INNOVATION

CHAPTER 1:
RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN EDUCATION

Research is a systematic process of solving questions and seeking knowledge that has its own
rules, that is, a method.

- WHAT IS RESEARCH IN EDUCATION?

Research in education is directed to the search for new knowledge that is useful for the
explanation and / or understanding of educational phenomena that affect processes and results.

It seeks, therefore, the advancement of knowledge about educational aspects using reliable and
valid strategies for the collection, analysis and interpretation of information that allows solving
problems or specific questions. And this process can be approached from different approaches or
perspectives.

There are many ways to investigate, but not all of them lead to rigorous, valid and reliable
knowledge. It is the method used to carry out research that determines the type of knowledge it
generates, and scientific research leads to scientific knowledge.

Reliability of a source:
For knowledge to be scientific, it must be true for anyone and one way to achieve this is to have
reliable and valid sources of information. The unreliability of an information source will lead to
results that will be inaccurate and the lack of validity will affect the content, which will not allow
us to know if the information we have obtained was really what we were looking for. The concept
of reliability is linked to the control of possible errors that may be committed when using a specific
source or tool for collecting information and refers to accuracy or stability.

Validity in an investigation:
Validity refers to whether the procedure used to collect the information is actually collecting the
data we are looking for and not something else. We will obtain valid information if asking a
question or applying a questionnaire to several people all understand it in the same way and
respond accordingly. On the other hand, it will lose validity if two people interpret the same
question differently.

What is the scientific method?

The method in an investigation is equivalent to the steps or the procedure that is used to answer a
question or problem and describes the process used to obtain the information and analyze it
(design).

The main characteristic of the scientific method is replicability, that is, any researcher who collects
and analyzes the same information with the same procedure will obtain results like those initially
obtained by other researchers. And if this is not the case, it is because the results found lack
reliability and validity.

Method and design are two different but interrelated concepts:

• On the one hand, the method encompasses the entire process that an investigation follows
(also an innovation), from the formulation of a problem or objectives to the description of
the procedure used to achieve them.
• On the other hand, design is a part of the method and focuses on how to collect and analyze
the information necessary to solve the research problem (or how to intervene in an
educational innovation).

Steps in the scientific method:

What types of reasoning are used in the scientific method to produce knowledge?
- Inductive reasoning starts from experience as a starting point. The researcher is based on
the observation or systematic study of specific cases or facts to establish, from the
generalization of that observation, laws or rules.

- Deductive reasoning, as opposed to inductive, starts from general theories to contrast it

with empirical reality, that is, it tries to test those theories with real data. This method
ranges from the general or theoretical to the particular or real and is used mainly in
mathematics.

- The hypothetical-deductive reasoning is the one that is linked to the scientific method and is
a mixture of the two previous strategies (deductive and inductive) and implies that to
generate scientific knowledge it is necessary to go from theory to data and vice versa.
Therefore, from a theory, specific hypotheses can be deduced that must be tested
empirically, or it may be the observation itself that generates those hypotheses that must
also be contrasted with real data.
The type of knowledge generated from the scientific method has the following
characteristics:

• Knowledge is generated by applying the scientific method to the resolution of a problem or

question.
• It considers that real phenomena can be divided into their essential elements for analysis,
known as research variables.
• It is based on the observation of facts, on experience and the measurement of variables and
not on subjective opinions; it is therefore empirical.
• It needs to have reliable and valid sources or tools for collecting information.
• The data and their analysis must be objective, that is, impartial or free from the influence of
the researchers themselves.
• It is replicable and verifiable by any researcher.
• It is under continuous review and progresses when new data and theories are known.
• There is no absolute certainty as to whether you have reached the truth, the conclusions are
provisional. New research can restate those conclusions.
• He has a specific and common language for all who use it and thus facilitate their
understanding.
• The main purpose of scientific knowledge is to offer explanations of the phenomena it
studies based on general rules or laws, from a positivist conception of science.

which, from the field of social sciences and education, has been criticized

The application of the scientific method, normally used in the most experimental branches of
science for the analysis of natural phenomena, to the study of social and educational reality has
received some criticism, mainly related to the characteristics of the context where these events
occur and the object of study:
• Educational phenomena can be determined by the social context in which they occur and,
therefore, trying to establish explanations based on general laws (main purpose of the
scientific method) that are always fulfilled in the same way in all situations is difficult.
• The little relationship between researchers who study the phenomena and professionals
who intervene directly in the educational process, that is, between theory and practice.
• On many occasions the research results are not used or are not applied to the educational
reality. This aspect is determined by the ability to apply the results of research carried out in
contexts that have specific conditions that are difficult to meet in other classrooms or
educational centers. This phenomenon is called a lack of ecological validity.
• The analysis of phenomena as measurable variables can ignore aspects that intervene in
education and that can determine its operation, such as political, cultural and social aspects.
• Research in education is also a systematic process aimed at solving problems, but in this
case, they are problems that directly affect the teaching-learning processes. However, while
in experimental sciences the solution is to establish general laws that explain the
functioning of phenomena, in education it is difficult to find an answer that is valid and
applicable to all contexts. And, for these reasons, other approaches or ways of
approaching the investigation of educational phenomena emerged.

The role of the teacher as a researcher

It should be noted that the educational professional who masters research skills will have
advantages over the rest, since:
 • It facilitates the understanding and study of new materials.
• Increases analysis capacity.
• Increases autonomy in the information gathering and organization processes.
• Increases critical capacity.
• You will have the ability to assess another research.

Furthermore, in the educational field, research finds many points of confluence with innovation,
especially when these processes are carried out in the classroom. There are forms of research that
involve innovation and reflection on practice, and forms of innovation that also require research
skills from those in charge of designing and implementing them. They are processes that
complement each other.

Educational innovation is aimed at the implementation of processes, strategies, ideas, etc., in a

planned and systematized way, with the aim of introducing changes in current educational
practices. Its purpose is, therefore, the transformation of the educational reality for its
improvement, modifying attitudes or methodologies that intervene in the teaching and learning
processes.

When talking about innovation, it is common to come across terms such as reform, change or
improvement. They are concepts that are related to each other, although they have different
nuances:
On the one hand, reform refers to changes that occur at the global level or in the structure of the
educational system, while innovation is linked to a more specific area; For example, a reform would
be a complete change in the curriculum of a stage or course and an innovation would be a change in
a specific aspect of it, such as the method of teaching a subject in mathematics or a program to
integrate students with needs.

On the other hand, change and improvement are consequences of innovation in education.
Innovation produces qualitative changes in educational practices; Any educational innovation
implies change, but not all changes that occur in educational processes can be considered an
innovation. Innovating in education does not mean, for example, just introducing new techniques or
materials; In other words, an innovation does not have to be adequate because it is a novelty but
must contribute to the improvement of the teaching and learning process or solve educational
problems in a way other than that used at that time.

THE ROLE OF AN INNOVATIVE TEACHER

In this sense, the ability to innovate in education is fundamental in professionals in the educational
field and in order to initiate innovation processes in schools, a culture of change and continuous
improvement must be created and, therefore It is essential that these professionals consider:
• The need for continuous learning and improvement of both the organization and the
professionals who work in it.
• Leadership capacity, which will consist of developing good proposals aimed at improvement
that involve the center's staff in their development.
• The ability to build and invest in the development of individual and collaborative
effectiveness of an entire group or organization, to achieve significant improvements.
 • The importance of innovating from the center itself, compared to the incorporation of those
that take place outside, or disconnected, from the workplace itself. Clarity and ease of
access to practices, processes and results.
• The recognition that schools also learn.
In summary, for innovation in education to occur, it is necessary to intentionally incorporate a
novelty to improve some educational aspect, since this improvement implies a change with respect
to a previous situation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION

• Innovation implies transformation and significant qualitative change, not simply

improvement or adjustment of the current system. Not all the changes that are introduced
in the educational system suppose an innovation, for example, a time change or the update
of a textbook. With innovation, there must be a significant change from an initial situation
that influences and improves the educational process and / or results.

• Innovation is not synonymous with invention. An innovation does not have to be

something created by the occasion or something completely new, but its application in
education implies something different from what has been done until now, or it is a new
approach that advances learning.
• Innovation implies intentionality or deliberate intervention. It innovates with a specific
purpose and, therefore, must be planned. A good design of innovation through a project
increases the guarantees of achieving the planned objectives and the expected results.

• Innovation is not an end but a means to improve the ends of education. When you want to
start an educational innovation, there is always the goal of advancing the educational
system, even if it is by adding a grain of sand to the whole.

• Innovation implies an acceptance and appropriation of the change by those who must
carry it out. The level of participation of those who are involved in an educational
innovation, especially those who are the object of the innovative action, can be key to
ensuring that it remains and is internalized. Collaborating in other phases of the process and
not just during action can help to achieve this.
• Innovation is action. Innovating in education acts in a practical and applied way to modify
the teaching and learning processes.

• Innovation is an open and unfinished process that implies reflection from practice.
Innovation in education does not only seek to obtain specific results or meet certain
objectives, but it is also necessary to review and reflect on the innovation process itself. It is
an attitude of education professionals that is linked to the research and evaluation
processes with which to carry out this task.

APPROACHES TO INNOVATIONS

There are different approaches to innovation, but the most widespread is the pragmatic one, which
generates innovations that involve a process of reflection on the practice itself in order to transform
it, considering both objective aspects and the relationships that are established in this educational
context and without losing sight of the role that the school plays in society. This approach is focused
on solving practical problems, and the central axis of the whole process is the teachers.
 • Innovations are defined as processes that are generated from a problem in the professional
practice of innovative agents and that, necessarily, imply its resolution in its development:
principle of problem solving.

• The management of innovation projects must be mediated by a democratic style and a

participatory direction that favors horizontal relationships in a desire for growth and
interpersonal support: the principle of democratic management.

• Innovation is considered a personal experience that acquires its full meaning in the daily
professional practice of those involved: principle of personal experience.

• Innovation is never undertaken from isolation and loneliness but from permanent exchange
and cooperation as a source of contrast and enrichment: the principle of cooperation.

• A good innovation is one that manages to integrate with other components of the
educational or pedagogical process to provoke a synergy that helps educational
improvement: the principle of integrality.
• An innovative system always follows the "bottom-up" direction, since the proposals that
come from outside, without the participation of education professionals, do little to alter
daily professional practice: the principle of direction.

• The innovation proposals are presented as hypotheses for action that can be modified
during the practice itself and not as results that are expected to be found: principle of
character.

• In decentralized systems, a greater margin of initiative is left to individuals, while in

centralized systems there is a greater tendency to impose innovations by the authorities of
the education system: the principle of decentralization.

• It is necessary to take into account the existence of different types of change that can be the
objective of an innovation: substitution, alteration, addition, restructuring, elimination and
reinforcement: principle of objective.

1.2 - Relationship between innovation and research.

POINTS IN COMMON BETWEEN INNOVATION AND RESEARCH

• The need that teachers have for training, resources and new strategies to be able to face
these changes in the educational system. On the one hand, research is useful to build the
new knowledge base that will allow to face the new educational needs more precisely and
will facilitate decision-making; it is one of the two axes of the innovation process. And, on
the other hand, the development of educational innovations through the implementation of
projects is the other axis of the process, the practice that legitimizes research. The
combination of both is usually called R + D + I (research, development and innovation).
• Research and innovation share is their ultimate purpose of advancing and transforming the
educational reality on which they intend to act. The research aims to generate the necessary
knowledge so that it can be used as a basis for innovations in the classroom and, therefore,
the relationship between theory and practice takes on special relevance here.
 • Consider innovation as one of the possible educational research modalities that can be
applied in the classroom. Educational innovations are based on research results, although
not all research in education produces an innovation.
• When educational innovation processes are designed, it is necessary to begin with a
diagnosis of the starting situation. This stage of diagnosis is also a form of research and by
carrying it out we increase our knowledge of the needs of those involved in the process and
also of the aspects of the context. This phase allows to carry out a more precise planning
that increases the guarantees of success of the innovations.
• The analysis of the results of an educational innovation, its evaluation. In order to check
whether this innovation has achieved the proposed objectives, information is collected and
analyzed, either with qualitative or quantitative designs.

THE NEED TO RESEARCH AND INNOVATE IN EDUCATION

The combination of the two processes (innovation and research) will allow us to:

• Intervene from the knowledge of the situation and the possible causes that determine
educational phenomena, since the research allows in-depth knowledge (understanding or
explanation) of a specific educational reality.
• Plan educational innovations with greater guarantees of success by making a diagnosis of
educational needs.
• Carry out more accurate formative evaluations that improve intervention processes.
• Decision-making regarding resources, methods or techniques that are necessary in planning
innovation and facilitating intervention in an informed manner and with an empirical basis.
• The precise analysis of the results of educational innovations, their summative evaluation.

Code of Ethics of the American Association for Educational Research (AERA, 2011):
• Professional competence: the researcher must be prepared to carry out the work and
recognize its limitations. It is necessary to have resources or expert support in order to
develop the actions for which you are not trained.
• Integrity: the activities of other professionals must be respected.
• School, professional and scientific responsibility: the educational researcher must
understand that he is part of a community and will show respect for other researchers, even
if he does not agree with their theory, methodology or activities.
 • Respect for rights, dignity and diversity: the researcher has a special obligation to protect
the rights, well-being and dignity of the research participants and avoid bias or
discrimination based on socioeconomic status, race, etc.
• Social responsibility: of the researcher with the community in which he lives and works.
• Fabrication, falsification and plagiarism: An educational researcher will not falsify or invent
data or results and will appropriately reference any type of non-original information.
• Avoid harm (physical or psychological) of the participants during the intervention.
• Do not exploit other people financially, personally or professionally.
• Confidentiality: guarantee the anonymity of the participants, mainly in the process of
disseminating the results.
• Informed consent: research participants should not be involved without being previously
informed and having their consent.

CHAPTER 2:
TYPES OF METHODOLOGIES AND TOOLS

Population and sample

A population can be defined as a group that shares a characteristic of interest to the researcher; It is
the universe of objects or subjects studied and can be finite or infinite. Most of the populations of
interest to educators are finite, as they are human groups, but they are usually so numerous that
when making inferences about them they can be considered infinite for practical purposes (for
example, if you want to apply a survey on the opinion regarding the educational system of a
country, the population can be considered as infinite).

A sample can be defined as a subset of elements of a population that allows the researcher to
obtain a series of data, to order, simplify, describe or make inferences about the population.

The most important thing to achieve a good description of the variables of interest through a survey
is that the sample is representative of the population. For example: one survey on opinion about
the educational system, all regions of the country in question must be taken into account, people of
both sexes, ages, etc.
To guarantee the representativeness of the sample, there are statistical procedures for its selection
that vary depending on whether the population is finite or infinite.

INDEPENDENT:
An independent variable is the variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to explore
its effects. It’s called “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study.

DEPENDENT:
A dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable
manipulation. It’s the outcome you’re interested in measuring, and it “depends” on your
independent variable.
Example:
You design a study to test whether changes in room temperature have an effect on math test scores.
Your independent variable is the temperature of the room. You vary the room temperature by
making it cooler for half the participants, and warmer for the other half.
Your dependent variable is math test scores. You measure the math skills of all participants using a
standardized
test and check whether they differ based on room temperature.

Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship
among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that
numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set
structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. Like
qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing
theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative or
counterfactual explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the findings.

Some types of methods and instruments:

• Experimental designs
• Quasi-experimental designs
• Non-experimental designs
• Quantitative observation
• Surveys

Experimental design
Involves conducting an experiment. It is the most rigorous form of strict application of the scientific
method. The purpose of the experimental method is to prove the existence of cause-effect
relationships between the variables involved in the research, relationships that can only be
established by conducting experiments under controlled conditions.

The experimental design tries to determine to what extent one or several variables that the
researcher manipulates (independent) are the cause of the changes observed in one or more other
(dependent) variables, attempting a rigorous control of the variables not involved, randomly
assigning the subject to each experimental situation or condition. In a laboratory situation, the
control of the variables could be maximum, but educational research is interested in natural
situations in which the strict requirements of the experiment cannot always be met. They are typical
of medical or hospital studies or the purest sciences in which people do not work, such as physics
and chemistry.

From educational research, it is difficult to isolate the relationship between two variables or set of
variables in such a way that the effects observed in the dependent variables are due exclusively to
the manipulations carried out on the independent variables and not to the presence of third
variables that influence these effects or condition the relationship between cause and effect. In
addition, ethical problems may force the disregard of acceptable control techniques and procedures
in the natural science context.

Non-experimental studies (ex post fact)

The characteristic that differentiates non-experimental designs from experimental, quasi-

experimental or pre- experimental designs is that there is no manipulation of the independent
variable, there is no experiment or treatment. The researcher does not design an intervention that
he intends to apply to test its effects.

In this case, there is still an independent variable, but it is not constructed by the researcher but
rather a characteristic that the study participants, the educational centers or the context already
have. For example, comparing performance results between boys and girls or between publicly and
privately owned schools.

Non-experimental designs are also called post-factual studies, which means after the fact; that is,
the researcher analyzes variables without trying to change the results, since he acts once they have
already been produced.

In non-experimental designs, the researcher measures variables and analyzes results but without
provoking them; for example, analyzing whether having high or low levels of motivation produces
different results in mathematics. To do this, the researcher applies a motivation test and also
measures the results in mathematics. Next, he creates two groups based on their levels of
motivation (high or low) and compares the results that each of them has obtained in mathematics.

Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions
and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively
building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the
meaning of the data. The final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form
of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on individual
meaning, and the importance of reporting the complexity of a situation.

Some types of methods and instruments:

• Ethnography: Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in

which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time. Data collection
often involves observations and interviews.

• Qualitative observation
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Case Studies

In a sense, more insight into a problem is to be gained from mixing or integration of the quantitative
and qualitative data. This “mixing” or integrating of data, it can be argued, provides a stronger
understanding of the problem or question than either by itself. They could be:

- Convergent Mixed Methods Design

In this single-phase approach, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data,
analyzes them separately, and then compares the results to see if the findings confirm or
disconfirm each other. The key assumption of this approach is that both qualitative and
quantitative data provide different types of information—often detailed views of participants
qualitatively and scores on instruments quantitatively—and together they yield results that
should be the same.

- Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Design

 A typical procedure might involve collecting survey data in the first phase, analyzing the data,
and then following up with qualitative interviews to help explain confusing, contradictory, or
unusual survey responses.

- Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods

In this design, the researcher would first collect focus group data, analyze the results, develop an
instrument (or other quantitative feature such as a website for testing), and then administer it to
a sample of a population.

Three Core Mixed Methods Designs

The third major element in the framework is the specific research methods that involve the forms of
data collection, analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for their studies. Researchers
collect data on an instrument. Some examples:
SURVEY

- Survey research is defined as the collection of information from a sample of individuals

through their responses to questions.

- This type of research allows for a variety of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and
utilize various methods of instrumentation.

- Survey research can use quantitative research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with
numerically rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended questions),
or both strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and explore human
behavior, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and psychological research.

Types of questions in a survey

1. Multiple-choice question (Pick one): This is a question where respondents must select only
one option from all the alternatives that are presented to them. This is one of the most
common questions in any survey.

2. Dichotomous question: This is one of the most effective types of questions, thanks to its
ease and speed of implementation, since the participants answer a closed “yes / no”
question. The dichotomous question is used to perform basic validation, such as whether a
user uses your website to purchase a product. Depending on your answer, they may be
directed to another question.
3. Sort order question: With this question it is possible to rank the preferences of the
respondents and the value they give to each of the options. This type of question can be
used, for example, when a sporting goods store wants to know what is the favorite sport of
consumers.

4. Likert scale question: This is one of the most important types of questions, since it allows
organizations to evaluate the opinion and attitude of consumers. The Likert Scale is used to
measure whether respondents agree with a variety of statements, so that companies
understand how satisfied they are with the service of their services.

Types of questions in a survey: LIKERT SCALE

It is used mainly to make measurements and to know about the degree of agreement of a
person or respondent towards a certain affirmative or negative sentence. When responding to
an item on the likert scale, the user responds specifically based on their level of agreement or
disagreement. A fixed response format is used that is used to measure attitudes and opinions.
These scales make it possible to determine the level of agreement or disagreement of the
respondents.

The answers can be offered at different levels of measurement, allowing scales of 5, 7 and 9
elements previously configured. You should always have a neutral element for those users who
neither agree nor disagree.

Advantages of using the likert scale

• It is a scale of easy application and design.
 • You can use items that have no relation to the expression.
• It offers a ranking of the opinion of the people surveyed.
• Produces quality measurements (accurate and minimizing measurement error)
• It allows to carry out the necessary analyzes to achieve the objectives of the
investigation.
• Very simple to answer.

Disadvantages of a likert scale

• There are scientific studies that indicate that there is a bias in the scale, since the positive
answers always outweigh the negative ones.
• There are also studies that indicate that respondents tend to answer "agree" since it
involves less
mental effort when answering the survey.
• Difficulty accurately establishing the number of positive and negative responses.

INTERVIEW

- An interview is a conversation for gathering information. A research interview involves an

interviewer, who coordinates the process of the conversation and asks questions, and an
interviewee, who responds to those questions. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or
over the telephone or internet.

- When is an Interview an Appropriate Research Method?

Interviews are an appropriate method when there is a need to collect in-depth information on
people’s opinions, thoughts, experiences, and feelings. Interviews are useful when the topic of
inquiry relates to issues that require complex questioning and considerable probing. Face-to-
face interviews are suitable when your target population can communicate through face-to-face
conversations better than they can communicate through writing or phone conversations (e.g.,
children, elderly or disabled individuals).

- Types of Interviews
o Structured interviews: In a structured interview, the interviewer asks a set of
standard, predetermined questions about particular topics, in a specific order. The
respondents need to select their answers from a list of options. The interviewer
may provide clarification on some questions. Structured Interviews are typically
used in surveys.

o Semi-structured interviews: In a semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses a

set of predetermined questions and the respondents answer in their own words.
Some interviewers use a topic guide that serves as a checklist to ensure that all
respondents provide information on the same topics. The interviewer can probe
areas based on the respondent’s answers or ask supplementary questions for
clarification. Semi-structured interviews are useful when there is a need to collect
in-depth information in a systematic manner from a number of respondents or
interviewees (e.g., teachers, community leaders).

o Unstructured interviews: In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has no

specific guidelines, restrictions, predetermined questions, or list of options. The
interviewer asks a few broad questions to engage the respondent in an open,
informal, and spontaneous discussion. The interviewer also probes with further
 questions and/or explores inconsistencies to gather more in- depth information on
the topic. Unstructured interviews are particularly useful for getting the stories
behind respondents’ experiences or when there is little information about a topic.

Case study

The case study is a method that uses ethnographic strategies for the study of social settings.

For some authors, the case study is not a methodological approach with its own entity, but rather a
strategy for the design of ethnographic research. However, it is emphasized that one of the
distinctive features with respect to the ethnographic method is its use:

• The traditional purpose of the case study is to know how the parts that form the case, work
to generate hypotheses and reach explanatory levels of supposed causal relationships.
Beyond the different perspectives, there is consensus in identifying the particularity of this
approach in the interest in the case. Its purpose is the in-depth understanding of the cases.

It is therefore important to clarify what is meant by case:

• The unique social situations or entities, whose complexity is of interest to be studied,
constitute «cases».

• In education, it is common for a school or educational center to be identified as a case.

However, an educational program, a teacher or a group of students can also form a case.
The case study is a particularistic method because it aims to understand the multiple
dimensions and relationships that are present in the uniqueness of that case or cases. Due
to this quality, it is common for this method to be used to gain in-depth knowledge of a
center that stands out for performing its task in a "different" way.

Case study: advantages

Case studies offer several benefits in education field:

1. They allow the research objectives to be achieved while helping the participating
centers to reinforce their capacity for reflection and analysis on their own practices.
2. The dissemination of research results can also help other centers to think about certain
dynamics that can be replicated in this context. Sharing the results of these investigations
allows learning that is reached through one's own experience.
3. The possibility of conducting research on a small scale, within a limited framework of
resources, space and time.

Focus group: definition

Some authors consider them to be a kind of group interviews, which consist of meetings of small or
medium groups (3 to 10 people), in which the participants talk in depth about one or more topics in
a relaxed and informal environment under the conduction of a specialist in group dynamics.
Beyond asking the same question to several participants, its objective is to generate and analyze the
interaction between them and how meanings are constructed as a group.
 CHAPTER 4:
OBSERVATION

- Procedures and techniques for collecting information allows to obtain necessary data to
stablish conclusions.
- It is important to select and create well procedures and techniques to achieve quality,
reliability and accuracy in a research.

But before choosing instruments of collecting information you have to know about:
- Variables in a research
- Bias in scientific research (sesgos)
Interview and questionnaire seek to obtain information related to professional, personal or social
aspects of people involved in the research, which are expressed in two main types of data:
1) Sociodemographic like age, academic level…
2) Opinions, attitudes, motivation, personal behaviour…

Mostly are subjective information from a topic or fact

- Advantage from interview: deeply information, face to face feedback
- Advantage from questionnaire: information from a large volume of subjects

- There are many types of interview… we are focusing in research interview. The main
objective is to gather all the information in order to analyse someone’s opinions, worries,
emotions…
 INTERVIEW

- CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD INTERVIEWER (Kewalo, 1996)

o Knowledgeable. – Structure. - Clear

o Gentle. – Sensitive - Open
o Steering. – Critical. - Remembers
o Interprets - Balanced. – Ethical sensitive

QUESTIONNAIRE

Is a key tool for conducting surveys and obtaining conclusions from small or big groups, samples
and population.
Specially relevant in research because you can gather anonymous information.

- Information collected from questionnaires allows for all data analysis, whether qualitative
or quantitative, depending on the degree of structuration and the format of the responses.

It is necessary to create a questionnaire with precision and accuracy. How?

o Creating questions in a clear language. Easy to understand.

o Adapting language to target population (age and culture).
o Avoiding questions that guide to an answer. To prevent social desirability.
o Precise sentences without ambiguous questions.
o Check questions to prevent contradictions and repetitions.
A relevant aspect in questionnaires are the types of questions:
- Closed questions
- Open questions
- Combination of closed an open questions.
 4.3.2. Characteristics of observation

Systematic observation is…

- Intentional. It is necessary to put very well into research what needs to be observed. To
focus and plan the collection of information. (When and where) example: student´s
interaction in a classroom, not when they are on a break.

- Planned in advance what you want to observe. Specific external behaviours, gestures,
actions, words…

- Structured. Using accurate instruments for observation.

- Objective. Collecting facts as observed without modification or adding subjective opinions.

- Recorded. At the same time observation is conducted. Clear and reliable recordings. Using
notes, photos, video, audio recording…