously this is against Heisenbergs principle principle.
uncertainty principle. Thus, in the light of uncertainty 8.Orbits do not have 8. With the exception of s
principle, Bohr's idea of e' revolving (Orbiting) around the directional characteristics. orbital all other have
nucleus is meaningless, Thus the best we can do is to directional characteristics.
speak about the probability of finding the e' of given
energy in a region of space around the nucleus rather
Quantum Number:- Set of four no which gives complete
then describing its exact position. Hence uncertainty information about electron in atom i.e. energy, shape,
principle introduce the concept of "probability". orientation & also its spin. They are:
(1) Principle quantum no (n)
Wave mechanical Model of Atom:- This model is based (2) Azimutha|l""nmnwmmnn
upon Schrodinger wave equation. Schrodinger taking into Secondarymnnn
consideration Heisenberg uncertainty & de-brogile Subsidiary"nnmn
relation & derived an equation i.e.:
Angular momentum Q. no.
a'u/2x +a'u/ay +3'u/2z+ 8T m (E-V)/h' v= 0 where x, y, z (3) Magnetic Quantum no. (m or ml)
are Cartesian co-ordination & 'v/3x =
second derivative (4) Spin""""nmmnnnnnnnnnts or ms
ofu w.r.t x. (1) Principle quantum no.:- (i) This quantum no. tells about
On solving Schrodinger wave equation we can get E &v, E shell energy level in which electron is
is known as eigen value &u is
present. It is designated
eigen function. Wis also by 1, 2,3, 4 or K.L, M, N & it can have maximum of
known as wave function. It is simply the amplitude of 2n
electron. It tells about Av. Distance of electron from the
wave,u itself has no significance but y representintensity nucleus. So it tells about size of atom.
or probability of finding electron around
the
From here we obtain the concept of orbital.
úcleus
i) yexplain
mains line in the spectrum of hydrogen atom.
The energy of a electron in an energy level is given by the

Orbital:- There dimensional space relationE4312/n° KJl/mo

aroynd thehuçleus in2) Azimuthal quantum no.- It tells about no., of subshell in a
which probability of finding the electron is maxijum
called orbital. i.e. 95%.
he. I ntK shell there are present subshell starting from 0
,.are the first letter of the type of spectra given ythem
Note: i.e. s-Shárp, p=Principle, d=Diffused, f=Fundamental. This
(1) An orbital can have maximum of 2 electröns. quantum no.explain the shape of orbital. It also explain fine
(2) Probability of finding the electron is not |ero éven at
large distance from the nucleus.
Tines'of spctrum. It is called angular momentum. Quantum
nbecaúse
o it helps to find orbital angular momentum i.e.
t+1) h/2Tt For e.g.. orbital angular momentum of 2s
Difference b/w orbit & orbital: electron is 0 & for 2p.
Orbit Orbital |(3) Magnetic quantum no.:- Electron move around the
1. It is well defined circular 1. It is 3 dimensional space nucleus since electrons are moving charge particles so they
path around the nucleus which around the probability of behave lie magnets & in the presence of external magnetic
electron revolves maximum, finding the electron is (90-95%)| field of earth, they orient themselves in some preterred
2. It is circular in shape. direction or region in space called orbital. This quantum no.
2. It is spherical, dumbbell,
dumbbell shaped. double |tells about no. of orbitals. In I subshell there are present 2+1
3. It represent planer motion 3. It represent 3 dimensional orbitals form--0-+
=0 m=0
ofelectron motion of electron. =1 m=-10, +1
4. It specify path of electron 4. t does not specity the
of electron. pat=2 m--2,-1, 0, 1, 2
5. It can have maximum of 5. It can hàve maximum of 2 S M=3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
electrons. magnetic quantum no.:- m or m.
2n electron.
6. It does not agree with 6. It agree with de brogie Spin Quantum no.:- An electron not only revolve around the
de-brogile principle. principle nucleus but it spin about its axis behave like tiny magnet & it

Dr. Ashish Sareen

HIS EXCELLENT COACHINGCENTRE ge9
No. Ph.D. in Chemistry
 to be maximum when we filled orbitals
in
can move either clockwise or anti-clockwise with spin (25+1) & it come
quantum no. +1/2 or -1/2, So this quantum no. tells about Hunds way. e.g: We have to filled four electron in p subshel.

direction of spin f electron. S=0, M=25+1 =2*0+1 =0+1=1

S=1/2++1/2=1, M=2S+1=2*1+1= 2+1=3
Que. Why do electron n an orbital always have opposite
spin ? Pauli's Exclusion Principle:- Acc. To this principle no two
Ans. Both electron have negative charge so they repel electrons in an atom can have all the four quantum no. same
each other. As we know that electron behaves like it is called exclusion principle because it excluded the
magnet. If they have opposite spin then north of one possibility of more than 2 electrons in an orbital e.g. Suppose
electron will come closer to south of other so attraction 3px orbital contain 3 electrons. There Q.no. are

will takes place which will over come the repulsion & (1) n=31=1 M=t1 S=+%
hence electron remain together. (2) n-3 l=1 M=+1 S=-%
Since all the four quantum no. of 3 electron are same as first
Que. Why spin quantum no. is taken as +1/2 or -1/2 & electron. Which violets Pauli's exclusion principle. Hence an
not +1 or-1? orbital contain only two electron. Write electronic
Ans. Two adjacent values of any quantum no. differ by configuration 1-30 elements.
one. So in order to maintain the difference of one b/w
quantum we have select spin quantum no. +1/2 or -1/2 Que. Why chromium has 4s' 3d'& not 4s 3d' confg. Which is
Also % of electron in an orbital move clock wise & other acc. To Aufbau rule?
half movie anti clock wise. So snin quantum no is +1/2 or -Ans. Cr O0XO0 Cr 000OO
1/2 Reason-Symmetry:- Halffilled & filled confg. Are more
symmetrical leads to stability. So chromium acquire 4s' 3d
Rules for writing electronic configuration
confg Because this coníg. More symmetrical (half filled)
(1) Aufbau rule:- Aufbau is the German word which
means (building up). Acc. To this rule
orbifals aretiledin Exchange energy:
increasing order of their energy i.e. lower enéréy orbitals
are filled first followed by orbitals of
higher enécgy i.ei
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f
Sd6p7s ssd 12 3 4
(2) Bohr-Bury rule:-Acc. To this rule the orbital th ways 2 ways 3 ways
lower (n+1) value is lower in energy.
Andiffnel)alu
same then lower the value of n lower isthe energy for
e.g:4sn=4 l=0total =4,
3sn-3 =2 total =5. 213 4 5/ 3 ways 2 ways 1 ways
Since4s has loer (n=l) value. So it is lower in enerey ays
It is the amount of energy released when electron with
Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity:- Acc. To this rule
parallel spin exchange their position. More the exchanges
pairing of electron in p, d & f orbital is start only when
each de generate orbital gets one electron. E.g. Atomic more the energy released higher will be the stability. In s'd
no.
ten exchanges takes place. So it is more stable.
Atomic no. 1s 2s 2p
4 1s' 2s Shapes of orbital: s-orbital:- Fors orbital I=0 so their angular
momentum is zero. Since angular momentum is 0 so
1s 2s 2p'x O00 probability of finding the electron is same in all directions. So
1s 25 2px 2py s orbital is spherical in shape. In s orbital form the radial
000
7
1s2s 2px 2py'2pz distribution curve it is clear the probability of finding electron
8 1s'25 2px' 2py' 2pz' O 00 is 0 at the nucleus, maximum near the nucleus as the distance
In p subshell pairing of electron will start on arrival of increases probability of finding the electron decreases. In 2s
fourth p electron & in d-subshell pairing of electron will orbital, probability of finding the electron is 0 at the nucleus
max. near the nucleus the distance increases probability of
start on arrival of 6 d electron. This is called rule of
finding the election decreases & at cerfairt region the
maximum multiplicity because formula of multiplicity is
probability become 0. This region is called node or nodal

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE 10 Dr. Ashish Sareen

No. Ph.D. in Chemistry
 surface Again increase in distance probability increases &
then decreases.
R

X
X
2s
1s 2p
1s 25 Radial dependence of electronic wave
n=1, 1=0, m-0 n-2, =0, m=0 function with no direct physical significance.

S-orbitals
Shapes ofp orbital:- In p subshell |= 1. So m=-1, 0, +1. rn1
o 0 =0
Hence in p subshell 3 orbitals are present & in m /+
R R
probability of finding electron is same in both lobes
o
around the nucleus so orbital have dumb-bell shape & in 2S
1s 2p
them probability is 0 at the nucleus maximum near the
Radial Probability densityu' (r) as a
nucleus & as the distance increases probability of finding
function of radial distance 'r'
the electron decreases. Unlike orbitals, p orbitals have
s

directional characteristics. The three p-orbitals belonging u tr) dv gives of finding the given electron in a small volume
to particular energy shell have equal energies & are called dv.
degenerate orbitals also 2p has no node 3p has 1 node & Volume of a sphere of radius r, V T r
4p has 2 &so on. Formula of nodeis(n-+-1). Differentiating w.r.t. r, we get dy= 4tr
dr

dV= 4Trdr
Y
This gives us the volume of a spherical shell of thickness dr at
X
a distance r from the nucleus.

C E Thus, 4N °() dr' is the

radial probability.
2p% 2P 2P
Shapes of P-Orbital n-3
0

Shapes of d orbital- For d, I=2 so m=2, 0, 1/24ngpr

momentum so d subshell has 5 orbitals& in the
probability of finding the electron is along fdurbe
n-2
around the nucleus & in them probability is maktmumH =0 =1
nodes 2s E|node 3p
near the nucleus & as the distance increase probability of
finding the electron decrease.

Shapes of d-orbitals are:

n1

1s 2p

DY

ds d d d-d Radial Probability curves as a function of

The Five d-orbital

distance'r from the nucleus.
Probability Distribution and Shapes of Orbitals:- The Thus, comparing the radial probability curves with the
probability is studied as a function of distance from
probability curves, we find that probability density for '1s'is
nucleusin different directions. We get diferent curves as maximum close to the nucleus but the probability is least
shown below: because the volume of the spherical shell 'dv' dv = 4

dr, near the nucleus is very small (zero at the nucleus). As

rincreases, the volume also increases but preobability
density decreases. The resultant probability

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE Page

No. 11 Dr. Ashish Sareen
Ph.D. in Chemistry
 p x4rdr increases.
Gradually, it reaches the maaimua ard then starts
decreasing. The distance corresponding to this maximum
is called"distance of maximum
probabilitylro
This is 53 pm in ground state of Hydrogen atom. Bohr also
predicted that electron in H-atom will always be at 53 pm
from the nucleus in ground state.
Sinilar curve for '2s' shows two maxima (separated by a
node); a smaller one closer to the nucleus and a bigger
one at a larger distance. For a 2p orbital, we get a single
maximum but distance of maximum probability for
2p
orbital is slightly lesser than that of a 2s' orbital (sec
comparative figures drawn on the same scale). Howeve,
because of the small additional maximum closer to the
nucleus,25' orbital penetrates closer to the nucleus and
thus has a lower energy than '2p-orbital'.
Such curves can also be similarly ploted for stil higher
subshell with varying number of nodes as follows
Number of maxima=(n-)
Number of maxima for 'ns' subshell are :(n);
Number of maxima for 'np' subshell are :(n-
Number of maxima for 'nd' subshell are:(n2)
ELL
Number of maxima for 'nf' subshell are/f(n-3//
Number of spherical nodes=(n-l-1)
Number of nodes for are(r-1}|
'ns' subshell
Number of nodes for 'np' subshell aret(n-2);
Number of nodes for 'nd' subshell are n-3) DD
Number of nodes for 'nd' subshell are:(n 4)
Thus, nature of curve is same for orbital havingsame
value of n-1. For example, 1s, 2p, 3d and 4fsubshellwith
no node i.e., only one maximum. Similarly, in
the.curves
for 2s, 3p, 4d and 5f, we have only one node and two
maxima and so on.

Dr. Ashish Sareen

HIS EXCELLENT COACHING CENTRE Pae
No. 12 Ph.D. in Chemistry