Foucault pendulum

The Foucault pendulum or Foucault's pendulum is a simple

device named after French physicist Léon Foucault, conceived
as an experiment to demonstrate the Earth's rotation. A long
and heavy pendulum suspended from the high roof above a
circular area was monitored over an extended time period,
showing that the plane of oscillation rotated.

Foucault's pendulum in the Panthéon, Paris

The pendulum was introduced in 1851 and was the first

experiment to give simple, direct evidence of the Earth's
rotation. Foucault pendulums today are popular displays in
science museums and universities.[1]
Original Foucault pendulum

A print of the Foucault Pendulum, 1895

Foucault Pendulum at COSI Columbus knocking over a ball

The first public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum took place

in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory. A
few weeks later, Foucault made his most famous pendulum
when he suspended a 28-kilogram (62 lb) brass-coated lead
bob with a 67-metre long (220 ft) wire from the dome of the
Panthéon, Paris. The proper period of the pendulum was
approximately . Because the latitude of its
location was , the plane of the pendulum's
swing made a full circle in approximately
 , rotating clockwise

approximately 11.3° per hour.

Focault explained his results in an 1851 paper entitled

Physical demonstration of the Earth's rotational movement by
means of the pendulum, published in the Weekly reports of the
sessions of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote that:[2]

...an oscillatory movement of the pendulum mass

follows an arc of a circle whose plane is well
known, and to which the inertia of matter
ensures an unchanging position in space. If these
oscillations continue for a certain time, the
movement of the earth, which continues to
rotate from west to east, will become sensitive in
contrast to the immobility of the oscillation
plane whose trace on the ground will seem
animated by a movement consistent with the
apparent movement of the celestial sphere; and if
the oscillations could be perpetuated for twenty-
four hours, the trace of their plane would then
execute an entire revolution around the vertical
projection of the point of suspension.
The original bob used in 1851 at the Panthéon was moved in
1855 to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. A
second temporary installation was made for the 50th
anniversary in 1902.[3]

During museum reconstruction in the 1990s, the original

pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon (1995),
but was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers
before it reopened in 2000.[4] On April 6, 2010, the cable
suspending the bob in the Musée des Arts et Métiers snapped,
causing irreparable damage to the pendulum bob and to the
marble flooring of the museum.[5][6] The original, now
damaged pendulum bob is displayed in a separate case
adjacent to the current pendulum display.

An exact copy of the original pendulum has been operating

under the dome of the Panthéon, Paris since 1995.[7]

Explanation of mechanics

Animation of a Foucault pendulum on the northern hemisphere, with the Earth's rotation rate and amplitude greatly exaggerated. The green trace shows the path of the pendulum
bob over the ground (a rotating reference frame), while in any vertical plane. The actual plane of swing appears to rotate relative to the Earth: sitting astride the bob like a swing,
Coriolis fictitious force disappears: observer is in a "free rotational" reference where, according to general relativity, non-Euclidean curved spacetime metrics must be used. The
wire should be as long as possible—lengths of 12–30 m (40–100 ft) are common.[8]
At either the Geographic North Pole or Geographic South Pole,
the plane of oscillation of a pendulum remains fixed relative
to the distant masses of the universe while Earth rotates
underneath it, taking one sidereal day to complete a rotation.
So, relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at
the North Pole – viewed from above – undergoes a full
clockwise rotation during one day; a pendulum at the South
Pole rotates counterclockwise.

When a Foucault pendulum is suspended at the equator, the

plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth. At other
latitudes, the plane of oscillation precesses relative to Earth,
but more slowly than at the pole; the angular speed, ω
(measured in clockwise degrees per sidereal day), is
proportional to the sine of the latitude, φ:

where latitudes north and south of the equator are defined as

positive and negative, respectively. A "pendulum day" is the
time needed for the plane of a freely suspended Foucault
pendulum to complete an apparent rotation about the local
vertical. This is one sidereal day divided by the sine of the
latitude.[9][10] For example, a Foucault pendulum at 30° south
latitude, viewed from above by an earthbound observer,
rotates counterclockwise 360° in two days.
Using enough wire length, the described circle can be wide
enough that the tangential displacement along the measuring
circle of between two oscillations can be visible by eye,
rendering the Foucault pendulum a spectacular experiment:
for example, the original Foucault pendulum in Panthéon
moves circularly, with a 6-metre pendulum amplitude, by about
5 mm each period.

A Foucault pendulum at the North Pole: The pendulum swings in the same plane as the Earth rotates beneath it.

An excerpt from the illustrated supplement of the magazine Le Petit Parisien dated November 2, 1902, on the 50th anniversary of the experiment of Léon Foucault demonstrating
the rotation of the earth.

A Foucault pendulum requires care to set up because

imprecise construction can cause additional veering which
masks the terrestrial effect. As observed by later Nobel
laureate Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who developed a fuller
theory of the Foucault pendulum for his doctoral thesis
(1879), geometrical imperfection of the system or elasticity of
the support wire may cause an interference between two
horizontal modes of oscillation, which caused Onnes'
pendulum to go over from linear to elliptic oscillation in an
hour.[11] The initial launch of the pendulum is also critical; the
traditional way to do this is to use a flame to burn through a
thread which temporarily holds the bob in its starting position,
thus avoiding unwanted sideways motion (see a detail of the
launch at the 50th anniversary in 1902).

Notably, veering of a pendulum was observed already in 1661

by Vincenzo Viviani, a disciple of Galileo, but there is no
evidence that he connected the effect with the Earth's rotation;
rather, he regarded it as a nuisance in his study that should be
overcome with suspending the bob on two ropes instead of
one.

Air resistance damps the oscillation, so some Foucault

pendulums in museums incorporate an electromagnetic or
other drive to keep the bob swinging; others are restarted
regularly, sometimes with a launching ceremony as an added
attraction. Besides air resistance (the use of a heavy
symmetrical bob is to reduce friction forces, mainly air
resistance by a symmetrical and aerodynamic bob) the other
main engineering problem in creating a 1-meter Foucault
pendulum nowadays is said to be ensuring there is no
preferred direction of swing.[12]

The animation describes the motion of a Foucault pendulum at a latitude of 30°N. The plane of oscillation rotates by an angle of −180° during one day, so after two days, the plane
returns to its original orientation.

Precession as a form of parallel transport

Parallel transport of a vector around a closed loop on the sphere: The angle by which it twists, α, is proportional to the area inside the loop.

In a near-inertial frame moving in tandem with the Earth, but

not sharing the rotation of the Earth about its own axis, the
suspension point of the pendulum traces out a circular path
during one sidereal day.
At the latitude of Paris, 48 degrees 51 minutes north, a full
precession cycle takes just under 32 hours, so after one
sidereal day, when the Earth is back in the same orientation as
one sidereal day before, the oscillation plane has turned by
just over 270 degrees. If the plane of swing was north–south
at the outset, it is east–west one sidereal day later.

This also implies that there has been exchange of momentum;

the Earth and the pendulum bob have exchanged momentum.
The Earth is so much more massive than the pendulum bob
that the Earth's change of momentum is unnoticeable.
Nonetheless, since the pendulum bob's plane of swing has
shifted, the conservation laws imply that an exchange must
have occurred.

Rather than tracking the change of momentum, the precession

of the oscillation plane can efficiently be described as a case
of parallel transport. For that, it can be demonstrated, by
composing the infinitesimal rotations, that the precession rate
is proportional to the projection of the angular velocity of
Earth onto the normal direction to Earth, which implies that the
trace of the plane of oscillation will undergo parallel
transport. After 24 hours, the difference between initial and
final orientations of the trace in the Earth frame is
α = −2π sin φ, which corresponds to the value given by the
Gauss–Bonnet theorem. α is also called the holonomy or
geometric phase of the pendulum. When analyzing
earthbound motions, the Earth frame is not an inertial frame,
but rotates about the local vertical at an effective rate of
2π sin φ radians per day. A simple method employing parallel
transport within cones tangent to the Earth's surface can be
used to describe the rotation angle of the swing plane of
Foucault's pendulum.[13][14]

From the perspective of an Earth-bound coordinate system

(the measuring circle and spectator are Earth-bounded, also if
terrain reaction to Coriolis force is not perceived by spectator
when he moves), using a rectangular coordinate system with
its x-axis pointing east and its y-axis pointing north, the
precession of the pendulum is due to the Coriolis force (other
fictitious forces as gravity and centrifugal force have not
direct precession component, Euler's force is low because
Earth's rotation speed is nearly constant). Consider a planar
pendulum with constant natural frequency ω in the small
angle approximation. There are two forces acting on the
pendulum bob: the restoring force provided by gravity and the
wire, and the Coriolis force (the centrifugal force, opposed to
the gravitational restoring force, can be neglected). The
Coriolis force at latitude φ is horizontal in the small angle
approximation and is given by
where Ω is the rotational frequency of Earth, Fc,x is the
component of the Coriolis force in the x-direction and Fc,y is
the component of the Coriolis force in the y-direction.

The restoring force, in the small-angle approximation and

neglecting centrifugal force, is given by

Graphs of precession period and precession per sidereal day vs latitude. The sign changes as a Foucault pendulum rotates anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The example shows that one in Paris precesses 271° each sidereal day, taking 31.8 hours per rotation.

Using Newton's laws of motion this leads to the system of

equations
Switching to complex coordinates z = x + iy, the equations
read

To first order in Ω
ω
this equation has the solution

If time is measured in days, then Ω = 2π and the pendulum

rotates by an angle of −2π sin φ during one day.

Related physical systems

The device described by Wheatstone.

Many physical systems precess in a similar manner to a

Foucault pendulum. As early as 1836, the Scottish
mathematician Edward Sang contrived and explained the
precession of a spinning top (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=rtpQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA105) . In 1851, Charles
Wheatstone[15] described an apparatus that consists of a
vibrating spring that is mounted on top of a disk so that it
makes a fixed angle φ with the disk. The spring is struck so
that it oscillates in a plane. When the disk is turned, the plane
of oscillation changes just like the one of a Foucault
pendulum at latitude φ.

Similarly, consider a nonspinning, perfectly balanced bicycle

wheel mounted on a disk so that its axis of rotation makes an
angle φ with the disk. When the disk undergoes a full
clockwise revolution, the bicycle wheel will not return to its
original position, but will have undergone a net rotation of
2π sin φ.

Foucault-like precession is observed in a virtual system

wherein a massless particle is constrained to remain on a
rotating plane that is inclined with respect to the axis of
rotation.[16]

Spin of a relativistic particle moving in a circular orbit

precesses similar to the swing plane of Foucault pendulum.
The relativistic velocity space in Minkowski spacetime can be
treated as a sphere S3 in 4-dimensional Euclidean space with
imaginary radius and imaginary timelike coordinate. Parallel
transport of polarization vectors along such sphere gives rise
to Thomas precession, which is analogous to the rotation of
the swing plane of Foucault pendulum due to parallel
transport along a sphere S2 in 3-dimensional Euclidean
space.[17]

In physics, the evolution of such systems is determined by

geometric phases.[18][19] Mathematically they are understood
through parallel transport.

Foucault pendulums around the world

There are numerous Foucault pendulums at universities,
science museums, and the like throughout the world. The
United Nations General Assembly Building at the United
Nations headquarters in New York City has one. The Oregon
Convention Center pendulum is claimed to be the largest, its
length is approximately 27 m (89 ft),[20][21] however, there are
larger ones listed in the article, such as the one in Gamow
Tower at the University of Colorado (39.3 m). There used to be
much longer pendulums, such as the 98 m (322 ft) pendulum
in Saint Isaac's Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, Russia.[22][23]
 Foucault Foucault Foucault Foucault
pendulum at pendulum pendulum at pendulum
the Musée at the the at the
des Arts et Ranchi California Devonshir
Métiers Science Academy of e Dome,
Centre Sciences University
of Derby

South Pole

The experiment has also been carried out at the South Pole,
where it was assumed that the rotation of the Earth would
have maximum effect.[24][25] A pendulum was installed in a
six-story staircase of a new station under construction at the
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. It had a length of 33 m
(108 ft) and the bob weighed 25 kg (55 lb). The location was
ideal: no moving air could disturb the pendulum. The
researchers confirmed about 24 hours as the rotation period
of the plane of oscillation.

See also
Absolute rotation
 Coriolis effect
Earth's rotation
Eötvös experiment
Inertial frame
Lariat chain
Precession

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Further reading
Arnold, V.I. (1989). Mathematical Methods of Classical
Mechanics (https://archive.org/details/mathematicalmeth0
000arno/page/123) . Springer. p. 123 (https://archive.org/d
etails/mathematicalmeth0000arno/page/123) . ISBN 978-
0-387-96890-2.
 Marion, Jerry B.; Thornton, Stephen T. (1995). Classical
dynamics of particles and systems (https://archive.org/detai
ls/classicaldynamic00mari_0/page/398) (4th ed.). Brooks
Cole. pp. 398–401 (https://archive.org/details/classicaldyn
amic00mari_0/page/398) . ISBN 978-0-03-097302-4.
Persson, Anders O. (2005). "The Coriolis Effect: Four
centuries of conflict between common sense and
mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20140411174448/http://www.meteohistory.org/20
05historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf) (PDF). History of
Meteorology. 2. Archived from the original (http://www.mete
ohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf)
(PDF) on 2014-04-11. Retrieved 2006-04-27.

External links
Wolfe, Joe, "A derivation of the precession Wikimedia
Commons
of the Foucault pendulum (http://www.phy
has media
s.unsw.edu.au/~jw/pendulumdetails.htm related to
Foucault
l) ".
pendulums.
"The Foucault Pendulum (http://www.scien
cebits.com/foucault) ", derivation of the precession in polar
coordinates.
"The Foucault Pendulum (http://www.animations.physics.un
sw.edu.au/jw/foucault_pendulum.html) " By Joe Wolfe, with
film clip and animations.
"Foucault's Pendulum (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/
FoucaultsPendulum/) " by Jens-Peer Kuska with Jeff
Bryant, Wolfram Demonstrations Project: a computer model
of the pendulum allowing manipulation of pendulum
frequency, Earth rotation frequency, latitude, and time.
"Webcam Kirchhoff-Institut für Physik, Universität
Heidelberg (http://pendelcam.kip.uni-heidelberg.de/) ".
California academy of sciences, CA (http://www.calacadem
y.org/products/pendulum/index.html) Archived (http://arqu
ivo.pt/wayback/20160525163952/http://www.calacademy.
org/products/pendulum/index.html) 2016-05-25 at the
Portuguese Web Archive Foucault pendulum explanation, in
friendly format
Foucault pendulum model (https://web.archive.org/web/20
090202075110/http://electron.physics.buffalo.edu/ubexpo/
Foucault%20Pendulum.html) Exposition including a
tabletop device that shows the Foucault effect in seconds.
Foucault, M. L., Physical demonstration of the rotation of the
Earth by means of the pendulum (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20071120202153/http://www.fi.edu/time/journey/Pend
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2000, retrieved 2007-10-31. Translation of his paper on
Foucault pendulum.
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p://tobin.fr/foucault.html) .
Bowley, Roger (2010). "Foucault's Pendulum" (http://www.si
xtysymbols.com/videos/foucault.htm) . Sixty Symbols.
Brady Haran for University of Nottingham.
Pendolo nel Salone (http://www.labtrek.it/libroPF_rid.pdf)
The Foucault Pendulum inside Palazzo della Ragione in
Padova, Italy
Chessin, A. S. (1895). "On Foucault's Pendulum". Am. J.
Math. 17 (1): 81–88. doi:10.2307/2369710 (https://doi.org/
10.2307%2F2369710) . JSTOR 2369710 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/2369710) .
MacMillan, William Duncan (1915). "On Foucault's
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