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Class9 Morphology 1
Class9 Morphology 1
Arabic Linguistics
علم اللسانيات العربية • Presentations on Monday from Karin Ryding’s
book on verb patterns.
• The book is on reserve at the Davis Library.
• Due to the presentations, I’m extending the
deadline for homework 2 to Wednesday
March 21 in class, or by 5pm via e‐mail.
Lecture #9
March 14th, 2012
Morphology
• Morphology is the study of word structure and
word formation in human language.
Morphology • The main unit of analysis in morphology is the
morpheme, which is defined as “the minimal
unit of meaning or grammatical function in
the language”.
• So, …
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Morphology Derivational vs. Inflectional morphemes
• How many morphemes are there in “open”? • How about “reopened” then?
• One. That’s a monomorphemic or simple Right. Three morphemes: re‐, open, and ‐ed.
word. • Notice that while “re‐” and “open” have meanings,
“‐ed” has the grammatical function of signaling past
• How about “reopen”? tense.
• To distinguish between these morphemes, we say
• This has two units: “re‐” and “open”, forming a
that “open” is the root morpheme; “re‐” is a
multimorphemic or complex word.
derivational morpheme; and “‐ed” is an inflectional
morpheme.
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Not all morphemes are created equal: some are
free, and some are bound
Representing morphological structure
• Another distinction between the three morphemes • In languages like English, free morphemes are typically roots
and bound morphemes are typically affixes and both types
in “reopened” has to do with their ability to occur combine together to form words. But there are exceptions.
alone in the language. • English has some roots that are not free morphemes, e.g.,
• So, while “open” can stand alone in English (e.g., I “kempt” in unkempt
want to open the door), “re‐” and “‐ed” are “luke” in lukewarm
dependent morphemes; they cannot stand alone in “huckle” in huckleberry
English (*I re‐ the door; *I ‐ed the door). • The same can be said about roots of Latin origin, e.g.,
• We call the former type free morphemes, and the “ceive” in deceive, perceive, receive
latter type bound morphemes. “mit” in submit, permit, commit
• These are typically referred to as bound roots.
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Root vs. Stem Representing multimorphemic words
• To make a distinction between the indivisible • We can use tree diagrams to represent the internal
structure of words such as teachers, where we can
root of the word and other parts of the word see the concatenation of morphemes to form words.
that have affixes combine with them, the term Noun
“stem” (or “base”) is used. ru
Noun Affix
• So, in the “teachers” example, while “teach” is ru |
the root that combines with the affix ‐er, Verb Affix s
“teacher” is the base that combines with the | |
plural affix ‐s. teach er
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Morphological trees Types of bound morphemes by position
• Similarly, for the word ‘unhappiness’: • Affixes are classified into four types depending
Noun on their position within the word with regard
ru
to the base morpheme:
Adjective Affix
ru |
a. A prefix is a bound morpheme that
precedes the base, e.g., “un‐” in unreal.
Affix Adjective ness
| | b. A suffix is a bound morpheme that follows
un happy the base, e.g., “‐ing” in reading.
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Types of bound morphemes by position Lexical vs. Grammatical morphemes
c. An infix is a bound morpheme that occurs • Morphemes, whether free or bound, can also be
within the base, e.g., the morpheme “ta” categorized as either lexical or grammatical.
in Akkadian: • Lexical morphemes have semantic content (e.g.,
iʃriq “he stole” iʃtariq “he stole for himself” nouns, verbs, adjectives, derivational affixes). They
d. A circumfix is a bound morpheme that are also called content words.
occurs on both sides of the base, as in the • Grammatical morphemes serve a grammatical
case of the Egyptian Arabic negation function (e.g., articles, conjunctions, prepositions,
morpheme “ma…ʃ”: and inflectional affixes for plural, tense, case, etc.).
These are also called function words.
katab “wrote” ma‐katab‐ʃ “didn’t write”
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Derivational morphemes Inflectional morphemes
• Derivation is an affixation process whereby a • Inflectional morphemes combine with a base
word with a new meaning and typically a new to change the grammatical function of the
category is formed. base, e.g.,
Inflectional affix Example
• The affixes involved in derivation are called
plural -s book-s
derivational morphemes.
3rd third person singular -s visit-s
comparative -er young-er
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Derivational vs. inflectional affixes:
Derivational vs. inflectional affixes
Category change
• How do we distinguish between derivational • Derivational affixes typically change the category of
the base, but inflectional affixes do not:
and inflectional affixes? poison (N) + ‐ous poisonous (A)
• Remember that the main distinction is that refuse (V) + ‐al refusal (N)
derivational affixes change the meaning of the optimist (N) + ‐ic optimistic (A)
base (e.g., create vs. creative), while Compare:
hat (N) + plural ‐s hats (N)
inflectional affixes change the grammatical
look (V) + past tense ‐ed looked (V)
function of a word, but not really its core old (A) + superlative ‐est oldest (A)
meaning (e.g., wait vs. waited).
• Note: N = noun; V = verb; A = Adj.
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Derivational vs. inflectional affixes:
Productivity
Variants of the same morpheme
• A second difference between the two types of • So far we’ve been ignoring exceptions. Time to look at
these.
morphemes has to do with productivity: Inflectional
• For example, the plural ‐s morpheme is actually pronounced
morphemes have relatively few exceptions, whereas in three different ways:
derivational affixes are restricted to combine with (a) [‐s]: cat → cats
certain bases. (b) [‐z]: dog → dogs
• So while plural ‐s can combine with virtually any (c) [‐´z]: kiss → kisses
noun (irregular forms aside), the affix ‐ize can only • Also, not all nouns form their plurals by adding an ‐s suffix,
combine with certain adjectives: e.g.,
(d) one man two men (vowel change or ablaut)
modern‐ize, but no *new‐ize (e) one sheep two sheep (zero change)
legal‐ize, but not *lawful‐ize (f) one ox two oxen (‐en suffixation)
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English Plural Allomorphy
• Since all these cases involve the same morphological
operation of plural formation, we do not want to say that
there are multiple plural morphemes in English.
• Rather, there is only one plural morpheme that can take
different guises. Technically, we say that the plural
morpheme in English has different allomorphs:
(a) [‐s] allomorph: cat → cats
Other morphological processes
(b) [‐z] allomorph dog → dogs
(c) [‐´z] allomorph kiss → kisses
(d) ablaut allomorph: man → men
(e) zero allomorph: sheep → sheep
(f) ‐en allomorph: ox → oxen
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Other morphological processes Suppletion
• Human languages make use of several other • The “go‐went” example is an example of suppletion,
morphological processes. We discuss only four which is the replacement of a morpheme by an
entirely different morpheme to indicate a
of these here: Suppletion, cliticization, grammatical contrast.
reduplication, and subtraction. • Suppletive forms are found in many other languages:
French: aller “to go” ira “he/she will go”
Spanish: ir “to go” fue “he/she went”
Russian: xorofo “good” lutSSe “better”
• Classical Arabic نساءas plural of إمرأةis a case of
suppletion.
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Cliticization Reduplication
• Cliticization is a morphological operation that does not create
new words, but still combine two morphemes together in one • Reduplication is a grammatical operation that marks a
word. grammatical or semantic contrast by repeating all or part of the
• English shows cliticization in cases of contraction, e.g., base to which it applies.
I am I’m we have we’ve • Turkish and Indonesian exhibit full reduplication:
want to wanna Turkish: javaS “quickly” javaS javaS “very quickly”
• French and other Romance languages show cliticization with Indonesian: oraN “man” oraN oraN “all sorts of men”
pronouns, e.g.,
• Tagalog exhibits partial reduplication (take the initial CV of the
Je t’aime. Suzanne les voit.
stem and repeat it at the beginning of the word):
I you‐like Suzanne them sees
lakad “walk” lalakad “will walk”
“I like you.” “Suzanne sees them.”
takbuh “run” tatakhuh “will run”
• If the clitic follows its host morpheme, it is called an enclitic; if
it precedes it, it is called a proclitic.
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Subtraction Where classical morphology fails
• Occasionally, words can be formed by • Suppose we try to do a classical morphological
subtraction, i.e., removing part of the word to analysis of Arabic words, where would that
change its meaning or usage. take us?
• In English, nicknames are formed by • How can we draw a morphological tree for
subtraction, e.g., Thomas Tom. يكتبونor كتابة, for example?
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A different kind of morphology Roots and patterns
• The problem with languages like Arabic and • As a Semitic language, Arabic uses what is called a
root and pattern morphology for its word structure.
similar Semitic languages is that their
• A root الجذرis a semantic abstraction, typically
morphology is not concatenative. consisting of 3 consonants.
• Hence we need a different kind of • A pattern الوزنis a ‘template’ for the root. A pattern
morphology, a non‐concatenative typically contains vowels (called vocalic melody) and
morphology, which is frequently referred to as may also have prefixes and suffixes.
root and pattern morphology. • The placement of a root into a template leads to
word‐formation in Arabic. We will discuss how this
works for both verbs and nouns in the language.
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Arabic verb morphology Arabic verb morphology
ولكنھم سيسافرون،• ھم يدرسون اللغة العربية في ميدلبري • Arabic verbs inflect for aspect/tense:
.إلى مصر ويدرسونھا أكثر ‐ the perfect aspect/tense الماضي
[wayadrusuunaha:] ‐ the imperfect aspect/tense المضارع
• They inflect for subject agreement in
‐ person: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd),
‐ number (singular مُفرَ د, dual مُث ّنى, and plural )جَ مع,
‐ gender (masculine مُذ َّكرand feminine )مُؤ َّنث.
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Arabic verb morphology Arabic verb morphology
• They also inflect for mood: • The fundamental question in Arabic verbal
‐ indicative المرفوع morphology is this: How does a root make it
‐ subjunctive المنصوب all the way from a semantic abstraction like
‐ jussive المجزوم DRS to ?ويدرسونھا
• They can also host proclitics (e.g.,
conjunctions) and enclitics (e.g., object
pronouns).
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Ablaut in Form I الوزن الثانيC1aC2C2aC3 :
المصدر المضارع الماضي الوزن
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مُـفاعَ ـلة يُـفاعـِل فاعَ ـل III إِفـعال ُيـفـعـِل أفـعَ ـل َ IV
مشاھدة يشاھد شاھد أنزل ينزل أنزل
مساعدة يساعد ساعد إرسال يرسل أرسل
معاملة يعامل عامل إشراف يشرف أشرف
إعالم يعلم أعلم
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َتـ َفـ ُّعــل َي َتـ َفـعَّ ـل َ َتـ َفـعَّ ـل َ V َتفا ُعـل َيـ َتـفـاعَ ـل تـفـاعَ ـل َ VI
تعرُّ ف يتعرّ ف تعرّ ف تبادُل يتبادل تبادل
تخرُّ ج يتخرّ ج تخرّ ج تراسُل يتراسل تراسل
تغيـُّب يتغيـّب تغيـّب تعانق يتعانق تعانق )(hug
تغيـُّر يتغيـّر تغيـّر
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الوزن السابعʔinC1aC2aC3 : الوزن الثامنʔiC1taC2aC3 :
المصدر المضارع الماضي الوزن المصدر المضارع الماضي الوزن
انـفِـعـال َيـنـ َفعـِل انـ َفـعَ ـل َ VII افـ ِتـعـال يَـفـ َتـ ِعـل افـ َتـعَ ـل VIII
انقطاع ينقطع انقطع استماع يستمع استمع
انشغال ينشغل انشغل انتقال ينتقل انتقل
التحاق يلتحق التحق
اشتراك يشترك اشترك
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