Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Critical review and gap analysis on the use of high-volume fly ash as a
substitute constituent in concrete
Yang Li, Boren Wu, Ruijun Wang *
State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710048, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fly ash (FA) has been widely used in the construction industry. However, its Portland cement (PC) replacement
High-volume fly ash rate is usually less than 40%, and high-volume FA concrete (HVFAC) has not been fully utilized. This paper
Micro-structural properties reviews nearly 180 studies on HVFAC with FA replacing more than 40% PC. Firstly, the micro-structural, fresh,
Mechanical properties
mechanical and durability properties of HVFAC with different FA replacement rates are summarised, and the
Durability properties
differences between Class F and Class C FA on these HVFAC properties are analysed. Next, the performance of
Eco-friendly concrete
Gap analysis 100% PC concrete, low volume FA concrete (LVFAC) and HVFAC in these properties are compared. Compared
with 100% PC concrete and LVFAC, the mechanical properties of HVFAC are inferior at the early age but are
higher at the later age. However, HVFAC showed substantial enhancement in workability, resistance against
drying shrinkage, sulfate attack and chloride penetration. On top of that, the mechanism of adding additives for
improving HVFAC early-age strength are summarised and categorised into three groups: (1) promoting the
pozzolanic reaction of FA by filler and seeding effects; (2) pozzolanic additives have high pozzolanic activity to
produce additional hydration products; and (3) increasing the pozzolanic reaction degree of FA by alkali acti­
vation. Additionally, the economic and environmental benefits of HVFAC are evaluated to develop HVFAC with
excellent strength, high economic and environmental benefits in the future. Gap analysis indicates that future
research on HVFAC should focus on exploring its long-term durability in terms of the resistance of freeze–thaw,
sulfate attack and abrasion to allow for adaptation to various environments and a high replacement level and
achieve the required performance.

1. Introduction as low-volume FA concrete (LVFAC) [8–10]. FA has approximately 55%

Ordinary Portland cement concrete (OPCC) is one of the frequently
adopted construction materials worldwide. 8% of the total annual CO2
emissions are generated during Portland cement (PC) clinker production
[1]. With the increase in PC production, environmental pollution will
become increasingly serious problems. Researchers have been working
on the use of different supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
such as fly ash (FA) and slag, to replace PC [2]. Replacing 50% of PC
mass by SCMs reduces CO2 emissions by 1 billion tons every year [3]. FA
is a by-product of coal combustion. At present, the average utilization
rate of FA is only 53.5% of the total ash [4]. A large amount of unused FA
deposits cause a series of environmental problems and can only be
landfilled or dumped into the ocean [5]. A concrete mix with 100% PC
has high cost and serious environmental pollution [6,7]. FA has been
used as a partial PC additive through ‘direct activation’ using PC, with
adopted replacement quantities set between 15% and 40% and defined
utilization rate for construction application [11]. Improving this rate has
a positive effect on environmental protection. High-volume FA concrete
(HVFAC) consists of at least 40%–50% of FA [12]. The use of HVFA
instead of PC can substantially improve FA utilization rate and reduce
CO2 emission and cost. Hence, many researchers are committed to the
study and promotion of HVFA.
Research on HVFAC has increased and made great progress over the
past 10 years (See Fig. 1). Table 1 shows the advantages and disad­
vantages of HVFAC. Four representative review articles on the perfor­
mance of HVFAC are shown in Table 2. Although these reports included
the fresh and hardened properties of HVFAC [4,13,14,18], the detailed
properties of HVFAC were not compared with those of 100% PC con­
crete. Also, the information about the pore structure and morphology of
HVFAC were not included. In terms of the additives to improve the early-
age performance of HVFAC, some of the more popular additives of
recent years (e.g. GO and nano-CSH) were omitted. Additionally, none

* Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China.
E-mail address: wrj7163@xaut.edu.cn (R. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127889
Received 9 March 2022; Received in revised form 12 May 2022; Accepted 16 May 2022
Available online 25 May 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Publications By Year
120

100

Number of publications
80

60

40

20

0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

(a) Yearly published papers on the use of HVFA in cementitious materials

Publications By Applications
80
Mortar Concrete Paste
70

60
Number of publications

50

40

30

20

10

0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

(b) Breakdown in publications by application in cementitious materials

Fig. 1. Number of annual publications on HVFAC, HVFA mortar and HVFA paste.

had analysed the economic and environmental benefits of HVFAC,
which are important to its industrial acceptance for clean cement pro­
duction. Therefore, a comprehensive review, including up-to-date
HVFAC studies, is important to understand the behaviour of HVFAC,
which will help in promoting the use of HVFA in future research for the
development of economical and environmentally friendly green con­
crete and in endorsing its potential as a sustainable resource instead of
an industrial by-product.
Fig. 2 shows an overall diagram of the review. HVFA will change the
micro-structural properties of HVFA-PC paste and then affect its macro-
properties. Therefore, this paper provides the first review on the
characteristics of HVFA mixture at the microscopic level, including
hydration processes, pore structure changes and scanning electron mi­
croscopy (SEM) image study of its micro-structure. Replacing PC with
HVFA reduces the early-age mechanical properties. As a solution,
different additives have been introduced into the HVFA system [4]. This
paper provides the first summary of the mechanisms for improving the
early strength of additive-modified HVFAC to provide a reference for the
selection of suitable additives to improve the early strength of HVFAC.
The environmentally safety quality and economic efficiency of materials
and products have become increasingly important in recent years
worldwide. Therefore, the economic and environmental benefits of

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Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 1 influence can be attributed to the following reasons: (1) HVFA

Advantages and disadvantages of HVFAC [4,13,15–21]. strengthens the physical filler effect, specifically by increasing the
Advantages Disadvantages spacing of PC particles and the hydration reaction space to fully hydrate
the PC [20,27]; (2) HVFA partially deflocculates the PC particles [22];
Reduced CO2 emissions and cost Increased early-age porosity
Reduced the energy of producing PC Reduced the early-age mechanical and (3) HVFA provides a large surface area of PC particles and new
properties nucleation sites for PC hydration [17].
Increased long-term strength Additional additives were needed to
increase the early-age strength 2.1.2. Pozzolanic reaction of fly ash
Increased workability Retarded the PC hydration rate
Reduced hydration heat of PC Prolonged setting time
Generally, the pozzolanic reaction of FA dominates the hydration
Improved chloride and sulfate attack Reduced carbonation and abrasion process after 28 days [28]. Fig. 3(b) and Table 3 shows the degree of
resistance, reduced drying shrinkage resistance, increased water absorption HVFA pozzolanic reaction. With the increase of curing age, PC hydration
will produce calcium hydroxide (CH), which will continuously react
with FA and increase the reaction degree of FA. When the FA replace­
HVFAC and additive-modified HVFAC were also evaluated. Finally, gap
ment rate increases, the reaction degree of FA decreases due to the lack
analysis on HVFAC revealed the current status and future priorities of
of CH available for pozzolanic reaction [17]. Temperature affects the
HVFAC research by quantifying its current state.
pozzolanic reaction of FA and the hydration of PC. Under high-
temperature conditions, the pozzolanic reaction of HVFA is strongly
2. Micro-structural properties activated, which will consume water and produce CSH to fill the pores
and thereby impede the hydration of PC in the late hydration stage [24].
The micro-structural properties of HVFAC seriously affect its macro- Class C FA (CFA) and Class F FA (FFA) have differences in the hydration
properties. The physical properties and pozzolanic activity of HVFA reaction of HVFA mixture. CFA has cementing property, and its high
have important influences on the micro-structural properties of con­ CaO content and low SiO4 polymerisation degree led to faster early
crete, which is reflected in the hydration of cement, pozzolanic reaction hydration reactions of the HVFA mixture [13]. In addition, the presence
of FA and the heat of hydration. This section will introduce the influence of more inert crystalline phases in the FFA results in a slower initial
of HVFA on the micro-structural properties of cementitious materials. reaction to hydration, but the higher pozzolanic activity of the FFA is
Table 3 lists the main influencing factors (e.g. test method, mix pro­ beneficial to strength growth of HVFA mixture [29].
portion, water binder (w/b) ratio, FA source, FA type and FA replace­
ment rate) on the micro-structural properties of HVFA mixtures reported 2.1.3. Hydration heat
in the literature. Calorimetry is a common method used to evaluate the hydration
mechanism and heat of hydration of SCMs. The hydration of cementi­
2.1. Hydration tious materials is divided into four stages (i.e. initial, induction, accel­
erating and decelerating periods). Wu et al. [30] found that the
2.1.1. Hydration degree of cement exothermic peak value of HVFA-PC paste is the maximum heat flow
In terms of hydration kinetics, HVFA has a delayed effect on PC value in the hydration accelerating period. Fig. 4 shows that compared
hydration rate [19,22,23]. This is because the CSH in HVFA-PC paste has with 100% PC paste, 60% HVFA paste has lower hydration heat peak,
a low packing density and a high diffusivity, which leads to a low Ca/Si and the hydration induction period and hydration accelerating period
ratio [24]. The CSH layer with low Ca/Si ratio will change into a stable are longer, thereby verifying that HVFA can delay the hydration process
CSH layer at a slow rate, and the filler effect is unable to compensate for of PC. Figs. 5(a) and 5(b) summarise the results of peak hydration heat
this situation [20]. Although HVFA retards the hydration rate of the PC, and total hydration heat of HVFA-PC paste based on the calorimetry test.
it also increases the degree of PC hydration. As shown in Fig. 3(a) and The peak and total hydration heat values of HVFA mixtures decrease
Table 3, both the curing age and the replacement rate of FA show a with the increase in FA replacement rate. The decrease in heat can be
positive correlation with the hydration degree of PC [17,25,26]. This attributed to the dilution effect from FA [31]. HVFAC exhibits low heat

Table 2
Properties of HVFAC summarised in previous review studies.
References Micro-structural properties Fresh properties Mechanical properties

Hydration Pore structure Micro-structure Workability Setting time Compressive strength Flexural strength Splitting tensile strength MOE

[4] – – – – – √ √ √ √
[13] – – – √ – √ – – –
[14] – – – √ – √ – √ –
[18] √ – – √ √ √ √ √ √

References Durability properties

Carbonation Abrasion Water absorption and Drying Chloride Sulfate attack F–T
resistance resistance sorptivity shrinkage resistance resistance resistance
[4] √ – √ √ √ √ –
[13] – – – √ – √ –
[14] – – √ – √ – –
[18] √ √ √ √ √ √ √

References Additives Economic and environmental benefits

NS NC NA NT GO Nano-CSH SF UFFA MK Alkali activator HL
[4] √ √ – – – – √ √ – – √ –
[13] √ √ – – – – – – – √ – –
[14] – – – – – – – – – – – –
[18] √ √ – – – – √ √ √ √ √ –

Note:
MOE = Modulus of elasticity; F–T = Freeze–thaw; NS = Nano silica; NC = Nano calcium carbonate; NA = Nano Al2O3; NT = Nano TiO2; GO = Graphene oxide; CSH =
Calcium silicate hydrate; SF = Silica fume; UFFA = Ultrafine FA; MK = Metakaolin; HL = Hydrated lime.

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Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 2. Flow chart of the review.

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Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 3
The main influencing factors on micro-structural properties of HVFA mixtures reported in the literature.
Properties Test method FA source FA type FA (%) Mix proportiona (kg/m3) W/B Ref.

Hydration TGA South Korea Class F 50 50/50/30/170/0/0/0.2 (g) 0.3 [17]

degree 65 35/65/30/170/0/0/0.11 (g) 0.3
TGA China Class F 55 0.5 [25]
TGA China Class F 40 677/451/559/0/0/0/0 0.5 [26]
60 435/650/443/0/0/0/0
Pozzolanic SDM South Korea Class F 50 50/50/30/170/0/0/0.2 (g) 0.3 [17]
reaction 65 35/65/30/170/0/0/0.11 (g) 0.3
degree SDM China Class F 40 677/451/559/0/0/0/0 0.5 [26]
60 435/650/443/0/0/0/0
SDM China Class F 45 372/305/130/0/0/0/0 0.19 [28]
Hydration Calorimetry USA Class C 40 453/252/207/0/0/1457/0 0.3 [22]
heat 70 156/521/203/0/0/1457/0 0.3
Calorimetry China Class F 40 300/200/150/673/658/439/5 0.3 [20]
55 225/275/150/673/658/439/5 0.3
70 150/350/150/673/658/439/5
Calorimetry Poland Class F 50 150/150/150/583/544/816/0 0.5 [34]
70 90/210/150/583/544/816/0 0.5
Calorimetry China Class F 50 225/225/180/1350/0/0/0 0.4 [35]
Calorimetry China Class F 60 221.14/331.71/138.21/621.97/1036.3/15.25/0 0.25 [36]
70 163.25/380.93/136.05/621.97/1036.3/15.25/0 0.25
Calorimetry USA Class F 50 200/200/117.9/0/0/0/3.47 (g) 0.3 [37]
Pore volume MIP South Korea Class F 50 50/50/30/170/0/0/0.2 (g) 0.3 [17]
distribution 65 35/65/30/170/0/0/0.11 (g) 0.3
MIP China Class F 40 677/451/559/0/0/0/0 0.5 [26]
60 435/650/443/0/0/0/0
MIP China Class F 50 225/225/180/1350/0/0/0 0.4 [35]
Pore NAD China Class F 40 677/451/559/0/0/0/0 0.5 [26]
diameter 60 435/650/443/0/0/0/0
MIP China Class F 45 372/305/130/608/927/0/33.8b 0.19 [28]
NMR China Class F 50 633/633/507/0/0/0/0 0.4 [40]

Note:
TGA = Thermogravimetric analysis; SDM = Selective dissolution method; MIP = Mercury intrusion porosimetry; NAD = Nitrogen adsorption/desorption; NMR =
Nuclear magnetic resonance.
a
The mix proportion represents PC/ FA/ water/ sand/ coarse aggregate/ fine aggregate/ superplasticizer.
b
Unit of superplasticizer: L/m3.

evolution, a long time to reach peak and low cracking temperature and
therefore has better cracking resistance than LVFAC at the early age
[21]. The literature suggests that the heat of the hydration of concrete
prepared with HVFA also depends on the type of FA. Fig. 5(a) and
Table 3 depict that the high-volume CFA mixture not as effective as high-
volume FFA mixture in reducing the heat of hydration. This observation
may be related to the high content of CaO in CFA, wherein CaO will react
with water in the presence of CO2, resulting in certain heat release. The
specific formula is expressed by Eq. (1) [32].
(1)
CO2
CaO + H2 O ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅→ CaCO3 + Heat (J/g)
By replacing PC to reduce the hydration heat, HVFA can greatly
simplify the temperature control measures in construction. With this
performance, HVFAC is particularly attractive for mass concrete struc­
tures, such as dams, building foundations and large bridges.
2.2. Pore structure
The pozzolanic reaction of FA in the early stage is slow, the hydration
products are less, and the porosity is higher than that of 100% PC con­
crete at the early age [38]. However, the porosity of HVFAC may be
lower than that of 100% PC concrete at the later age. Poon et al. [28]
reported that the porosity of 45% HVFAC is 1.2% lower than that of
100% PC concrete at 90 days. Replacing PC with HVFA will increase the
porosity of concrete, but this effect decreases with the increase in curing
age due to the pozzolanic reaction of HVFA. Cao et al. [39] found that
adding HVFA reduces the harmful porosity and pore size of HVFA
mixtures at the later age. Fig. 6 and Table 3 show the pore volume
distribution of 100% PC and HVFA paste. With the increase in curing
age, the volume of macropore (greater than 100 nm) in the HVFA paste
decreases substantially. Additionally, the distribution is close to that in
100% PC paste, which is beneficial to strength development. Fig. 7 and
Table 3 show the pore diameter of cementitious materials with HVFA.
The pore diameter of cementitious materials with HVFA is higher than
that of 100% PC mixtures at 7 days and is close to or even less than that
of 100% PC mixtures at 28 and 90 days [26,28,40]. Wang et al. [41]
found that the pore size distribution of 50% HVFA paste is finer than that
of 100% PC paste at the age of 4 years, and more than 50% of the pores
have a diameter less than 10 nm. This trend is due to the additional CSH
produced by the pozzolanic reaction of HVFA, which leads to the
densification of the pore gel [26,42–45]. Narmluk and Nawa [24]
concluded that HVFAC produced more CSH particles and deposited
them onto the walls of large gel pores, thereby potentially narrowing or
completely blocking the diffusion path diameter (See Fig. 8). The result
is a small gel pore size and a high-density concrete.
2.3. Micro-structure
The degrees of PC hydration and HVFA pozzolanic reaction increase
with age, and the pore filled by hydration products allows the structure
of HVFAC to be compact. Previous studies used SEM to observe the
morphology and hydration products of HVFA mixtures and investigate
the action mechanism of HVFA mixtures. Fig. 9 shows the micro-
structure of 40%, 50% and 70% HVFA mixtures at different ages.
Figs. 9(a) and 9(b) illustrate many ettringite (AFt) needles in the gap
between the aggregates of 40% HVFAC, and the number of Aft needles
increases with the curing age. As the most rapid hydration reaction, AFt
is mainly produced by the reaction of alumina (C3A) in FA and gypsum
in PC [4]. Due to the production of more hydration products, concrete
that contains 40% FA produces a denser binder matrix compared with
100% PC concrete [9]. Figs. 9(c, d, e) present a large amount of spherical
FA in the micro-structure of 50% HVFA paste at the age of 3 days,

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Fig. 3. PC hydration and pozzolanic reaction degree of the cementitious materials with HVFA.

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Y. Li et al.
Fig. 4. Heat flow curve of the cementitious materials with HVFA [30].
indicating that the reaction between FA and OPC is slow at the early
stage of hydration, which also verifies the hypothesis that HVFA will
delay the initial hydration rate of cement; when the curing age reaches
90 days, more erosion occurs on the surface of the spherical FA. This
phenomenon indicates that the pozzolanic reaction of FA has occurred,
and some CSH gels have been covered on the surface of the FA particles.
In addition, CH crystals have been found. After 360 days of curing, the
spherical FA was seriously eroded. A lot of CSH gels were found in the
micro-structure of the 50% HVFA paste. No CH crystals were found, and
the micro-structure was denser. This accounts for the higher degree of
FA pozzolans reaction at the later age. A similar result was obtained by
other researchers [46,47]. In Fig. 9(f), 70% HVFAC has smooth or rough
FA particles and CH crystals at 28 days. At 60 days (Fig. 9(g)), most CH
reacted with FA, and no CH crystals were found. And due to the high
replacement rate of FA (70%), CH is relatively scarce and the micro-
structure is looser at 60 days of curing age compared to 30% LVFAC
[38].
FA can enhance the performance of the interface transition zone
(ITZ) between mortar and aggregate and the enhancement effect in­
creases with the curing age. Wei et al. [48] observed the ITZ crack
widths of LVFA and HVFA modified recycled aggregate concrete and
found that the addition of FA reduced the long-term crack widths. As
shown in Figs. 10(a) and 10(b), the ITZ width of 20% LVFA recycled
aggregate concrete is 3.89–7.57 µm at 3 days. When the curing age
reaches 180 days, the ITZ width is reduced to 512–956 nm. Figs. 10(c)
and 10(d) show that the ITZ width of 40% HVFA recycled aggregate
concrete is 6.47–6.5 µm at 3 days, and the ITZ width decreases to
1.09–1.14 µm at 180 days. This may be due to the FA in HVFA recycled
aggregate concrete is not fully hydrated and having fewer hydration
products at the ITZ than LVFA recycled aggregate concrete.
3. Fresh concrete properties
The fresh properties of the concrete can reflect the quality of the
blended concrete. In this section, the effect of HVFA on the workability
and setting time of concrete is presented. Table 4 lists the main influ­
encing factors (e.g. mix proportion, w/b ratio, FA source, FA type, and
FA replacement rate) on the fresh properties of HVFAC reported in the
literature.
3.1. Workability
HVFAC workability mainly depends on the FA replacement rate. As
shown in Fig. 11 and Table 4, HVFAC has a higher slump than LVFAC
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Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
and 100% PC concrete and thus has better workability. Durán-Herrera
et al. [16] found that with the increase in FA replacement rate, the slump
loss gradually decreases. This attributed to the following reasons: (1) the
low density of FA increases the mixture volume [49]; (2) the dilution
effect of FA reduces the flocculation between PC particles [50]; (3) hy­
dration is relatively slowed down due to the increase in FA replacement
rate [22,51]; and (4) FA appears as spherical smooth particles that
promote the bearing effect and reduce the friction between particles
[52,53]. Replacing PC with HVFA improves the fluidity and water
retention of concrete, and the use of 40% FA instead of PC may be the
best value to improve the fluidity [54]. A similar result was also ob­
tained by other researchers [55,56].
The variability in workability at the same FA replacement rate can be
attributed to the dosage of superplasticizer and the characteristics of FA.
Adding superplasticizer can alleviate the drying degree of HVFAC and is
necessary to select appropriate superplasticizer under low w/b ratio
[62]. Excessive superplasticizer can reduce the water demand of HVFAC
to obtain a relatively low w/b ratio and a good workability [15]. Huang
et al. [61] found that the high loss on ignition (LOI) of FA increases the
water content requirement of concrete mixtures with HVFA. A wide
particle size distribution of FA or replacement of PC with superfine
spherical-shaped FA could also increase the packing density of paste and
thus enhance the fluidity [49,63]. CFA and FFA have different effects on
the workability of HVFAC. Ponikiewski and Gołaszewski [64] reported
that the workability of concrete that contained CFA was worse than that
of concrete that contained FFA. This phenomenon may be due to the
relatively low fluidity caused by the high water requirement of CFA
[65].
3.2. Setting time
According to the setting time changes in Fig. 12 and Table 4, the
initial and final setting times of HVFAC are prolonged with the
increasing FA replacement rate under the same normal consistency. The
setting time of HVFAC is prolonged due to the dilution effect caused by
the reduction in active PC and the chemical incompatibility between FA
and PC [66]. Additionally, the setting rate of cementitious materials is
related to the initial porosity of the mixtures [67]. A high initial porosity
requires a high amount of hydrate to change from viscoelastic liquid to
viscoelastic solid [68]. HVFAC has longer setting time due to its high
initial porosity. The type of FA has different effects on the setting time of
HVFAC. CFA concrete has a shorter setting time than FFA concrete
because of the higher water requirement and self-cementing (hydraulic)
properties of CFA [69]. As presented in Fig. 12 and Table 4, w/b ratio
also has different effects on the setting time of HVFAC. The initial and
final setting times of 45%–70% HVFAC increase with FA replacement
rate and w/b ratio [16].
4. Mechanical properties
Given that the microstructure of HVFAC is modified by the pozzo­
lanic reaction of HVFA, which closely affects the mechanical properties
of concrete, this section analyses the effect of HVFA on the compressive
strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength and MOE of con­
crete. Table 5 lists the main factors (specimen size, mix proportion, w/b
ratio, FA source, FA type, FA replacement rate) that influence the me­
chanical properties of HVFAC reported in the literature.
4.1. Compressive strength
Although substituting HVFA for PC adversely affects the early-age
compressive strength of concrete, HVFAC has good long-term strength
and can be applied to practical structures. Fig. 13(a) and Table 5 show
that the compressive strength of OPCC, self-compacting concrete, high-
performance concrete, and engineered cementitious composites mixed
with HVFA at 28-day curing age decreases with the increase in FA
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 5. Hydration heat of the cementitious materials with HVFA. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)
replacement rate. Fig. 13(b) displays the quantified effect of FA
replacement rate on compressive strength and presents a fitted linear
function (Cr is the relative compressive strength and PFA is the FA
replacement rate). At the curing age of 28 days, 40% HVFAC exhibits
relatively good compressive strength. However, the decrease in
compressive strength of HVFAC is greater at FA replacement levels
exceeding 40%.
Some studies have explained the low early-age compressive strength
of HVFAC. The content of CH in HVFAC for the pozzolanic reaction of FA
is insufficient, and the micro filler effect and the pozzolanic reaction of
FA cannot compensate for the dilution effect at the early period [74].
Fig. 14 presents the relationship among the compressive strength, curing
age and FA replacement rate of HVFA. The compressive strength of
HVFAC is lower than that of 100% PC concrete at the early age but is
close to or even higher than that of 100% PC concrete at the later age
[61,70,72]. With the pozzolanic reaction of FA, the difference between
the compressive strength of HVFAC and the 100% PC concrete is
reduced. The HVFA pozzolanic reaction produces CSH gel, which fills
the pores and enhances the later-age strength. In addition, the
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Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
pozzolanic reaction strengthens the contact between PC and FA and
between FA particles, thus forming a densified and homogeneous
HVHA-PC system [25].
The physical and chemical properties of FA and the introduction of
additives have an effect on the strength of HVFAC. According to Fig. 13
(a) and Table 5, the 28-day compressive strength of most high-volume
CFA concrete is higher than that of high-volume FFA concrete, which
is beneficial to the early strength of the HVFAC, due to the high CaO and
SO3 contents and self-cementing properties of CFA. The early strength of
concrete is related by the physical properties of FA, and the late strength
increase is related to the pozzolanic reaction [69]. Therefore, the early
strength of HVFAC with CFA is slightly higher than that of HVFAC with
FFA under the same conditions. However, due to the high CaO and SO3
content of CFA, it has poor volume stability, which is not conducive to
strength development [64]. A high LOI results in high water demand and
a reduced pozzolanic reaction [61]. FA with fine particles exhibits
higher compressive strength than ordinary FA [9,55]. The compressive
strength of fine-grained FA concrete is higher than that of ordinary FA
concrete. Given the low early compressive strength of HVFAC, adding
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 6. Pore volume distribution of the paste with 100% PC and HVFA.

replacement rate is 40%–50%, the later-age flexural strength of HVFAC

exceeds that of 100% PC concrete [57,70,81,83]. This finding can be
attributed to two reasons: (1) the pozzolanic reaction of FA results in the
formation of re-crystallized CaCO3 in the HVFA-PC system, which de­
creases the porosity of the mixture and the ITZ and increases the density
of the structure [58,84]; and (2) the FA particles have a spherical shape
which could act as filler within the micro-structure to enhance the
bending capacity [56].
Statistical regression analysis was used to test the relationship be­
tween the mechanical properties of HVFAC. The characteristic
compressive strength experimental data in the existing research are used
as independent variables to deduce the equations of flexural and split­
ting tensile strengths. Based on the regression equation of the least
square method, the available experimental data are fitted to obtain the
regression curve of each mechanical property relationship. Through the
regression analysis equation, the best fitting is obtained with the mini­
mum variance value of each data point. After obtaining the regression
line, the confidence interval and prediction boundary are calculated
according to the 95% confidence limit. The prediction line should be
within the confidence interval, and each data point should be within the
prediction band [85]. The confidence intervals and prediction intervals
as expressed by Eqs. (2) and (3) [86].
Fig. 7. Pore diameters of the cementitious materials with 100% PC and HVFA Confidence boundary =
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
at different ages. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √ ( )2
∑( )2 √ (2)
Y − Ypred √1 X − Ẋ
Ypred ± t0.05 ⋅ +
superplasticizer to reduce the w/b ratio is an effective measure to n− 2 n SSX
improve the strength of HVFAC [82]. Additives have become the
mainstream measure to improve the early-age strength of HVFAC and its Prediction boundary =
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ⎤ √ ( )2̅
mechanism will be introduced in Section 6. ⎡
∑( )2 √ (3)
Y − Ypred ⎦ √ 1 X − Ẋ
Ypred ± t0.05 ⎣1 + ⋅ 1+ +
n− 2 n SSX
4.2. Flexural strength
Ypred = predicted values of Y (characteristic strength in MPa).
The effect of FA replacement rate on flexural strength is the same as t0.05 = critical t-value at 95% confidence level.
that on compressive strength. Fig. 15 shows that when the FA n = number of data point to predict the regression line.

9
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 8. Illustration of the CSH particle deposition blocking the pore system [24].
X = true value of a point.
Ẋ = mean value of all points.
SSX = the sum of the squares of the standard error of X values.
The relationship between the compressive strength and flexural
strength of HVFAC is shown in Fig. 16. The available data in HVFAC-
related literature are drawn to verify the regression model. Herath
et al. [87] proposed the regression model fr = 0.84fc0.5 based on their
experimental results, whereas other scholars have concluded that the
flexural strength of HVFAC can be approximately 0.405fc0.69 [83]. As
seen from Fig. 16, the proposed regression model equation is fr =
0.272fc0.8094. In addition, comparing the equation with the formula
applicable to OPCC in Eurocode 2, EN 1992–1-1: 2004 [88]. The formula
in Eurocode 2 is located within the boundary of 95% prediction interval
and below the lower confidence band, thereby showing that the flexural
strength of HVFAC can meet the requirements in Eurocode 2. The
application of the standard equations in the Eurocode 2 to HVFAC will
provide a conservative design method.
4.3. Splitting tensile strength
The splitting tensile strength of HVFAC depends on the same pa­
rameters for compressive strength. As shown in Fig. 17 and Table 5, the
splitting tensile strength of HVFAC decreases with the increase in the FA
replacement rate. Atiş [83] and Siddique [57] measured the splitting
tensile strength of HVFAC at different curing ages and found that the
splitting tensile strength of 40–50% HVFAC at 90 days and 365 days is
greater than or equal to that of OPCC. Xu et al. [20] reported the
development of splitting tensile strength of HVFAC is related to its
overall hydration degree. The pozzolanic reaction of HVFA from 90 days
to 365 days improves the pore structure and increases the splitting
tensile strength [80].
Fig. 18 shows the experimental data on splitting tensile strength and
compressive strength of HVFAC in the existing research to verify the
regression model. The exponential relationship fitted in Fig. 18 is ft =
0.3669fc0.6321, which is similar to the ft = 0.6fc0.5 from other scholars
[87]. All points are within 95% of the prediction interval. The equation
in Eurocode 2 is compared with the research data. The formula in
Eurocode 2 is located at the lower prediction boundary, which indicates
that the equation in Eurocode 2 underestimates the splitting tensile
strength of HVFAC.
10
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
4.4. Modulus of elasticity
The MOE of concrete is an imperative factor in examining building
applications and longevity [93]. Fig. 19 shows that the trends in benefits
to MOE are similar to the changes noted in compressive strength and the
MOE of HVFAC decreases with the increase in FA replacement rate and
increases with curing age [55,80]. The 28-day MOE of almost all HVFAC
samples is lower than that of 100% PC concrete, but the 90-day MOE of
some HVFAC samples is even higher than that of 100% PC concrete [81].
Although the MOE of HVFAC increases substantially at the later age, the
MOE of 80% HVFAC is remarkably lower than that of 60% HVFAC [61].
Hence, the replacement level of FA should be less than 80% to avoid the
extremely low MOE of concrete. According to the fitting results in
Fig. 20, the MOE of HVFAC obtained from the experimental data of most
scholars does not meet the design requirements in Eurocode 2. However,
a beneficial side effect of the decrease of MOE may be the decrease of
cracking trend of HVFAC [82].
5. Durability properties
Given that concrete often undergoes durability damage during its
service life, along with the provision of mechanical properties, concrete
structures should be resistant to erosion during their service life. As the
pozzolanic reaction of HVFA modifies the micro-structural properties of
concrete, this has different effects on durability parameters, such as
carbonation, abrasion resistance, water absorption and chloride resis­
tance. Therefore, the durability parameters of HVFAC are discussed in
this section. Table 6 lists the main factors (test method, specimen size,
curing age, mix proportion, w/b ratio, FA source, FA type, FA replace­
ment rate) that influence the durability properties of HVFA mixtures
reported in the literature.
5.1. Carbonation resistance
In general, high compressive strength and a low porosity lead to a
high carbonation resistance [94,95]. As shown in Fig. 21 and Table 6,
the carbonation resistance of HVFAC is lower than that of 100% PC
concrete. Wu et al. [79] concluded that the pozzolanic reaction of HVFA
consumes many CH particles, thereby weakening the absorption ca­
pacity for CO2. Similar conclusions were also obtained by other re­
searchers [96–98]. The low CH content in HVFAC allows CO2 to quickly
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 9. SEM image of the cementitious materials with HVFA: (a) 40% HVFAC at
28 days, (b) 40% HVFAC at 180 days, (c) 50% HVFA paste at 3 days, (d) 50%
HVFA paste at 90 days, (e) 50% HVFA paste at 360 days, (f) 70% HVFAC at 28
days, (g) 70% HVFAC at 60 days [9,35,38].
penetrate into some parts of concrete without CH, resulting in the fast
carbonation of CSH bond and decrease in the Ca/Si ratio of CSH, which
will lead to carbonation shrinkage [18,99,100]. Although HVFAC shows
a relatively low carbonation resistance, 50% HVFAC exhibited carbon­
ation resistance in compliance with the EN 206–1 standard XC1 expo­
sure class [101].
11
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
5.2. Abrasion resistance
Fig. 22 and Table 6 show that the use of HVFA instead of PC increases
the wear depth of concrete. Generally, the abrasion resistance of HVFAC
increases with its compressive strength and curing age. A possible reason
is that the increase in CSH gel produced by the pozzolanic reaction of
HVFA enhances the cohesion of concrete and forms a strong transition
zone, thereby improving the compressive strength and abrasion resis­
tance [105]. However, some scholars have different opinions on the
influence of compressive strength on abrasion resistance. The hydrate
produced in the later stage of hydration of FA does not fill the surface
pores, and abrasion resistance is mainly the bond of surface particles’
resistance to continual or continuous surface friction [15]. Atiş and Celik
[106] found that the abrasion resistance of HVFAC depends on the
flexural strength and proposed that abrasion value has a stronger rela­
tionship with flexural tensile strength than with compressive strength.
Additional studies should be conducted to further verify the relationship
between the mechanical properties and abrasion resistance of HVFAC.
W/b ratio, air content, surface treatment method, maintenance condi­
tions and superplasticizer content all affect the abrasion resistance of
HVFAC [71,107–109]. Adjusting these factors could allow HVFAC to be
applied to concrete with high abrasion resistance requirements (e.g.
pavement concrete, hydraulic concrete).
5.3. Water absorption and sorptivity
As shown in Fig. 23 and Table 6, the water absorption of HVFAC
increases with FA replacement rate. A strong linear relationship exists
between the water absorption and the content of permeable pores, that
is, the water absorption of HVFAC decreases with the decrease of the
volume of permeable pore space [74,110]. The HVFA-PC system of small
pores shows extensive interlinking, and great absorption would occur
due to the capillary forces in these pores [111]. Fig. 23 also shows that
the sorptivity of 40% HVFAC is lower than that of 100% PC concrete;
however, for values exceeding 40%, sorptivity increases with FA sub­
stitution rate because the pores become refined. When the FA replace­
ment rate reaches 60%, FA dilates the voids between PC particles, thus
increasing porosity [76]. Although HVFAC shows high water absorp­
tion, the water absorption of HVFAC is considered good when the rate is
less than 3% and moderate at 3%–5% [110,112]. Therefore, HVFAC can
meet the requirements for water absorption in practical engineering.
5.4. Drying shrinkage
The loss of adsorbed water from the gel particles in the PC paste
causes a reduction in the volume of the paste, which leads to drying
shrinkage of the concrete [70]. Fig. 24 and Table 6 show the drying
shrinkage rate of HVFAC decreases with the increase in FA content.
When the FA replacement rate is not more than 70%, the drying
shrinkage resistance of HVFAC is higher than that of LVFAC and 100%
PC concrete because the low amount of hydrated paste in the HVFAC.
The unhydrated FA may act as an aggregate restraining shrinkage [115],
and FA densifies the mixture to prevent the evaporation of internal
water [13]. Wu et al. [79] studied the change in the drying shrinkage of
HVFAC with age and found that the initial shrinkage of HVFAC is large,
with a fast trend during the first 60 days and gradual slowing down
afterward. Kate and Murnal [116] showed that the shrinkage rate of
LVFAC becomes uniform with time, whereas that of HVFAC generally
increases after 28 days.
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 10. ITZs of recycled aggregate concrete mixed with FA: (a) 20% LVFA recycled aggregate concrete at 3 days; (b) 20% LVFA recycled aggregate concrete at 180
days; (c) 40% HVFA recycled aggregate concrete at 3 days; (d) 40% HVFA recycled aggregate concrete at 180 days [48].

5.5. Chloride resistance Although increasing the FA replacement rate in HVFAC can reduce the
measured value of chloride penetration, this effect only occurs at a later
As shown in Fig. 25 and Table 6, the total charge passed (Coulombs) age and is strongly dependent on the w/b ratio [112].
of HVFAC decreases with the increase in FA replacement rate. HVFAC
with FA replacement rate less than 70% has higher chloride resistance
5.6. Sulfate attack resistance
than LVFAC and 100% PC concrete. In most cases, HVFAC is in the ‘low’
or ‘very low’ category for chloride permeation according to ASTM
Results on the sulfate attack resistance of LVFA and HVFA mixtures
C1202 [118]. The improvement of chloride resistance of HVFAC can be
are consolidated in Fig. 26 and Table 6. The sulfate attack resistance of
attributed to the following reasons: (1) HVFA modifies the pore struc­
the cementitious materials is positively correlated with FA replacement
ture of the mixture, increases the capillary network tortuosity, and de­
rate. HVFAC has stronger sulfate attack resistance than 100% PC con­
creases pore interconnectivity due to CSH formation through pozzolanic
crete and LVFAC [58,120,122]. This finding can be attributed to the
reaction [73,117,119]; (2) pozzolanic reaction products block the con­
following reasons: (1) when sulfate is immersed in concrete, the
nected porosity, reduce the pore diameter of the ITZ between aggregate
expansion products fill the voids to generate expansion pressure; HVFAC
and surrounding cementitious materials and improve the ITZ and the
has large, connected voids to release this pressure [123]; (2) C3A content
compactness of concrete [73,120]; (3) the concentration of alkali ions in
decreases substantially when FA replaces PC, thereby reducing the
the concrete pore solution decreases with the increase in FA replacement
expanding damage caused by the AFt formed by sulfate attack [120];
rate, chloride penetration in concrete decreases with the alkalinity of
and (3) pozzolanic reaction consumes CH and reduces the formation of
concrete pore solution [78]; and (4) HVFAC has a high content of
expansion product CaSO4, thereby improving the ITZ and pore struc­
alumina which increases the content of C3A [105]. Chloride ions can
tures of concrete and slowing down the penetration rate of sulfate ions
react with C3A and C4AF to form stable calcium chloroaluminates and
into concrete [58]. However, when the FFA replacement rate reaches
calcium chloroferrites, thus decreasing the free chlorides available [74].
70%, the sulfate attack resistance of HVFAC is lower than that of LVFAC.

12
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 4 5.7. Freeze–thaw resistance

The main influencing factors on fresh properties of HVFAC reported in the
literature. The F–T damage of concrete is one of the main adverse factors
Properties FA FA FA Mix proportiona W/ Ref. causing structural damage and aging in infrastructure. Incorporating
source type (%) (kg/m3) B HVFA has a double-sided effect on the F–T resistance of concrete. On the
Workability Malaysia Class 40 330/220/176/679/ 0.32 [59] one hand, the filler effect of FA can refine the pores and show better
C 1115/171/5.5 transport properties, so the F–T resistance of concrete is improved [129].
China Class 60 196/294/245/610/ 0.5 [8] Compared with 100% PC concrete, the relative dynamic modulus of
F 895/0/4.9
elasticity (RDME) of 40% HVFAC increased 25.9% than 100% PC con­
Mexico Class 45 204/167/222/0/ 0.6 [16]
F 793/917/0.6b crete after 200 F–T cycles [130]. Yazıcı [75] reported that the residual
60 148/222/222/0/ 0.6 compressive strength of 40–60% HVFAC is also higher than that of 100%
785/883/0.6b PC concrete after 90 F–T cycles. On the other hand, due to the slow
75 93/278/222/0/ 0.6 hydration rate and low strength of HVFAC at the early stage of F–T cycle,
794/886/0.6b
India Class 40 240/160/160/614/ 0.5 [57]
it is easier to lose water and the surface layer is prone to degradation,
F 1224/0/2.5b thus decreasing the F–T resistance [131,132]. The residual compressive
45 220/180/164/610/ 0.5 strength and RDME of HVFAC are lower than 100% PC concrete after
1226/0/2.6b 300 F–T cycles [8,80,110]. These two aspects have led to discrepancies
50 200/200/160/616/ 0.5
in the experimental results of scholars on the F-T resistance of HVFA
1225/0/2.7b
Malaysia Class 40 252/168/185/0/ 0.44 [58] mixtures, as shown in Fig. 27 and Table 6. The different types of FA will
F 994/815/2.94b affect the F-T resistance of HVFAC. Pushpalal et al. [124] reported that
50 210/210/185/0/ 0.44 CFA is conducive to the formation of Aft, which will clog the entrained
994/815/2.94b air void system. Therefore, the F-T resistance of high-volume FFA con­
60 168/252/185/0/ 0.44
crete is better than that of high-volume CFA concrete. More studies
994/815/2.94b
Australia Class 40 240/160/163/684/ 0.41 [60] should be carried out to further verify the effects of HVFA on the F–T
F 1184/0/0 resistance of cementitious materials.
60 160/240/163/684/ 0.41
1184/0/0
China Class 40 168/112/157/802/ 0.56 [61]
6. Mechanism of adding additives to improve early-age strength
F 1041/0/2.1b of HVFAC
60 112/168/124/801/ 0.44
1106/0/3.9b Due to the low early-age strength of HVFA mixtures, additives are
80 112/448/150/418/ 0.27
generally used to improve the early-age performance of HVFA mixtures.
1101/0/3.7b
Setting Mexico Class 45 204/167/222/0/ 0.6 [16] In general, the mechanism of additives improving the early-age strength
time F 793/917/0.6b of HVFAC can be divided into three categories: (1) promoting the
60 148/222/222/0/ 0.6 pozzolanic reaction of FA by filler and seeding effects; (2) pozzolanic
785/883/0.6b additives have the high pozzolanic activity to produce additional hy­
75 93/278/222/0/ 0.6
dration products; and (3) increasing the pozzolanic reaction degree of
794/886/0.6b
China Class 60 221.14/331.71/ 0.25 [36] FA by alkali activation. Table 7 summarizes the 28-day compressive
F 138.21/621.97/ strength of HVFA mixtures modified by different additives based on the
1036.3/15.25/0 three mechanisms.
70 163.25/380.93/ 0.25
136.05/621.97/
1036.3/15.25/0 6.1. Filler and seeding effects
China Class 40 168/112/157/802/ 0.56 [61]
F 1041/0/2.1b
60 112/168/124/801/ 0.44 Nanoparticles and SCMs (e.g. SF, UFFA and MK) have smaller par­
1106/0/3.9b ticle sizes and higher surface area than FA (Fig. 28). On the one hand,
70 112/448/150/418/ 0.27 they can promote hydration reaction. On the other hand, they can fill the
1101/0/3.7b internal pore of HVFAC and increase its strength. In addition, these
Note: additives can provide additional surface area for the deposition of hy­
a
The mix proportion represents PC/ FA/ water/ sand/ coarse aggregate/ fine drates in the gap solution by seeding effect, thereby further promoting
aggregate/ superplasticizer. the hydration of PC and the pozzolanic reaction of HVFA. This effect
b
Unit of superplasticizer: L/m3. increases the hydration products of the paste and decreases the con­
nectivity of the holes, thus increasing the early compressive strength of
The micro-structure of HVFA mixtures is not compact enough, and its HVFAC.
addition reduces the effectiveness of calcium required for gypsum for­ As shown in Table 7, the addition of 0.5% NC to 40% HVFAC resulted
mation after sulfate attack [98]. The type of FA affects the sulfate attack in a 0.69% increase in 28-day compressive strength, but the 3% NC
resistance of HVFA mixtures. The high CaO and SO3 contents in CFA modified HVFAC showed a 12.8% decrease in strength. NC can improve
enable it produce more CaSO4 in sulfate-rich environment, which ex­ the micro-structure of HVFA mixtures due to its very high surface area
pands the volume and is detrimental to sulfate attack resistance [124]. [134]. However, the NC content must not be extremely high because the
Sahoo and Mahapatra [125] reported that a replacement level of 30% or agglomeration of NC particles caused by the high van der Waals force
higher for FFA and 75% or higher for CFA was recommended when could lead to the poor dispersion of NC in the HVFA mixture [4]. Shaikh
using FA to improve the sulfate attack resistance of concrete. and Supit [60] reported that NS had a higher specific surface area than
NC and was more effective in increasing HVFAC strength. Roychand

13
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 11. Slump test results of 100% PC concrete, LVFAC and HVFAC.
Fig. 12. Setting time of 100% PC concrete and HVFAC.
et al. [135] found that NS with its amorphous nature and small size
produces additional CSH gels, but too high NS content is detrimental to
the strength development of HVFAC. Kumari et al. [136] reported that
the filler effect was improved with the increment of NT, which was
responsible for the increase in HVFAC strength. Adding 0.01%–0.2% GO
to 60% HVFA mixtures increased its 28-day compressive strength by
5.7%–19.3% [137]. On the one hand, the pozzolanic reaction degree of
FA can be increased through the nucleation of GO [107]. On the other
hand, the addition of GO into the HVFA mixture can also refine CH
crystals [10]. Additionally, the high-density region of CSH becomes
highly compact after GO nanosheets are added, resulting in hydration
products with complex woven structures [137]. SF particles have a high
specific surface area which can provide nucleation sites for the hydra­
tion of HVFAC and increase the hydration products [108,138]. UFFA
accelerates the pozzolanic reaction due to its small particle size and high
amorphous content [139]. Replacing FA with 8% UFFA results in a
2.8%–28.6% increase in the 28-day compressive strength of HVFA
mortar [140]. Rashad and Ouda [141] reported that MK can be used as a
filler embedded in the pores of HVFA mixtures to strengthen the binding
14
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
Initial setting time
Final setting time
of the matrix. In recent years, some researchers have used nano-CSH
seeds to improve the early strength of HVFA mixture. Zhou et al.
[142] tested the 28-day compressive strength of 60% HVFAC modified
with 0.5%–1.5% nano-CSH, and they found that the 1% nano-CSH
modified 60% HVFAC had the highest 28-day compressive strength,
which was 7.8% higher than that of 60% HVFAC. Strength is increased
because of the filler and seeding effects of nano-CSH. Nano-CSH fills the
free zone between PC and FA particles, accelerates hydration reaction
and forms CSH gel [143]. Similar findings were reported by Szostak and
Golewski et al. [144–146].
6.2. Pozzolanic reaction
Pozzolanic additives (e.g. SF, NS and MK) have high pozzolanic ac­
tivity to accelerate hydration and generate additional CSH gels for the
early strength enhancement of HVFAC. A conceptual model for the hy­
dration of PC, FA, and nanoparticles is depicted in Fig. 29. PC-FA-NS
mixtures undergo early hydration reactions with the least amount of
CH, the most hydration products and the most complex pore structures.
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 5
The main influencing factors on mechanical properties of HVFAC reported in the literature.
Properties Specimen size FA source FA type FA (%) Mix proportiona (kg/m3) W/B Ref.

Compressive Cube 100 Malaysia Class C 40 330/220/176/679/1115/171/5.5 0.32 [59]

Strength Cylinder 100*200 USA Class C 50 180/226/136/655/1139/0/2.7b 0.33 [71]
70 110/316/155/606/1145/0/2.6b 0.36
Cylinder 150*300 USA Class C 40 229/154/115/827/1040/0/2.8b 0.3 [72]
50 195/199/120/854/1041/0/2.7b 0.3
60 155/237/116/842/1016/0/2.1b 0.3
Cube 100 Thailand Class C 50 300/300/180/0/595/958/1.5 0.3 [74]
60 240/360/180/0/595/933/1.02 0.3
70 180/420/180/0/595/908/0.72 0.3
Cylinder 100*200 Turkey Class C 40 360/240/165/837/735/0/19.98 0.3 [75]
50 300/300/165/825/723/0/20.4 0.3
60 240/360/165/815/712/0/22.02 0.3
Cylinder 150*300 USA Class C 50 180/226/135/665/1138/0/2.7b 0.33 [80]
70 110/316/155/607/1146/0/2.6b 0.36
Cube 100 China Class F 60 196/294/245/610/895/0/4.9 0.5 [8]
Cylinder 100*200 Australia Class F 40 240/160/140/0/1200/700/4 0.35 [9]
Cylinder 100*200 Mexico Class F 45 204/167/222/0/793/917/0.6b 0.6 [16]
60 148/222/222/0/785/883/0.6b 0.6
75 93/278/222/0/794/886/0.6b 0.6
Cube 100 China Class F 40 300/200/150/673/658/439/5 0.3 [20]
55 225/275/150/673/658/439/5 0.3
70 150/350/150/673/658/439/5 0.3
Cylinder 100*200 Australia Class F 40 240/160/163/684/1184/0/0 0.41 [60]
60 160/240/163/684/1184/0/0 0.41
China Class F 40 168/112/157/802/1041/0/2.1b 0.56 [61]
60 112/168/124/801/1106/0/3.9b 0.44
80 112/448/150/418/1101/0/3.7b 0.27
Cube 100 India Class F 40 240/160/160/643/1270/0/0 0.4 [70]
50 200/200/160/533/1270/0/0 0.4
60 160/240/160/522/1270/0/0 0.4
Cylinder 100*200 Turkey Class F 50 250/250/175/0/803/788/0.15 0.35 [73]
70 150/350/175/0/785/770/0.09 0.35
90 50/450/175/0/766/752/0 0.35
Cube 100 UK Class F 40 333/162/173/0/924/743/3.71 0.35 [76]
60 225/247/170/0/924/743/3.21 0.36
80 115/336/167/0/924/743/2.93 0.37
Cylinder 150*300 Thailand Class F 40 375/125/200/983/704/0/1b 0.4 [77]
60 200/300/200/983/704/0/0.75b 0.4
Cylinder 100*200 Turkey Class F 40 300/200/173.5/0/613/927/6.75 0.35 [78]
50 250/250/173.5/0/608/920/6.75 0.35
60 200/300/173.5/0/603/912/6.75 0.35
70 150/350/173.5/0/597/902/6.75 0.35
China Class F 50 275/275/165/679/774/332/11 0.3 [79]
60 220/330/165/679/774/332/11 0.3
70 165/385/165/679/774/332/11 0.3
Flexural Prism 75*100*400 USA Class C 40 220/182/150/659/1153/0/2.7b 0.37 [80]
strength 50 180/226/135/665/1138/0/2.7b 0.33
70 110/316/155/607/1146/0/2.6b 0.36
Prism 100*100*350 UK Class F 50 194/194/146/0/1165/766/7.76 0.35 [15]
60 153/230/146/0/1149/766/7.66 0.38
Prism 101.4*101.4*508 India Class F 40 240/160/160/614/1224/0/2.5b 0.5 [57]
45 220/180/164/610/1226/0/2.6b 0.5
50 200/200/160/616/1225/0/2.7b 0.5
China Class F 40 168/112/157/802/1041/0/2.1b 0.56 [61]
60 112/168/124/801/1106/0/3.9b 0.44
80 112/448/150/418/1101/0/3.7b 0.27
Prism 100*100*500 India Class F 40 240/160/160/643/1270/0/0 0.4 [70]
50 200/200/160/533/1270/0/0 0.4
60 160/240/160/522/1270/0/0 0.4
Prism 100*100*500 Turkey Class F 50 200/200/116/600/1200/0/0 0.29 [83]
70 120/280/120/600/1200/0/0 0.3
Splitting Cylinder 100*200 Turkey Class C 40 360/240/165/837/735/0/19.98 0.3 [75]
tensile 50 300/300/165/825/723/0/20.4 0.3
strength 60 240/360/165/815/712/0/22.02 0.3
Prism 100*100*350 UK Class F 50 194/194/146/0/1165/766/7.76 0.35 [15]
60 153/230/146/0/1149/766/7.66 0.38
Cube 100 China Class F 40 300/200/150/673/658/439/5 0.3 [20]
55 225/275/150/673/658/439/5 0.3
70 150/350/150/673/658/439/5 0.3
Cylinder 150*300 India Class F 40 240/160/160/614/1224/0/2.5b 0.5 [57]
45 220/180/164/610/1226/0/2.6b 0.5
50 200/200/160/616/1225/0/2.7b 0.5
Cube 100 UK Class F 40 333/162/173/0/924/743/3.71 0.35 [76]
60 225/247/170/0/924/743/3.21 0.36
(continued on next page)

15
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 5 (continued )
Properties Specimen size FA source FA type FA (%) Mix proportiona (kg/m3) W/B Ref.

80 115/336/167/0/924/743/2.93 0.37
Cylinder 100*200 Turkey Class F 40 300/200/173.5/0/613/927/6.75 0.35 [78]
50 250/250/173.5/0/608/920/6.75 0.35
60 200/300/173.5/0/603/912/6.75 0.35
70 150/350/173.5/0/597/902/6.75 0.35
Cylinder 150*300 Turkey Class F 50 200/200/116/600/1200/0/0 0.29 [83]
70 120/280/120/600/1200/0/0 0.3
MOE Cylinder 100*200 Turkey Class C 40 360/240/165/837/735/0/19.98 0.3 [75]
50 300/300/165/825/723/0/20.4 0.3
60 240/360/165/815/712/0/22.02 0.3
Cylinder 150*300 USA Class C 40 220/182/150/659/1153/0/2.7b 0.37 [80]
50 180/226/135/665/1138/0/2.7b 0.33
70 110/316/155/607/1146/0/2.6b 0.36
Cylinder 150*300 India Class F 40 240/160/160/614/1224/0/2.5b 0.5 [57]
45 220/180/164/610/1226/0/2.6b 0.5
50 200/200/160/616/1225/0/2.7b 0.5
China Class F 40 168/112/157/802/1041/0/2.1b 0.56 [61]
60 112/168/124/801/1106/0/3.9b 0.44
80 112/448/150/418/1101/0/3.7b 0.27
Cube 100 UK Class F 40 333/162/173/0/924/743/3.71 0.35 [76]
60 225/247/170/0/924/743/3.21 0.36
80 115/336/167/0/924/743/2.93 0.37

Note:
a
The mix proportion represents PC/ FA/ water/ sand/ coarse aggregate/ fine aggregate/ superplasticizer.
b
Unit of superplasticizer: L/m3.

This phenomenon was due to NS itself participating in the pozzolanic
reaction, consuming more CH and producing more CSH. Although the
NT in the PC-FA-NT mixture only has filler and seeding effects, fewer
hydration products were generated relative to the PC-FA-NS mixture.
However, some studies have shown that the high content of NS will
cause the shortage of CH and inhibit the pozzolanic reaction of FA
[13,135]. It is necessary to control the dosage of NS. Generally, the
dosage of NS should not exceed 5%. NA can also produce pozzolanic
reaction. After mixing NA with the HVFA mixture, the number of hy­
dration products, such as CSH and calcium aluminosilicate hydrate,
increases. Nonetheless, the NA dosage higher than 2.5% will form a
large number of Al(OH)3 gel, thereby inhibiting the hydration/pozzo­
lanic reaction in the PC matrix, which is highly detrimental in strength
development. SF has an active pozzolanic effect, when SF is used to
replace PC, the replacement rate should not be extremely large [108].
The addition of 22.5%–30% SF resulted in a 14.3%–23.4% decrease in
the 28-day compressive strength of 40% HVFAC due to the shortage of
CH for pozzolanic reaction [59]. Owing to the high content of SiO2 and
Al2O3 in MK, it can react violently with CH to increase the amount of
hydration products and thus the compressive strength [147].
6.3. Alkali activation
Alkali-activated FA is a common method used to enhance the early
strength of HVFAC. Alkali activators perform a dual function in
enhancing the early-age strength of HVFAC by increasing the pozzolanic
reaction degree of FA and generating additional AFt. Na2SO4 is usually
used as an alkali activator. After adding Na2SO4, it will react with CH to
increase the pH value of the solution. The specific formula is expressed
by Eqs. (4) and (5) [149,150].
Na2SO4+CH+2H2O→CaSO4⋅H2O+2NaOH (4)
3Na2SO4+6CH+2Al(OH)3+36H2O→Ettringite+6NaOH (5)
Increasing the pH value facilitates the dissolution of FA and accel­
erates its pozzolanic reaction, which is beneficial in increasing strength.
In addition, sulfate can accelerate the hydration of alite compounds from
PC and the early precipitation of the expansive crystals of AFt [151]. The
Fe2O3 content in FA influences the effect of Na2SO4 on improving the
compressive strength of HVFAC, that is, its high content (9.77%–
10.21%) is not conducive to the improvement of the strength of Na2SO4-
modified HVFAC [152,153]. Nguyen [151] also concluded that the
improved 28-day compressive strength of gypsum-modified HVFA
mixtures can be attributed to the accelerated hydration of alite com­
pound and the early precipitation of AFt expansion crystal in PC. CaSO4
addition leads to the formation of a large number of AFt, which reduces
the pore size and porosity, the main reasons for the high early-age
strength of activated HVFA mortar [154]. Solid Aft and CSH
contribute to the early strength development of HVFAC. In addition,
adding HL to HVFA mixtures positively contributes to the promotion of
compressive strength. HL supply extra CH for the pozzolanic reaction of
FA, thus increasing the degree of FA reaction [4,155].
7. Economic and environmental benefits
Given that a large amount of CO2 released from the wide use of PC
causes the ‘greenhouse effect’, reducing the amount of PC and control­
ling CO2 emission are the main goals of governments worldwide. Table 8
shows the CO2 emissions and cost of concrete materials. In the concrete
industry, the replacement of PC with high-volume SCMs is the most
practical and economical way to reduce CO2 emissions [162]. It is
necessary to carry out an environmental impact assessment of alterna­
tive cement materials to analyse their potential advantages and disad­
vantages [163]. FA is regarded as a waste, its CO2 emission is lower than
that of PC, and its cost is 3.7 times lower than that of PC [164]. The
appropriate HVFA blend design for a specific construction project can be
determined by optimizing strength requirements, emission characteris­
tics and life cycle costs [6]. Economic and environmental benefits are a
key indicator of the preparation and application of HVFA. Table 9
summarises the economic and environmental benefits of HVFA. The CO2
emission and cost reduction rates of HVFAC are positively correlated
with FA replacement rate. Concrete mixed with HVFA is 30%–60% of
the total CO2 emissions of 100 PC concrete and reduces the cost to 56–92
$/t [114]. The current utilisation of FA as a partial replacement for PC in
mortar/concrete is typically around 30 wt% [165]. The 50%–70%
HVFAC has 28.2–56.3% lower CO2 emissions and costs 17.7–35.1% less
than the 30% LVFAC [166]. Compared with 100% PC concrete and
LVFAC, HVFAC has advantages in terms of economic and environmental
benefits and thus can be widely developed and utilized as sustainable
eco-friendly concrete.
The addition of additives can improve the micro-structure and early-

16
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 13. Variation of 28-day compressive strength of with FA replacement level.

17
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Variation of compressive strength of with FA replacement level and curing age.
Fig. 15. Variation of flexural strength of with FA replacement level and curing age.
age strength of HVFAC, which has attracted worldwide attention in
recent years. Golewski [173] concluded that green that concrete con­
tained SCMs and nanoparticles could be a useful alternative to 100% PC
concretes covering the technical and environmental aspects. The eco­
nomic and environmental benefits of additive-modified HVFAC were
studied, and the results are shown in Table 9. Nie et al. [174] concluded
that MK modified HVFAC was feasible in economy and environment.
Compared with 100% PC concrete, 10%–20% MK modified HVFAC can
reduce CO2 emissions by 55.8%–56.3% without any significant increase
in cost. The addition of EM and HVFA generates sustainable concrete
with many environmental benefits such as reducing CO2 emissions,
saving costs and energy, reducing pollution and hazards of waste [7].
Additionally, HL-modified HVFAC also maintains low CO2 emissions
while reducing costs. However, the addition of MS or NS into HVFAC
incurred high costs possible due to the small scale of production.
Laboratory-scale material production is not conducive to cost reduction;
18
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
large-scale production, efficient preparation technology and batch pro­
duction will further improve these economic and environmental benefits
[6]. In conclusion, HVFAC has good economic and environmental ben­
efits, and additives have varying effects on the economic and environ­
mental benefits of HVFAC.
8. Gap analysis of results and future recommendation
To help the reader better understand the progress of research on
various aspects of HVFAC and to identify future research needs, a gap
analysis is presented. Gap analysis measured by the frequency (number
of studies), and quality (importance of previous research). It is essential
to differentiate between the two measures. Therefore, the subjectivity of
evaluating these studies should not be overridden. Given the relatively
limited research on HVFA, this evaluation is particularly critical. Some
references reported only the data obtained from laboratory tests and
Y. Li et al.
y x
Fig. 16. Relationship between 28-day compressive strength and 28-day flexural strength. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)
Fig. 17. Variation of splitting tensile strength of with FA replacement level and curing age.
lack an in-depth understanding or discussion of the variation and
dispersion of the results. Conclusions for the properties of HVFA mix­
tures should be further studied to assess their effectiveness. Such gap
analysis may not be comprehensive, but should be indicative [178].
Based on the aspects and characteristics listed in Table 10, the cur­
rent availability of HVFA mixtures is shown. Two criteria were used to
assess the research being reviewed: availability and importance. Hence,
80 studies were scored using the five-point Licht scale. Availability or
lack thereof of data (R1) was scored according to the number of available
studies relevant to the particular aspect: 1 potint (50–80 studies) in­
dicates widely available, 2 points (31–50 studies) and 3 points (21–30
studies) indicates sparse, 4 points (11–20 studies) and 5 points (0–10
studies) denotes scarce or unavailable. The importance of previous
19
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
y x
R
studies (R2) was scored in reverse with R1: 1 point is the aspect provides
additional information on the use of HVFA mixtures but has little impact
on their use in practical projects, 5 points denotes that the aspect has a
significant impact on the use of HVFA mixtures in the concrete industry,
and values in between are based on judgment [179]. The score for
relatively unknown aspects affecting the structural performance and
sustainability of HVFA mixtures was higher than that for the aspects that
have been extensively investigated and determined. The overall ranking
is the product of two factors (R1 × R2). The highest ranked aspect was
considered to be critical and in need of further research.
Table 10 shows that the compressive strength of HVFA mixtures was
widely investigated (73 studies). Studies on this aspect have been suf­
ficient, and the laws and mechanisms have been extensively examined.
Y. Li et al.
y x
Fig. 18. Relationship between 28-day compressive strength and 28-day splitting tensile strength. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)
Fig. 19. Variation of MOE of with FA replacement level and curing age.
Although the number of studies on micro-structural properties (53
studies), fresh properties (53 studies), flexural and splitting tensile
strength (34 studies) was less than that on compressive strength, the
quantity is relatively sufficient. 68 studies have reported some short-
term durability properties (e.g. drying shrinkage, water absorption
and sorptivity) of HVFAC, and further exploration these properties
would help to better understand the potential of HVFAC as a construc­
tion material. The early-age strength of HVFA mixtures is substantially
decreased by replacing PC with FA. Conducting appropriate treatment
measures can greatly improve the early-age performance of HVFA
mixtures. Selecting appropriate additives to improve the early-age
strength is important in expanding the application scope of HVFA mix­
tures and improving their service life. However, controlling the content
20
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
y x
R
of these materials to optimize the performance of concrete must be
explored, and whether their introduction will have any other potential
effect on concrete remains unclear. Additionally, HVFAC generally
exhibit poor quality in terms of certain durability (e.g. carbonation and
abrasion resistance), and minimal research was available on this aspect
about additive-modified HVFAC. Therefore, the incorporation of addi­
tives to improve HVFAC durability must be further researched.
In view of the sustainability of resource conservation, HVFA geo­
polymer concrete has a good development prospect. FA based geo­
polymer concrete has characteristics that are conducive to its potential
use as SCM due to its excellent durability [163]. The development trend
of geopolymers is to achieve 100% FA utilization. However, many
problems such as carbonation remain to be solved to fully use this new
Y. Li et al.
y x
Fig. 20. Relationship between 28-day compressive strength and 28-day MOE.
type of concrete [13]. Additional research is still needed for HVFA
geopolymer concrete. The application of HVFAC in projects can greatly
reduce the PC consumption and hydration heat and thus greatly
contribute to environmental protection and reduce the production cost.
Among the investigated studies, only 9 references investigated the
economic and environmental benefits of HVFA, and only five reported
the economic and environmental benefits of incorporating additives to
modify HVFAC [6,7,174,176,177]. Therefore, the economic and envi­
ronmental benefits of HVFAC must be further studied.
The abrasion and sulfate attack resistance of HVFA mixtures must
also be explored. These properties play an important role in determining
the service life and performance of HVFA mixtures. In real working
conditions, these influencing factors appear together and act synergis­
tically on HVFA mixtures. Studying the law underlying the influence of a
single factor on HVFA mixtures cannot fully reflect the actual working
environment of concrete. Li et al. [8] examined the F–T resistance of
HVFAC under sulfate attack to investigate the damage and deterioration
mechanism of HVFAC under multi-factor coupling. However, only a few
studies focused on the coupling effects of various factors. Hence, further
works are needed.
As shown in Table 10, the long-term durability and the F-T resistance
of HVFA mixtures require the most attention. Investigations on the long-
term durability of HVFA mixtures can provide additional references for
the popularization and use of HVFA mixtures. At present, only five
studies focused on the long-term durability of HVFA mixtures, the
shrinkage performance of HVFAC after drying for 1 year [78], the sulfate
attack resistance of HVFA mortar exposed to Na2SO4 solution for 1 year
[127,128], the chloride resistance of HVFAC exposed to marine envi­
ronment for 2–4 years [180] and the water absorption and chloride
resistance of HVFAC at 4 years of age [181]. In cold regions, the F-T
durability of concrete is a crucial factor in determining its service life
[182,183]. However, only a few studies (10 studies) focused on the F-T
resistance of HVFAC. Moreover, these references show the differences in
the influence of HVFA on the F-T resistance of concrete. Additional
21
Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889
y x
R
research is needed to further verify the effect of HVFA on concrete from
this aspect.
Gap analysis was able to identify areas requiring further research.
HVFA needs further research to be applicable to various practical pro­
jects and further understand its properties. Comprehensive research on
all aspects of HVFAC should be conducted to further increase its pro­
duction scale. In particular, the durability of HVFAC, especially its long-
term durability, and its resistance to sulfate attack, F–T cycles and
abrasion need to be further studied to develop HVFAC that is more
suitable for practical engineering.
9. Conclusions
Experimental data and findings from previous studies on the micro-
structural, fresh, mechanical, durability properties and economic,
environmental benefits of HVFAC were collected, compared and ana­
lysed. Additionally, the mechanism of adding additives to improve
early-age strength of HVFAC was also discussed. The following conclu­
sions can be drawn:
1. Although HVFA retards the PC hydration rate, it increases the degree
of PC hydration. The pozzolanic reaction degree of HVFA and the
hydration heat of PC are negatively correlated with FA replacement
rate. HVFA changes the pore distribution and increases the total
porosity of concrete, however, this effect decreases with curing age
due to the pozzolanic reaction of HVFA.
2. HVFA improves the workability of concrete, and its slump is posi­
tively correlated with FA replacement rate. However, HVFA will
prolong the setting time of concrete.
3. The compressive, flexural, splitting tensile strengths and MOE of
HVFAC decrease with the increase in the FA replacement level upon
exceeding the optimum dosage. The optimum replacement level for
HVFAC is 40%–50%. Compared with those of 100% PC concrete and
LVFAC, the mechanical properties of HVFAC are inferior at the early
 Table 6

Y. Li et al.
The main influencing factors on durability properties of HVFA mixtures reported in the literature.
Proporties Test method Specimen size Age (days) FA source FA type FA (%) Mix proportiona (kg/m3) W/B Ref.

Carbonation resistance Accelerated carbonation (2 weeks, 5% CO2) Cube 50 91 Turkey Class F 50 200/200/132/600/1200/0/5.6b 0.33 [94]
70 120/280/112/600/1200/0/5.6b 0.28
Accelerated carbonation (18 weeks, 10% CO2) Cube 100 91 Belgium Class F 50 225/225/158/654/606/465/5b 0.35 [100]
Natural carbonation (1 year) Cylinder 11*22 28 France Class F 50 190/190/155/827/846/205/6 0.41 [101]
Natural carbonation (6 months) Cylinder 10*5 90 UK Class F 50 158/158/175/0/983/834/0 0.557 [102]
Natural carbonation (2 years) Prism 100*100*400 28 China Class F 50 210/210/168/328/872/0/0 0.4 [103]
Accelerated carbonation (2.5 weeks, 10% CO2) Cube 100 90 Belgium Class F 40 238/159/118/0/1135/740/9b 0.3 [104]
60 157/236/116/0/1114/727/1b
Abrasion resistance Accelerated rotating-cutter method (60 min) Slab 300*300*100 91 USA Class C 40 229/154/115/827/1040/0/2.8b 0.3 [72]
50 195/199/120/854/1041/0/2.7b 0.3
60 155/237/116/842/1016/0/2.1b 0.3
Accelerated rotating-cutter method (60 min) Slab 300*300*100 91 USA Class C 40 220/182/150/659/1153/0/2.7b 0.37 [80]
50 180/226/135/655/1138/0/2.7b 0.33
70 110/316/655/607/1146/0/2.6b 0.36
Rotating-cutter method (60 min) Prism 65*65*60 91 India Class F 40 240/160/160/614/1224/0/2.5b 0.5 [57]
45 220/180/164/610/1226/0/2.6b 0.5
50 200/200/160/616/1225/0/2.7b 0.5
Rotating-cutter method Slab 71*71*30 91 Egypt Class F 70 120/280/160/0/0/0/8b 0.4 [108]
Rotating-cutter method (60 min) Prism 65*65*60 56 India Class F 40 282/188/208/0/916/620/3.3b 0.45 [109]
50 235/235/208/0/916/620/3.3b 0.45
Water absorption Based on the ASTM C 642 standard 28 Thailand Class C 50 300/300/180/0/595/958/1.5 0.3 [74]
60 240/360/180/0/595/933/1.02 0.3
70 180/420/180/0/595/908/0.72 0.3
Based on the ASTM C 642 standard Cube 150 56 Turkey Class F 40 150/100/105/1235/422/419/0 0.42 [110]
60 100/150/115/1209/413/410/0 0.46
Cube 150 56 Turkey Class F 40 240/160/140/637/695/463/0 0.35 [114]
50 200/200/140/637/695/463/0 0.35
22

60 160/240/140/637/695/463/0 0.35
70 120/280/140/637/695/463/0 0.35
Sorptivity Cube 100 90 UK Class F 40 333/162/173/0/924/743/3.71 0.35 [76]
60 225/247/170/0/924/743/3.21 0.36
Based on the ASTM C 1585 standard Cylinder 100*50 90 Australia Class F 40 240/160/163/674/1235/0/0 0.41 [113]
60 160/240/163/674/1235/0/0 0.41
Drying shrinkage Dry for 180 days Prism 75*75*280 Australia Class F 40 240/160/140/0/1200/700/4 0.35 [9]
Prism 75*75*275 India Class F 40 240/160/160/543/1270/0/0 0.4 [70]
50 200/200/160/533/1270/0/0 0.4
60 160/240/160/522/1270/0/0 0.4
Dry for 365 days Cylinder 70*280 Turkey Class F 40 300/200/173.5/0/613/927/6.75 0.35 [78]
50 250/250/173.5/0/608/920/6.75 0.35

Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

60 200/300/173.5/0/603/912/6.75 0.35
70 150/350/173.5/0/597/902/6.75 0.35
Dry for 180 days China Class F 50 275/275/165/679/774/332/11 0.3 [79]
60 220/330/165/679/774/332/11 0.3
70 165/385/165/679/774/332/11 0.3
Dry for 180 days Prism 50*50*200 Turkey Class F 50 200/200/116/600/1200/0/0 0.3 [115]
70 120/280/120/600/1200/0/0 0.29
Dry for 50 days Prism 75*75*285 Turkey Class F 40 270/180/198/801/842/0/2.9 0.44 [117]
60 180/270/198/788/829/0/3 0.44
Chloride resistance RCPT Cylinder 100*50 28 Thailand Class C 50 300/300/180/0/595/958/1.5 0.3 [74]
60 240/360/180/0/595/933/1.02 0.3
70 180/420/180/0/595/908/0.72 0.3
RCPT Cylinder 100*50 365 USA Class C 40 220/182/150/659/1153/0/2.7b 0.37 [80]
50 180/226/135/665/1138/0/2.7b 0.33
70 110/316/155/607/1146/0/2.6b 0.36
RCPT Cylinder 100*50 28 Australia Class F 40 160/240/140/0/1200/700/4 0.35 [9]
(continued on next page)
 Y. Li et al.
Table 6 (continued )
Proporties Test method Specimen size Age (days) FA source FA type FA (%) Mix proportiona (kg/m3) W/B Ref.

RCPT Cylinder 100*50 28 Turkey Class F 50 250/250/175/0/803/788/0.15b 0.35 [73]

70 150/350/175/0/785/770/0.09b 0.35
RCPT Cylinder 100*50 28 Turkey Class F 40 300/200/173.5/0/613/927/6.75 0.35 [78]
50 250/250/173.5/0/608/920/6.75 0.35
60 200/300/173.5/0/603/912/6.75 0.35
70 150/350/173.5/0/597/902/6.75 0.35
RCPT Cylinder 100*50 90 Turkey Class F 40 270/180/198/801/842/0/2.9 0.44 [117]
60 180/270/198/788/829/0/3 0.44
RCPT Cylinder 100*50 28 China Class F 40 192/128/131.2/0/1091/857/0 0.41 [120]
RCPT Cylinder 100*50 56 USA Class F 60 180/270/135/0/895/895/1b 0.3 [121]
Sulfate attack resistance Immersion for 455 days (5% Na2SO4) Prism 25*25*285 28 Canada Class C 40 540 g/360 g/436.6 ml/2475 g/0/0/0 0.485 [128]
60 360 g/540 g/436.6 ml/2475 g/0/0/0 0.485
Wetting-drying for 90 days (5% Na2SO4) Cube 100 28 China Class F 40 192/128/131.2/0/1091/857/0 0.41 [120]
Immersion for 180 days (10% Na2SO4) Cylinder 75*150 28 Japan Class F 50 150/150/137/694/1165/0/0 0.46 [122]
Immersion for 180 days (5% Na2SO4) Prism 25*25*285 Canada Class F 40 278/186/186/0/1162/862/0 0.4 [123]
60 186/278/186/0/1162/862/0 0.4
Immersion for 90 days (5% Na2SO4) Cube 150 India 40 222/148/140.6/0/1071.5/807.34/0 0.38 [125]
23

Freeze–thaw resistance Slow F-T test (F-T90, 10% NaCl) Cube 71 28 Turkey Class C 40 360/240/165/837/735/0/19.98 0.3 [75]
50 300/300/165/825/723/0/20.4 0.3
60 240/360/165/815/712/0/22.02 0.3
Rapid F-T test (F-T300, Water) Cube 150 66 USA Class C 40 220/182/150/659/1153/0/2.7b 0.37 [80]
50 180/226/135/665/1138/0/2.7b 0.33
70 110/316/155/607/1146/0/2.6b 0.36
Rapid F-T test (F-T58, Water) Prism 76*102*406 14 China Class C 60 200/300/150/0/750/750/1.75 0.3 [129]
Rapid F-T test (F-T300, Water) Cube 100 28 China Class F 60 196/294/245/610/895/0/4.9 0.5 [8]
Rapid F-T test (F-T90, Water) Cube 150 56 Turkey Class F 40 150/100/105/1235/422/419/0 0.42 [110]
60 100/150/115/1209/413/410/0 0.46
Rapid F-T test (F-T200, Water) Prism 40*40*160 150 China Class F 40 288/192/154/0/1126/690/3.12 0.32 [130]

Note:

Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

RCPT = Rapid chloride permeability test.
a
The mix proportion represents PC/ FA/ water/ sand/ coarse aggregate/ fine aggregate/ superplasticizer.
b
Unit of superplasticizer: L/m3.
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 21. Carbonation depth of 100% PC concrete and HVFAC.

Fig. 22. Wear depth of 100% PC concrete and HVFAC.

24
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 23. Water absorption and sorptivity of 100% PC concrete and HVFAC.

Fig. 24. Drying shrinkage of 100% PC concrete, LVFAC and HVFAC.

25
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 25. Chloride permeability of 100% PC concrete, LVFAC and HVFAC.

Fig. 26. Durability index ratio of LVFA mixtures and HVFA mixtures exposed to sulfate attack. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)

RDME

Residual compressive strength

Fig. 27. Durability index ratio of HVFA mixtures exposed to F-T cycles.

26
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 7
Effect of adding additives on 28-day compressive strength of HVFA mixtures.
Improving mechanism FA (%) Dosage of additives (%) Strength increase rate (%) The optimum dosage of additives (%) Ref.

Filler and seeding effects 60 5, 7.5 NS 50, 42.9 5 [135]

40 0.5–3 NC − 12.9–0.69 0.5 [136]
60 0.05–0.2 GO 5.7–19.3 0.2 [137]
40 0.5–3 NT 0.69–3.7 3 [136]
50–60 10, 20 SF 37.5, 87.5 20 [156]
32 8 UFFA 9 − [139]
48–57 5–20 MK 28.6–57.1 5 [157]
58.5–59.5 0.5–1.5 Nano-CSH − 5.3–7.8 1 [142]
Pozzolanic reaction 50 1–4 NS 22–106 4 [158]
80 2.5, 5NA 23.5, − 89.1 2.5 [153]
40 7.5–30 SF 3.41–4.9 15 [59]
52 8 UFFA 25 – [140]
50 10, 20 MK 7.8, 15 10 [141]
Alkali activation 70 1–5 CaCl2 21–99 3 [159]
80 1–5 Na2SO4 62.5–95 5 [160]
45–55 10 CaSO4 12.2–17.1 – [161]
50 10, 20 HL 1.9, − 5.2 10 [155]

Note:
Rate of change = [(Modified HVFA mixtures) − (Unmodified HVFA mixtures) / Unmodified HVFA mixtures] × 100%.

Fig. 28. Particle size and specific surface area of concrete materials [133].

age but are higher at the later age due to the pozzolanic reaction of
FA. According to the statistical regression analysis, the flexural
strength, splitting tensile strength and MOE of HVFAC is normally
considered 0.272fc0.8094, 0.3669fc0.6321 and 1.684fc0.7698,
respectively.
4. Compared with 100% PC concrete and LVFAC, HVFAC has better
resistance to dry shrinkage and chloride penetration and sulfate
attack but has worse resistance to carbonation and abrasion. More­
over, HVFAC exhibits substantial increase in water absorption and
sorptivity compared with 100% PC concrete and LVFAC. However,
existing references show discrepancies regarding the influence of
HVFA on the F–T resistance of concrete. Additional work is needed to
investigate the F–T resistance of HVFAC.
5. FFA is more effective in reducing the heat of hydration and
improving the workability, late strength, sulfate attack resistance
and F-T resistance of HVFAC. In contrast, CFA has self-cementing
(hydraulic) properties and reacts faster at the early stage of cement
hydration. Compared with high-volume FFA concrete, high-volume
CFA concrete have shorter setting time and higher early strength.
6. The mechanism of additives improving HVFAC early-age strength
can be divided into three categories: (1) filler and seeding effects; (2)
pozzolanic reaction; and (3) alkali activation. Some additives can be
used in combination to improve the early-age strength of HVFA
mixtures. Excessive use of additives adversely affects the strength
improvement of HVFA mixtures; hence, their optimal dosage must be
further determined.
7. HVFAC has good economic and environmental benefits, and its CO2
emission reduction rate is positively correlated with FA replacement
rate. Its economic cost is also remarkably lower than that of LVFAC
and 100% PC concrete. Additives have varying effects on the eco­
nomic and environmental benefits of HVFAC. Developing the specific
additive-modified HVFAC with good economic and environmental
benefits and high strength is of great importance.
8. Gap analysis indicates that future research on HVFA mixtures should
focus on exploring its long-term durability in terms of resistance on
F–T cycles, sulfate attack and abrasion. An in-depth long-term
durability analysis must be conducted to develop HVFAC that re­
mains intact for extended periods without needing repair works.

27
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Fig. 29. Hydration conceptual model of PC, FA and nanoparticles: (a) PC, (b) PC-NT (non-pozzolanic), (c) PC-NS (pozzolanic), (d) PC-FA, (e) PC-FA-NT, and (f) PC-
FA-NS [148].

Table 8
CO2 emission and cost of concrete materials [164,167–172].
Constituent material CO2 emission (kg CO2/t) Unit price (USD/t)

PC 820 64.7
FA 11 17.6
Bagasse ash 110 15
Rice hush ash 27 140–300
Bottom ash 0.569 (kg/kWh) 9
SF 14 210
MK 92 228.5
Superplasticizer 772 1000
Coarse aggregate 39 16.2
Fine aggregate 28 13.2

28
Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 341 (2022) 127889

Table 9
Economic and environmental benefits of the HVFA production.
Replacement rate (%) Dosage of additives CO2 emission CO2 emission change rate (%) Cost Cost change rate (%) Reference

0 1946.1 t 140 $/t [114]

40 1167.66 t ↓40a 92 $/t ↓34.3a
50 973.05 t ↓50a 80 $/t ↓42.9a
60 778.44 t ↓60a 68 $/t ↓51.4a
70 583.83 t ↓70a 56 $/t ↓60a
30 641.5 kg/t 413 RMB/t [166]
50 460.8 kg/t ↓28.2b 340 RMB/t ↓17.7b
70 280.1 kg/t ↓56.3b 268 RMB/t ↓35.1b
40 ↓7.7b [165]
50 ↓23.1b
60 ↓29.2b
40 ↓2.3b ↓8.3b [175]
50 ↓5.4b ↓12.5b
30 0.28 kg/m3 195 RM/m3 [7]
40 0.25 kg/m3 ↓10.7b 170 RM/m3 ↓12.8b
30 5% EM 0.28 kg/m3 230 RM/m3
40 5% EM 0.25 kg/m3 ↓10.7b 202 RM/m3 ↓12.2b
0 372.4 kg/kg 81 $/t [174]
60 158.1 kg/kg ↓57.5a 70 $/t ↓11.1a
50 10% MK 162.8 kg/kg ↓56.3a 80 $/t ↓1.2a
40 20% MK 164.5 kg/kg ↓55.8a 84.3 $/t ↑5.3a
0 393 kg/m3 220 AED/m3 [176]
40 5% MS 247 kg/m3 ↓37.2a 220 AED/m3 − a
50 6% MS 211 kg/m3 ↓46.3a 224 AED/m3 ↑2a
60 7% MS 176 kg/m3 ↓55.2a 228 AED/m3 ↑3.6a
70 8% MS 141 kg/m3 ↓64.1a 233 AED/m3 ↑5.9a
0 425 kg/m3 587 HKD/m3 [177]
80 2% SF 100 kg/m3 ↓76.5a 468 HKD/m3 ↓20.3a
52 13% HL ↓51a ↓8.97a [6]
62 18% HL ↓62.8a ↓11.31a
49 13% HL,3% NS ↓52.4a ↑880a
59 18% HL,3% NS ↓63.51a ↑877a

Note:
Increase: ↑; Decrease: ↓; Unchanged: − .
EM = Effective microorganism; MS = Micro silica.
a
Rate of change = [(100% PC mixtures) − (FA mixtures) / 100% PC mixtures] × 100%.
b
Rate of change = [(70% PC mixtures) − (FA mixtures) / 100% PC mixtures] × 100%.

Table 10
Gap analysis and ranking of the reviewed studies based on the research aspects of HVFA*.
Aspect No. Studies Availability (R1) Importance (R2) Total

Long-term durability 5 5 5 25
F–T resistance 10 5 5 25
Sulfate attack resistance 13 4 5 20
Abrasion resistance 14 4 5 20
Durability of additive-modified HVFAC 12 4 5 20
Chloride resistance 21 3 5 15
Carbonation resistance 22 3 5 15
Water absorption and sorptivity 10 5 3 15
Incorporate additives 29 3 5 15
Economic and environmental benefits 9 5 3 15
MOE 11 4 3 12
Drying shrinkage 15 4 3 12
Setting time 11 4 3 12
Workability 42 2 5 10
Hydration and pozzolanic reaction 21 3 3 9
Use in geopolymer 12 4 2 8
Flexural and splitting tensile strength 34 2 4 8
Micro-structure 32 2 3 6
Compressive strength 73 1 5 5

Note:
R1: 1 (50–80 studies): widely available, 2 (31–50 studies) & 3 (21–30 studies): sparse and/or questionable, 4 (11–20 studies) & 5 (0–10 studies): scarce and/or
unavailable.
R2: 1: relevant but not essential, 2 & 3: important, 4 & 5: critical.
*Sorted by total score (R1 × R2).

29
Y. Li et al.
9. At present, HVFAC with FA replacement rate less than 70% can
basically meet the strength requirements of actual structures. Con­
crete with FA replacement rate higher than 70% should also be
developed to fully utilize FA to achieve green concrete with low CO2
emission.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was financially supported by Project funded by China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Program No. 2020M683687XB); the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Program No. 52009110;
51879217); Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi (Pro­
gram No. 2021JM-331); Scientific Research Program Funded by Shaanxi
Provincial Education Department (Program No. 19JS048), and Young
Talent fund of Association for Science and Technology in Xi’an City
(Program No. 095920211332).
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