Blood COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD Blood

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste  a type of connective tissue that consists of a
products liquid matrix containing cells and cell
- Substances flow through blood vessels fragments
- Carry CO2 and O2  8% of total body weight
- Transport nutrients, ions, and water  total blood volume
- Waste goes to kidney  Adult Female: 4–5 liters
2. Transport of processed molecules  Adult Male: 5–6 liters
- Ex. Vit D and Lactate Plasma
3. Transport of regulatory molecules  liquid matrix
- Carry hormones and enzymes that  (55%) of the total blood volume
regulate body processes Formed Elements
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis  cells and cell fragment
- pH: normal limits of 7.35–7.45  (45%)
- maintaining normal fluid and ion
PLASMA
balance
5. Maintenance of body temperature  pale yellow fluid
- Transport warm blood  91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other
6. Protection against foreign substances components, such as ions, nutrients, gases,
- Cells of the immune system fight waste products, and regulatory substances
microorganisms and toxins  contains dissolved proteins
7. Clot formation Plasma proteins
- To avoid excessive blood loss 1. Albumin
- 58% of the plasma proteins
- Makes important contribution in
osmotic pressure
- Transport molecule
2. Globulins
- 38% of the plasma proteins
- antibodies and complement, are part
of the immune system
- Transport molecule
- clotting factors
3. Fibrinogen
- 4% of plasma proteins
- clotting factor
- Clotting factor = fibrinogen converted
to fibrin
- Fibrin – threadlike protein that forms
blood clots
- Serum – plasma without the clotting
factors
FORMED ELEMENTS Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells (RBCs)  disk-shaped, with edges that are thicker
 Erythrocytes than the center of the cell (biconcave)
 most abundant (95%)  shape increases the cell’s surface area
 700 times more numerous than WBC  greater surface area = easier movement of
White Blood Cells (Wbcs) RBC
 leukocytes  can decrease its size to easily pass through
 immune cells  no nuclei
 17 times more numerous than platelets  unable to divide
Platelets  Hemoglobin
 thrombocytes  pigmented protein (1/3 of RBC)
 cell fragments  consists of four protein chains and four
Production of Formed Elements heme groups
 Hematopoiesis  Bright red (w/oxygen); Darker red (w/o
 process that produces formed elements oxygen)
 continuous throughout our lives  Globin – protein chain
*Fetus – hematopoiesis occurs in liver, thymus,  Heme – red pigmented molecule;
spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow contain iron atom (bind to O2)
*After birth to adults – hematopoiesis occurs in  Function: transport oxygen (lungs to
red bone marrow tissues); CO2 (tissue to lungs)
Stem Cells (hemocytoblasts)  98.5% of the oxygen w/in RBC
 single population of cells where formed  1.5% of oxygen dissolved in plasma
elements of blood are derived Carbonic Anhydrase
 differentiate to give rise to different cell  Enzyme
lines ends with the formation of a particular  primarily inside red blood cells
type of formed element  catalyzes a reaction
 CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3
Life History of Red Blood Cells
 Approximately 2.5 million RBCs are
produced every second
 Proerythroblasts
 Formed by stem cells; give rise to the
red blood cell line
Erythropoietin EPO
 released by the kidneys to increase red
blood cell production in the red bone *Dead neutrophils accumulate into pus
marrow
Breakdown of Hemoglobin
 Heme molecules – converted to bilirubin
 Globin molecules – broken down to AA and
reused
2. Basophils
3. Eosinophils
1. Neutrophils
- phagocytize microorganisms and other
foreign substances
- most common type
- small cytoplasmic granules that stain
with both acidic and basic dyes
- nuclei are commonly lobed (2-4)
- remain in the blood for a short time
(10–12 hours)
Neutrophil Basophil
s
- release histamine and other chemicals
that promote inflammation
- release heparin, which prevents the
formation of clots
- least common
- stain blue or purple with basic dyes
- involved in inflammatory responses
associated with allergies and asthma
- stain bright red with eosin, an acidic
stain
- two-lobed nucleus
- chemicals involved in destroying
certain worm paras

White Blood Cells

 spherical cells that lack hemoglobin
 larger than red blood cells
 has nucleus
 Ameboid Movement
 Process of WBC leaving the blood
 cell projects a cytoplasmic extension Agranulocytes
that attaches to an object  very small granules that cannot be seen
 Function: easily with the light microscope
 protect the body against invading 1. Lymphocytes
microorganisms and other pathogens - important in immune response
 remove dead cells and debris from the - production of antibodies and other
tissues by phagocytosis chemicals
Granulocytes - Smallest WBC
 containing large cytoplasmic granules
 - Cytoplasm: thin, sometimes
imperceptible ring around the nucleus
Lymphocytes Monocytes
2. Monocytes
- Largest WBC
- Become macrophages when entering
tissues
- phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, cell
fragments, and any other debris within
the tissues
Platelets
 minute fragments of cells
 small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by
cell membrane
 produced by megakaryocytes
 small fragments break off and enter the
blood as platelets
 preventing blood loss
 contain actin and myosin
PREVENTING BLOOD LOSS
 Vascular Spasm
 immediate but temporary constriction
of a blood vessel
 smooth muscle of the vessel contracts
 stimulated by chemicals released by
cells of the damaged blood vessel wall
and by platelets
Ex. Release of thromboxane by platelets and
endothelin by endothelial cells
 Platelet Plug Formation
 accumulation of platelets that can seal
up a small break in a blood vessel
 important in maintaining the integrity
of the blood vessels
*Low platelet count develop small
hemorrhages in skin and internal organs
 Platelet Adhesion – platelets stick to
the collagen
 von Willebrand factor – protein; forms
a bridge between collagen and
platelets
 Platelet Release Reaction – release
chemicals bind to their respective
receptors on the surfaces of other
platelets, activating the platelets
 Platelet Aggregation - fibrinogen forms
bridges between the fibrinogen
receptors of numerous platelets,
resulting in a platelet plug
 Blood Clotting
 results in the formation of a clot
 Clot – network of threadlike protein
fibers (fibrin) traps blood cells,
platelets, and fluid
 formation depends on several proteins
found within plasma, called clotting
factors
o manufactured in the liver
o require vitamin K for synthesis
 require calcium
Control of Clot Formation
 Anticoagulants
 prevent clotting factors from forming
clots under normal conditions
 can be stopped when enough clotting
factors are activated
Ex. antithrombin and heparin inactivate
thrombin
*Thrombin – convert fibrinogen to fibrin
*Injury site (IS) – activation of clotting factors is
very rapid
*Away from IS – enough anticoagulants to
prevent clot formation from spreading
 Thrombus
 attached clot
 when there is damaged or diseased
areas of blood vessels or heart walls
 Embolus
 Floating break loose thrombus in
circulation
*Thrombi and emboli can cause death if they
block vessels that supply blood
Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
 Clot Retraction
 Process of clot condense into a more
compact structure
 serum, which is plasma w/o clotting
factors, is squeezed out of the clot
 Fibrinolysis
 Dissolving of clot
 Plasminogen (inactive plasma protein)
converts to active form, plasmin
BLOOD GROUPING
Infusion
 introduction of a fluid other than blood,
such as a saline or glucose solution, into the
blood
Transfusion
 transfer of blood or blood components from
one individual to another
 Transfusion Reactions
 clumping or rupture of blood cells and
clotting within blood vessels
 caused by interactions between
antigens and antibodies
 Antigens
 in surface of RBC
 categorized into blood groups
 Antigen A: anti-B antibodies
 Antigen B: anti-A antibodies
 Antibodies
 in plasma
 bind to antigen
 specific – can bind only to a certain
antigen
 Binding of antigen and antibodies
 Agglutination – clumping of cells
 Hemolysis – rupture of the RBCs
ABO Blood Group
 system is used to categorize human blood
 2 types of antigens: A & B
 Blood types
 Type A – has antigen A; anti-B
 Type B – has antigen B; anti-A
 Type AB – has both A & B antigen; no
antibodies
 Type O – don’t have A nor B antigen;
both antibodies (universal donor)
* Antibodies do not develop against an antigen
unless the body is exposed to that antigen
*Donor - giver
*Recipient - receiver
Rh Blood Group
 first studied in the rhesus monkey
 Rh-positive – have certain Rh antigens on
the surface of their RBCs
 Rh-negative – don’t have certain Rh
antigens on the surface of their RBCs
*Rarest AB negative
Hemolytic Disease of The Newborn (HDN)
 erythroblastosis fetalis
 mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that
cross the placenta and cause agglutination
and hemolysis of fetal red blood cells
DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS
Type and Crossmatch
 Blood typing
 determines the ABO and Rh blood
groups of a blood sample
 agglutination identifies the antigens on
the red blood cells
Ex. Agglutination
- YES: anti-A antibodies
- NO: anti-B antibodies
= Type A antigen
 Crossmatch
 donor’s blood cells are mixed with the
recipient’s serum, and the donor’s
serum is mixed with the recipient’s
cells
 no agglutination = safe for transfusion
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
 analysis of blood that provides much useful
information
 consists of a red blood cell count,
hemoglobin and hematocrit measurements,
and a white blood cell count
 Red Blood Count
 performed electronically with a
machine or through microscope
 Normal RBC:
o Male: 4.6–6.2 million/microliter
(μL) of blood
o Female: 4.2–5.4 million/μL of
blood
 Blood doping – intentional process
that serves to increase circulating RBC
 Erythrocytosis – overabundance of
RBC = increased blood viscosity,
reduced flow rates and, if severe,
plugged capillaries
 Hemoglobin Measurement
 Normal Hemoglobin:
o Male: 14–18 g/100 mL of blood
o Female: 12–16 g/100 mL of blood
 Anemia – abnormally low hemoglobin
 Hematocrit Measurement
 Hematocrit
o percentage of the total blood
volume that is composed of red
blood cells
 determine hematocrit is to place blood
in a capillary tube and spin it in a
centrifuge
 affected by the number and size of red
blood cells
 Average size of RBC = hematocrit/RBC
count
 RBC
o Males: 40–52% of the total blood
o Females: 38–48% of the total
blood
 White Blood Count
 measures the total number of white
blood cells in the blood
 Normal WBC: 5000–9000 per
microliter of blood
 Leukopenia
o low WBC = decreased production
or destruction of the red marrow
o Cause: Radiation, drugs, tumors,
viral infections, or a deficiency of
the vitamin’s folate or B12
 Leukocytosis
o High WBC = increase neutrophils
o Cause: Bacterial infections
 Leukemia
o cancer of the red marrow
o abnormal production of one or
more of the white blood cell
types, can cause leukocytosis
o WBC don’t function normally
o Susceptibility to infections
*Excess WBC affect/interfere w/RBC and
platelet formation = anemia & bleeding
Differential White Blood Count
 determines the percentage of each of the
five kinds of white blood cells
 Normal WBC:
 Neutrophils 60–70%
 Lymphocytes 20–25%
 Monocytes 3–8%
 Eosinophils 2–4%
 Basophils 0.5–1%
 Insight in patient condition:
 Bacterial infection = high neutrophils
 Allergic reactions = high eosinophil &
basophil
Clotting
 Platelet Count
 Normal platelet: 250,000–400,000
platelets per microliter of blood
 Thrombocytopenia
o Low platelet count = chronic
bleeding through small vessels
and capillaries
o Cause: decreased platelet
production because of hereditary
disorders, lack of vitamin B12
o (Pernicious anemia), drug therapy,
or radiation therapy
 Prothrombin Time Measurement
 calculates how long it takes for the
blood to start clotting
 Normal: 9–12 seconds
 determined by adding thromboplastin
to whole plasma
 Thromboplastin
o Chemical that starts process of
clotting
 Vitamin K deficiency, certain liver
diseases, and drug therapy can
increase prothrombin time