E ects of Extreme Climatic Backdrops on Zoo

Animals

A thesis submi ed to Pondicherry University in par al fulfilment of the requirement

for the award of the degree of

Master of Sciences
in
Environmental Sciences

by

ASHUTOSH DIXIT
Reg no. 21411010

Under the guidance of

Dr. Subhankar Chaterjee

Department of Ecology & Environmental Sciences

School of Life Sciences

Pondicherry University

Puducherry - 605014

May 2023
Dr. Subhankar Chaterjee
Research supervisor
Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry
University, R. V. Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry- 605014, India.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work titled “Effects of Extreme

Climatic Backdrops on Zoo Animals” is based on the original work carried
out by Mr. Ashutosh Dixit, Department of Ecology and Environmental
Sciences, Pondicherry University, under my supervision, in partial fulfilment
of the requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Science of
Pondicherry University. The matter embodied in this thesis has not been
submitted for any previous occasion and it represents an entirely independent
work on the part of the candidate.

Place: Pondicherry Dr. Subhankar Chaterjee

Date: Research Supervisor

Countersigned by

Head of the Department,

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences,
Pondicherry University
Ashutosh Dixit
Ambe Colony, Near Reliance Petrol Pump
Alapur Road, Budaun 243601
Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry
University.
Mob. 8218709375
Email: ashu1dixit.1999@gmail.com

DECLARATION

I, Ashutosh Dixit, hereby declare that the dissertation entitled “Effects of

Extreme Climatic Backdrops on Zoo Animals”, submitted in partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the award of a Master’s degree in Ecology,
Pondicherry University, is an original work carried out by me under the
supervision of Dr. Subhankar Chaterjee, Department of Ecology and
Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry.

This is my original contribution and it has not previously formed the basis for
the award of any degree, diploma, associate-ship or fellowship or any other
similar title.

Place: Puducherry
Date: Ashutosh Dixit
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Subhankar Chaterjee, Professor of

the Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry Central
University, Puducherry, for their kind appreciation and supervision of this
project. He has provided me with frequent monitoring and has constantly held
meetings to check on the development of my project, which has been quite
beneficial to me.

It is my privilege to express my gratitude to Dr. D Ramamoorthy, Head of the

Department, and other faculty members of the Department of Ecology and
Environmental Science.

I profoundly thank and kindly acknowledge the efforts and guidance of Dr.
Manoj Kumar, (Curator of Education at NZP, Delhi) , and Dr. Abhijeet
Bhawal (Veterinary Officer at NZP, Delhi).

I extend my heartfelt thanks to my family, friends, and all others who have
contributed in various ways to complete this dissertation work.
Table of Contents
S.no Content Page No.
1. Introduction

1.1 -Climate change at a Global scale

1.2 -Climate change at a National scale

1.3 -Climate change and Stress in Captivity

2. Review of Literature

3. Study Area

3.1 -Historical Background

3.2 -Features

3.3 -Study Objectives

4. Methodology

5. Results

6. Discussions

7. Conclusion
List of Figures

S.no Figures Page No.

1.1 Delhi’s average temp and rainfall (1901-2018).

3.1 Map of NZP, Delhi on USGS website.

3.2 The following image depicts one of the species selected for
this study (Axis axis)

3.3 The following image depicts one of the species selected for
this study (Panthera pardus fusca).

4.1 Frequency chart for all the behaviours recorded for

Panthera pardus fusca.

4.2 Frequency chart for all the behaviours recorded for Axis
axis.

List of Tables

S.no Tables Page No.

4.1 Details on studied individuals for leopards (Panthera
pardus fusca).

4.2 Ethogram based on the data taken for the Individual

Leopards.

4.3 The following is a list of abbreviations and corresponding

behaviours for Panthera pardus fusca.

4.4 Ethogram based on the data taken for the Individual

Leopards & There is a list of abbreviations and
corresponding behaviours.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Climate Change at a Global Scale

It is well known that those who complain about the weather rarely take any

action to change it. Even less is done about the broader issue of climate

change, except for occasional exaggerations for tourism purposes. We should

always heed to the fact that the study of climate change dates back to the time

of prehistoric organisms, and that our present obligation to address this issue is

rooted in our evolutionary history. As we owe our existence to our protozoic

ancestors, this effort is dedicated to them as well as to our contemporaries.

Climate and biological evolution have a complicated and dynamic interplay

that has shaped the environment of the globe and ecosystems over time.

Climate has had a crucial impact in the genesis and adaptation of species,

including humans, from minor to substantial changes. (NAP, Washington DC,

2005). While we cannot predict the future with certainty, it is clear that climate

will continue to shape our world in significant ways. A variety of ideas

throughout the last 7 million years show that climate-driven environmental

shifts were responsible for critical events in hominid development. The rise of

new hominin species, the transition to bipedality, the development of bigger

cranial capacity, behavioural flexibility, cultural developments, and

transcontinental migratory events are examples of these occurrences (Laporte

et al, 1983). Correlations between global-scale climatic alterations

documented in marine deposits and events in human development identified in

continental fossil-bearing strata corroborate these views.

Establishing cause-and-effect linkages between climate and human evolution,

on the other hand, poses considerable issues for paleoanthropology and the

geological sciences (Behrensmeyer, A. K., 2006).

For example, the timeline and magnitude of climate events may not always

align perfectly with the timing of hominin evolutionary changes. Additionally,

there may be other factors at play, such as competition with other species, that

could also contribute to evolutionary shifts.

Despite these challenges, it is clear that climate played a significant role in

shaping the course of human evolution. In order to better comprehend the

possible implications of climate change on our planet and its people in the

future, we must continue to investigate the complex and dynamic interaction

between climate and biological evolution (Trauth et al, 2005).

Identifying what makes a solid case in demonstrating a causal relationship

between climate change and evolutionary processes is one of the most difficult

difficulties. Unlike in a laboratory, we cannot conduct experiments to directly

investigate the effects of climate change on the human gene pool (Collins et

al., 2022).

We may, however, depend on proxy evidence for environmental changes seen

in continental rock strata, as well as countless fossils of hominids and other

creatures developing on multiple continents at the same time. Despite the

abundance of evidence, ideas are frequently founded on the notion that

synchronous occurrences in the geological and paleontological record suggest

cause and effect.

Researchers investigated changes in current glaciers, excluding those in

Greenland and Antarctica, and their link to their climatic surroundings to

acquire insights into historical climate change and anticipate the influence of

future global warming on frigid places (Raj et al,. 2012). The loss of glacier

volume has been ongoing since the 19th century, but it is not a straightforward

adjustment to the end of the Little Ice Age (Dyurgerov & Meier, 2000).

Results from comparing observations with simulations from an energy balance

climate model suggest that changes in solar irradiance and volcanism account

for as much as 41 to 64% of pre anthropogenic decadal-scale temperature

variations (Crowley, 2000). By removing all forcing except greenhouse gases

from a 1000-year time series, a residual with a significant warming in the late

20th century closely matches the response predicted from greenhouse gas

forcing (Crowley, 2000). These findings provide additional evidence that the

greenhouse effect has surpassed the level of natural variability in the climate

system. Furthermore, projections for 21st-century global warming exceed the

natural variability of the past 1000 years and are greater than the estimated

global temperature change during the last interglacial period (Crowley, 2000).

Adapting to climate change is essential for human systems, but our

understanding of the global scale of the adaptation challenge is incomplete due

to limited knowledge of whether and how adaptation is occurring (Stefan &

Andreas , 2020).

Climate change is having a significant impact on the world's wild animals,

with many species facing threats to their survival (Ruhl, 2008). The rising

temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and altered habitats are causing

disruptions to ecosystems, affecting wildlife in various ways.

One of the most significant ways climate change is affecting wild animals is

through changes to their habitats. Many species are adapted to specific

environments and rely on stable climates to thrive. However, as temperatures

rise, habitats are shifting, and many animals are struggling to adapt (Hoffman,

I., 2013). In some cases, species are forced to move to higher elevations or

latitudes in search of suitable habitats. This can lead to competition with other

species for resources and potential overcrowding. In other cases, habitats are

becoming fragmented, making it more difficult for animals to find food and

mates.

For example, polar bears are losing their sea-ice habitat, which is vital for

hunting and breeding (Stern et al., 2016). As the Arctic warms, the ice is

melting, forcing the bears to swim longer distances to find food. This can lead

to exhaustion, and some bears are drowning. Similarly, penguins in Antarctica

are experiencing habitat loss as ice sheets and glaciers melt, reducing the

amount of sea ice available for breeding and feeding (Massom et al., 2010).

Climate change is also causing shifts in the timing of natural events, such as

migration and breeding. Many species rely on predictable seasonal patterns to

time their movements and breeding cycles.

However, as temperatures and precipitation patterns change, these patterns are

becoming less predictable (Natole Jr. et al., 2021). This can lead to

mismatches between the timing of critical life events and the availability of

food or other resources. For example, some migratory birds are arriving at

their breeding grounds too early, before their food sources have become

available (Bouwhuis et al., 2006).

1.2 Climate Change at a National Scale
India is facing a dual challenge as a significant emitter of greenhouse gases

and one of the most vulnerable countries to the anticipated impacts of climate

change (Sathaye et al., 2006). The country is already witnessing the adverse

effects of climate change, including water scarcity, heatwaves, droughts,

floods, and their consequential impacts on people's health and livelihoods

(Mach & Freeman, 2018). Unfortunately, the brunt of these climate impacts is

borne by vulnerable populations such as working-class families and people of

colour.

India's large and growing population and dependence on agriculture make it

more susceptible to the impacts of climate change, which could be severe (Lal,

M., 2000). Over the last century, the sub-continent has already witnessed a rise

in temperatures by 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit (0.7 degrees Celsius), which is a

cause for concern.

The consequences of rising temperatures are apparent in crucial sectors such

as energy, agriculture, and transportation, which are essential to our daily lives

in India and across the world. Many portions of South Asia, including India

and Pakistan, have been experiencing extended hot weather since the start of

the 2022 meteorological summer (Hussain et al., 2018). According to the

Indian Meteorological Service, the month of March was the warmest in India

since records began 122 years ago (Panda et al,. 2017). Temperatures in

numerous sections of the nation, notably the western Himalayas, the plains of

Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, were routinely 3°C-8°C

above average, shattering several decadal and some all-time records.

Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and Jharkhand

also suffered heatwaves, with temperatures ranging from 40°C to 44°C in the

latter days of March. Researchers discovered a 55% rise in mortality due to

excessive heat in India between 2000-2004 and 2017-2021 (Alryalat et al.,

2020).

March’s heat wave killed at least 90 people across India and Pakistan,

contributed to forest fires, and devastated farms and India’s agricultural yield

(IMD, 2021). Climate change is influencing many natural systems at the same

time, from snow-capped mountains to tropical seas (Ngaira & J. K. W., 2007).

Several of these bodies of water are warming. Sea surface temperatures rise

during extremely warm weather caused by climate change, such as the El Nino

years (Llewellyn & L. E., 2010).

A marine heatwave occurs when the temperature of the ocean surpasses a

seasonal threshold for at least five consecutive days (Hobday et al, 2016). This

has an impact on humans, particularly indigenous coastal populations who rely

on coral reef fishing (Cinner et al., 2012).

Extreme wave occurrences, which have been documented relatively regularly

in recent times, can have a significant influence on the lives of the coastal

people, infrastructure, and ocean-related enterprises in a changing climate.

Variability and variations in severe wave occurrences, as well as fluctuating

storm strength and courses, can all have a significant impact on coastline

alterations, erosion rates, flooding episodes, and other coastal hazards (Burkett

& Davidson, 2012).

Climate change-related extreme waves and their repercussions continue to

develop at both regional and global dimensions. As a result, for timely

warning and coastal planning and management, a better knowledge of future

predicted changes in the amplitude of high-frequency severe wave occurrences

is required.

1.3 Climate Change and Stress in Captivity

Zoos serve as a critical tool in preserving the physical and mental health of

animals in captivity, as well as supporting wild populations. The well-being of

captive animals depends on various factors such as comfort, safety, and the

ability to engage in natural behaviours while avoiding distress.

However, any form of environmental stress can disrupt an animal's ability to

cope with its surroundings (Morgan & Tromborg, 2007), resulting in negative

consequences such as reduced lifespan, stunted growth, impaired reproductive

abilities, disease, abnormal behaviour, and physical harm (D. M. Broom,

1991). It is vital to remember that captive settings differ greatly from those

found in the wild, such as restricted area, limits, linearity, command over the

situations, and predictability (Morgan & Tromborg, 2007).

When animals are held captive in zoos, they are unable to express the full

range of complex behaviours that they have developed over time in the wild.

As a result, they must find ways to cope with the monotony of their

surroundings (Mason, 1991). One way this manifests is through the display of

stereotypic behaviours. In captivity, this might signify tension and

dissatisfaction.
Captive animals frequently engage in repeated, aberrant activities such as

pacing, overgrooming, and head-weaving (Lyons, Young, & Deag, 1997).

These habits help them pass the time and serve as a replacement for the

free-ranging behaviours they would participate in if they were in the wild

(Hediger, 1950). Stereotypes are thought to represent an individual's efforts to

cope with undesirable environmental situations since they lack an obvious role

or objective (Dantzer, 1991). These unusual activities imply that the animal's

psychological well-being is inadequate (Boorer, 1972).

Stereotypical behaviour may develop as a result of a basic behaviour pattern

that confined creatures have grown encouraged to perform. (Holzapfel, 1939;

Mason, Clubb, Latham, & Vickery, 2007). Human activities can significantly

impact the environment, including in zoological parks where visitors can

influence the behaviour of captive species.

Research has shown that visitors can induce changes in the behaviour

repertoire of zoo animals (Davey, 2007; Hosey, 2000). Visitors create bonds

with caged species, and their impact on animal welfare is referred to as the

"visitor effect," which can be positive, neutral, or negative (Hosey, 2008;

Hosey & Melfi, 2015).

Understanding the visitor effect is important for implementing effective

management practices to ensure optimal animal welfare in zoological parks.

Animals in captivity often display different behavioural patterns in response to

their surroundings compared to their wild counterparts (Young, 2003).

To evaluate the welfare of zoo-housed animals, it is important to study their

behaviour in relation to species-specific behaviours observed in the wild

(Keeling & Jensen, 2002). Captive animals' conduct is a useful predictor of

their well-being since it shows their initial attempt to adapt with suboptimal

environmental conditions (Dawkins, 1998). By studying the impact of factors

such as visitation and other captive conditions on animal behaviour,

non-invasive measures can be developed to suggest better management

practices for animal welfare.

Figure 1.1 - Following figure shows data on the capital’s average rainfall and
temperature pattern from 1901 to 2018. The month of rise in temperature and rainfall
is denoted by yellow checkpoints and blue bars respectively. A green rectangular box
marks the time period in which this study was conducted. A red line denotes the
maximum temperature reached on an average (Source: Hikersbay.com)
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The relationship between changes in modern glaciers and their climatic

environment is being studied in order to shed light on paleo glacier evidence

of past climate change and to project the effects of future climate warming on

cold regions of the world. Glacier volume loss has been ongoing since the 19th

century, but it is not a straightforward adjustment to the end of an "anomalous"

Little Ice Age. We focus on the 1961-1997 time period since it has the greatest

observational data on volume changes. These statistics indicate extremely

varying patterns over time as well as within and across locations; changes in

the Arctic are consistent with world averages but quantitatively smaller

(Dyurgerov & Meier, 2000).

The fitness, survival, and reproductive success of wild animals are under

threat due to environmental changes, which ultimately endanger species and

ecosystems. The threats come from various sources, such as habitat

destruction, disruption of food chains, changes in disease and parasitic loads,

increased pollution, and direct and indirect effects of climate change

(Parmesan, 2006; Thomas et al., 2004). The physical environmental changes

are ubiquitous and can be detected globally, from pole to pole (Moline et al.,

2008; Robinson, 2009), and from ocean depths to the stratosphere (Guinotte &

Fabry, 2008; Wilson et al., 2007).

Zoological parks worldwide are facing mounting pressure to successfully

breed their captive animal populations, as extinction rates increase and

environmental conditions rapidly change.

It is crucial to assess the stress levels of these captive animals to ensure

appropriate behaviour and successful breeding. Excessive stress not only

threatens the well-being of the animals but also reduces the viability of their

offspring (Genie & Himmat, 2017).

Captive wild animals are kept for a variety of reasons, including conservation,

research, agriculture, and the exotic pet trade. While their basic physical

requirements are met, the cramped living circumstances and lack of human

connection can cause physiological stress. This stress response entails a

variety of hormonal and physiological mechanisms that assist animals in

potentially dangerous circumstances. The adrenomedullary response, for

example, causes a rise in heart rate and muscular tone, while increased

glucocorticoid (GC) hormones direct resources towards immediate survival.

While these stress reactions are beneficial, persistent stress can cause

physiological difficulties such as weight loss, immune system alterations, and

impaired reproductive capacities. Despite this, some people who work with

wild animals in captivity believe the animals will adjust to their new

surroundings. If the stress response is constantly stimulated, however, the

impacts of confinement on the animal's physiology may be long-lasting or

permanent (Fischer & Romero, 2017). Stereotypes have been linked to a

variety of activities ranging from dealing with conflict and frustration to

self-narcotization via endogenous opioid activation. However, the data

supporting these proposed roles is far from conclusive. Stereotypes are more

likely to be the outer manifestation of disruptions in brain neural systems that

govern behaviour persistence in reaction to environmental triggering variables

that combine with individual predisposing factors (Dantzer & R.,1991).

The animals housed in artificial habitats often face a variety of potentially

stressful situations that can have negative impacts on their well-being.

There are various stressors that captive animals may encounter, including

non-living environmental factors like artificial lighting, exposure to loud or

unpleasant sounds, irritating odours, uncomfortable temperatures or surfaces,

as well as captivity-specific stressors such as restricted mobility, limited space

for retreat, close proximity to humans, reduced feeding opportunities,

abnormal social grouping, and restricted behavioural opportunities (Morgan,

K. N., & Tromborg, C. T. 2007).

Although research supports the idea that these environmental elements can

cause stress in captive animals, there is no clear set of behavioural or

physiological responses that can definitively indicate the source of stress.

Therefore, it is the responsibility of animal caretakers and managers to assess

enclosures and husbandry practices to ensure that captive animals are provided

with optimal well-being (Morgan, K. N., & Tromborg, C. T. 2007).

Three research studies conducted on stumptailed macaques investigated the

occurrence of self-aggressive behaviour under varying housing conditions. In

group settings, environmental manipulations that led to an increase in social

aggression resulted in a decrease in self-aggression.

In response to a temporarily impoverished environment, self-aggression

increased in a group of monkeys. SA may be a means of increasing sensory

input in poor environments, much like stereotyped movements reported in

other species.
However, this is unlikely to be the case for group-living monkeys where

self-aggression appears to be primarily a form of redirected social aggression

(Young, 2003).

Repetitive behavioural sequences in purpose-bred laboratory animals are

commonly used as an indicator of psychological well-being, albeit

inaccurately. These monotonous, aimless, and repetitive behavioural patterns

are often provoked by the drugs being tested, and can be useful for researchers

in establishing certain brain-behaviour correlations that are not related to any

specific negative functional alteration in the animal (Bashaw, Bloomsmith,

Marr, & Maple, 2003; Dawkins, 1998).

Modifications in the frequency and manifestation of these repetitive

behaviours can aid in revealing the safety and toxicity of the drug of interest

prior to its approval for NDA. This analysis seeks to emphasise the

straightforward and intricate aspects of these behavioural engrams (Gauvin,

2018).

In an intriguing study, a cohort of chimpanzees was meticulously examined

before and after they were relocated from a laboratory setting to a newly

created island that emulated a natural habitat. The study revealed that after 22

weeks of inhabiting this innovative environment, stereotyped and self-directed

behaviour among the primates was significantly curtailed. Interestingly, while

social behaviour did not demonstrate any significant improvement, the animals

exhibited greater levels of activity and manipulation within the enriched and

vibrant milieu.
It appears that the ecological characteristics of a naturalistic habitat play a vital

role in fostering and maintaining normal and healthy behaviour patterns

among primates (Charles et al., 1982).

The concept of environmental enrichment has been used in various ways, with

some authors applying the term to environmental treatments without sufficient

evidence of improved animal welfare (Reichlin et al., 2011).

In some cases, the benefits of enrichment have been focused more on the

human experience than on the animals themselves (Fraser, 2003).

Additionally, the criteria used to evaluate enrichment have varied based on the

purpose of the animals in captivity, such as in laboratory, farm or zoo settings

(Mason and Latham, 2004).

Instead of constructing lists of various welfare indicators and giving them

equal weight, the assessment of animal welfare should focus on answering two

fundamental questions: "Are the animals healthy?" and "Do they have what

they want?".

Behaviour plays a significant role in answering both questions. Currently,

behaviour is used to help answer the first question by assessing pain, injury,

and disease in clinical and preclinical settings. Behaviour could have an even

more significant role if combined with new technology. Behaviour is also

crucial in gauging what animals want, particularly through choice and

preference tests, as well as through other methods suitable for on-farm welfare

assessment. Quantitative observations of animal spatial distribution and

behavioural "indicators" of what animals want, such as vocalisations, are

examples of such methods (Dawkins, 2004).

Animal welfare evaluation is critical for making educated judgements about

what is ethically acceptable in practice and improving laws targeted at animal

welfare protection. This thorough overview contains a plethora of knowledge

derived from numerous scientific fields such as animal welfare science,

psychology, biology, medicine, and veterinary medicine. As a result, it is an

excellent resource for animal welfare researchers, educators, students, and

professionals.

The study discusses major scientific elements of animal wellbeing and

includes a detailed examination of several methodologies for measuring

animal welfare, such as behavioural, physiological, and health-based indices.

It also emphasises the significance of addressing ethical, legal, and societal

problems while making animal care decisions (Donald & Ken, 2019).
STUDY AREA

The National Zoological Park (previously known as Delhi Zoo) is located in

New Delhi and covers an astounding 176 acres (71 hectares). This

one-of-a-kind attraction blends a 16th-century castle, lush flora, and an array

of fascinating animals and birds from across the world. The zoo may be

explored on foot or by renting a battery-powered car on-site. Outside food and

drink are not permitted, however a canteen is available for people's

convenience. The zoo is closed every Friday and on national holidays.

3.1 Historical Background

The establishment of the National Zoological Park in Delhi, India (Figure 3.1)

occurred several years after the construction of New Delhi. Despite

discussions on establishing a zoo in the national capital as early as 1951, it

wasn't until November 1959 that the park finally opened.

A committee was formed by the Indian Board for Wildlife in 1952 to assess

the potential of setting up a zoo in Delhi.

Major Aubrey Weinman from the Ceylon Zoological Garden was sought to

design the zoo, but the Zoological Garden of Hamburg's Carl Hagenbeck was

eventually hired, as he was available for the project's long-term duration.

Hagenbeck proposed moated cages in a preliminary plan submitted in March

1956.
Figure 3.1 Map of NZP, Delhi on USGS website in OpenStreetMap view. The premise is

enclosed by a continuous red line and the red arrows mark the data collection sites.
On November 1, 1959, the Delhi Zoo officially opened to the public. It was

renamed the National Zoological Park in 1982, with the intention that it would

function as a role model for other zoos in India.

3.2 Features

The National Zoological Park is an exceptional facility that provides a natural

environment for various species of birds, reptiles, and mammals. It serves as a

sanctuary for endangered species and is dedicated to ensuring their successful

breeding in captivity. With an environment that closely mimics their natural

habitat, the animals at the zoo can thrive and flourish. The park boasts an

impressive collection of animals, including rare and exotic species such as the

White Tiger, Gaur, Jaguar, Rhinoceros, Elephants, Brow-antlered Deer

(Sangai), Lion-tailed Macaque, and Migratory birds (which can be seen during

winters). It's a truly remarkable place where visitors can observe these

incredible animals up close and learn about the importance of conservation

efforts. It is located between the latitudes of 28° 12N and 28° 53′ N, and the

longitudes of 76° 50′ E and 77° 23′ E. The city's geologic history stretches

back to the Pleistocene epoch, which was marked by tectonic plate upheaval.

The Aravalli range hills and the Yamuna River are the region's distinctive

features. The research area's soil type ranges from sandy to clay loam, with a

pH of 7.5-8.2 (Chibbar, 1985; Singh & Kumar, 2006). NZP is located in a

semi-arid thorny tropical forest (Champion & Seth, 1968). The Delhi region

has a tropical, semi-arid, and hot climate, which is affected mostly by

southwest winds from the Arabian Sea, which provide rain.

The region receives roughly 798 mm of rainfall per year on average, with

relative humidity varying from 39 to 66% during the monsoon season. The

month of June is traditionally the warmest, while the months of December to

February are considered the coldest in this region. The average annual

maximum and lowest temperatures are 31.4 degrees Celsius and 19 degrees

Celsius, respectively (IMD, 2021).

3.3 Study Objectives

Given the constantly changing environmental backdrops of the capital and the

restrictive habitat of animals in captivity, this study has the following

objectives -

1. To investigate the physiological and behavioural responses of zoo animals

to changing climatic conditions.

2. To assess the impact of climate change on animal welfare in zoos.

3. To study the impact of extreme weather events on animal health and disease

incidence in zoos.

4. To explore the effects of changing climatic conditions on the activity

patterns and natural behaviours of zoo animals.

5. To develop recommendations for future management and policy decisions

that aim to protect zoo animals from the effects of climate change.
 Figure 3.2 The following image depicts one of the species selected for this study (Axis axis).

Figure 3.3 The following image depicts one of the species selected for this study (Panthera

pardus fusca).
METHODOLOGY

Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour. This field of study

focuses on understanding the various ways in which animals interact with their

environment and with each other. Ethologists study animals in their natural

habitats and observe their behaviours to develop a better understanding of how

they survive, mate, communicate, and raise their young. One of the key

principles of ethology is the concept of instinct. Instinct refers to an innate

behaviour that an animal is born with and that is passed down through

generations. Ethologists study how these instincts help animals adapt and

survive in their environment. Another important concept in ethology is the

study of social behaviour.

This includes the various ways in which animals interact with each other, such

as communication, aggression, and cooperation. Ethologists also study how

animals establish and maintain social hierarchies within their groups. The

study of animal cognition is also an important part of ethology. This includes

understanding how animals perceive their environment, learn from experience,

and problem solve. Ethologists study cognitive abilities across a wide range of

animal species, from insects to primates. Ethology is a broad and

interdisciplinary field that draws on knowledge from biology, psychology,

ecology, and evolution. The insights gained from this field can help inform our

understanding of animal welfare, conservation, and even human behaviour. In

this study, the utilized sampling method is Focal-sampling method as their

behavioural sampling technique.

This method is widely used in animal behaviour studies and involves closely

observing and recording all the behaviours of a single animal at predetermined

intervals for a short duration of time.

Collection of Data

For this study, primary data was collected through direct observation of

changes in behaviour and keeping an eye on any anomalous behaviour

performed. The time period for collection of this data has been from February

4th to March 4th 2023. The species selected for this study are Panthera pardus

fusca and Axis axis. Anomalous behaviour in animals in captivity can include

stereotypic behaviours, such as pacing, rocking or repetitive movements, and

self-injurious behaviour. These behaviours are often a result of the animal's

inability to perform natural behaviours or to cope with the stress of living in an

unnatural environment. Anomalous behaviour is a significant welfare concern,

and its presence is an indication that the animal's needs are not being met in

captivity. Effective management strategies that promote natural behaviour and

provide appropriate environmental enrichment can help prevent the

development of anomalous behaviour in various animals across species.

Data Collection for Leopards (Panthera pardus)

Panthera pardus fusca, commonly known as the Indian Leopard, is a

subspecies of leopard widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent.

These elusive felines are known for their ability to adapt to a variety of

habitats ranging from tropical rainforests to dry deciduous ones, from

grasslands to deserts and mountains, making them a highly versatile species.

Leopards, in general, are known for their elusive nature and are considered

one of the most adaptable big cats in the world. They have been known to

thrive in a variety of environments, including forests, grasslands, and even

urban areas. They are also able to hunt a variety of prey, including small

rodents and large ungulates, making them highly versatile predators. In India,

the Indian Leopard can be found in most forests, including the Western Ghats,

the Himalayas, and the Deccan Plateau. However, their numbers are declining

due to habitat loss, poaching, and conflict with humans. Conservation efforts

are underway to protect these majestic animals and ensure their long-term

survival. We observed a pair of male and female leopards confined in two

nearby cages. The arena areas in the enclosures were 158 and 136 square

metres, respectively. Enrichments such as logs, trees, flora, and a water supply

were installed in the cages to improve the leopards' living conditions. Every

day from 09:30 to 16:30, the animals were free to wander in the on-exhibit

enclosure. Except on Fridays, when no animals were let into the enclosure, the

leopards were fed a daily supper of buffalo meat in their night cages. As a

consequence, each topic was studied six days a week.

Table 4.1 - Details on studied individuals for leopards (Panthera pardus).

NAME COAT SEX AGE ORIGIN

Tejas Normal Male 10.8 Wild (Uttarakhand)

Babli Normal Female 6.25 Wild (Jammu)

Bunty Normal Male 11.9 Wild (Chattisgarh)

Bhuri Normal Female 12.9 Wild (Chattisgarh)

Data taken on 4th Feb, 2023

Table 4.2 - Ethogram based on the data taken for the Individual Leopards
Behaviours Tejas Babli Bunty Bhuri Total Frequency

LB 0.07 0 0.05 0.3 0.42

RA 0.56 2.02 0.56 2.06 5.2
SI 40.45 34.97 50.97 45.58 171.97
SL 2.41 16.86 5.53 2.08 26.88
ST 2.93 2.08 1.3 3.58 9.89
CL 0.71 0.12 0 0.91 1.74
CO 0 0 0 0 0
DR 0.85 0.45 0.58 0.97 2.85
EA 5.08 4.2 1.5 3.21 13.99
EX 0.19 0.19 0,19 0 0.38
GR 1.3 1.23 0 0.71 3.24
LI 0.19 0.52 1.17 0.32 2.2
OL 6.06 0.13 0.85 0.13 7.17
PL 0.26 0 0.26 1.1 1.62
RO 2.45 0.52 0.45 1.51 4.93
RU 0.58 2.25 0 4.05 6.88
SC 0 0.52 0.26 0.06 0.84
SM 2.41 0 3.15 2.13 7.69
VO 0.65 0.32 0.13 5.95 7.05
WL 6.12 5.27 6.57 6.31 24.27
PA (A) 36.26 12.5 36.85 22.72 108.33
CP (A) 40.8 36.6 38.2 43.4 159
TS 0.58 0.06 0 0.13 0.77

Table 4.3 - The following is a list of abbreviations and corresponding

behaviours for Panthera pardus fusca. (A denotes Anomalous Behaviour)
- LB: lying on back - PL: playing - WL: walking
- EA: eating - PA (A): pacing - EX: excreting
- CP (A): circular pacing - GR: grooming - RO: rolling over
- TS: tail/toe sucking - RA: resting awake - SI: sitting
- RU: running - SC: scratching - SM: scent marking
- SL: sleeping - CL: climbing - CO: cooling
- DR: drinking - LI: licking
 Figure 4.1 - Frequency chart for all the behaviours recorded for Panthera pardus.

Notice how the frequency for PA and CP is close to nominal behaviour such as SI.

Data Collection for Cheetal (Axis axis)

The Indian Spotted Deer, also known as the Chital (Axis axis) is a species of

deer native to the Indian subcontinent. It is a medium-sized deer, with a body

length of about 130-160 cm and a shoulder height of 70-90 cm. The male deer,

also known as a buck, weighs between 30-75 kg, while the female, or doe,

weighs between 25-45 kg. The Indian Spotted Deer is easily identified by its

distinctive coat, which is covered in white spots on a reddish-brown

background. The spots begin to fade as the deer grow older, and mature males

will often have a darker and more uniform coat. Another distinguishing feature

is their relatively short antlers, which are usually no longer than 30 cm. These

deer are primarily found in grasslands, dry deciduous forests, and open

woodlands across India, Sri Lanka, and parts of Nepal and Bangladesh.
They are herbivorous, and their diet mainly consists of grass, leaves, and

fruits. The Indian Spotted Deer is also an important prey species for many

carnivores, including tigers, leopards, and wild dogs. Females give birth to a

single fawn after a gestation period of around seven months, and they will

typically leave their young hidden in the vegetation while they go off to feed.

Captivity has both positive and negative effects on Indian spotted deer. On one

hand, captive environments provide a steady supply of food, protection from

predators, and veterinary care that wild populations may not have access to.

Additionally, captive deer may be protected from diseases that are prevalent in

wild populations.

On the other hand, captivity can also have negative impacts on Indian spotted

deer. Captive animals may experience stress due to confinement in smaller

spaces, lack of social interactions, and limited environmental enrichment.

Captive deer may also experience reproductive problems, reduced genetic

diversity, and may be more prone to diseases due to a lack of natural

immunity. Studies have shown that captive Indian spotted deer exhibit

different behaviours compared to wild populations, such as increased levels of

pacing, aggression, and decreased levels of social interaction. The lack of

natural stimuli can also result in abnormal behaviours, such as stereotypic

behaviour and self-injury. The data taken for the analysing the possibility of

anomalous behaviour in Axis axis was taken from the herd of 46 captive

within an enclosure of 6312 Sqm as random individuals were taken into

account and a set of behaviours from the ethogram were rated on a frequency

of 1-10, a list of abbreviations and corresponding behaviours was prepared,

where (A) denotes Anomalous Behaviour (Table 1.4).

Table 4.4 - Ethogram data for Axis axis.

Herd Behaviours

LD 5.32 - LD: lying down

PL 3.2 - PL: playing
WL 8.22 - WL: walking
EA 7.33 - EA: eating
PA (A) 5.2 - PA (A): pacing
EX 7.3 - EX: excreting
CP (A) 3.4 - CP (A): circular pacing
GR 2.3 - GR: grooming
RA 2.1 - CO: cooling
SI 1.3 - LI: licking
RU 1.19 - RA: resting awake
SL 6.06 - SI: sitting
DR 6.22 - RU: running
LI 2.45 - SL: sleeping
CO 2.1 - DR: drinking

Figure 4.2 - Frequency chart for all the behaviours recorded for Axis axis. Notice how
the frequency for PA is higher than CP, denoting a nominal herbivorous routine.
Results
The present study investigated the activity patterns and stereotypic behaviours

of Spotted deer (Axis axis) and Indian Leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) in

captivity. Focal animal sampling method was employed to record the

behavioural data. The study revealed that Spotted deer engaged in a significant

amount of inactivity, with sitting being the most common behaviour. Walking

was the most frequently performed active behaviour, followed by cooling. The

enriched zones of the enclosures were mostly utilized for active behaviours.

The deers also exhibited stereotypic behaviours, with pacing and circular

pacing being the two most common forms of anomalous behaviour. The

pacing behaviour was mainly performed towards the outer periphery of the

enclosure.

In contrast, Leopard subjects displayed a considerable amount of inactivity,

with sitting being the most common inactive behaviour. The middle and rear

areas of the enclosure were predominantly utilized for inactivity. The

Leopards exhibited active behaviours for only about 32% of their time in the

on-exhibit enclosure. Additionally, the study found that Leopards spent

approximately 57% of their time exhibiting stereotypic behaviours. Circular

pacing was found to be the most commonly exhibited anomalous behaviour.

Unlike Spotted deer, Leopards exhibited a more diverse range of stereotypic

behaviours, including pacing, and they paced towards the edges of the

enclosure. These results provide valuable insights into the activity patterns and

stereotypic behaviours of Spotted deer and Indian Leopards in captivity.

The high frequency of inactivity observed in both species is consistent with

previous studies on captive animals, which suggest that the lack of stimulation

and space in captive environments can result in decreased activity levels. The

finding that both species exhibit stereotypic behaviours is also consistent with

previous research, which has linked stereotypic behaviour to captivity-induced

stress.

The utilisation of enriched zones during active periods by both species

suggests that providing captive animals with an environment that includes

enrichment opportunities can encourage increased activity levels and reduce

stereotypic behaviours. However, further research is needed to identify the

most effective forms of enrichment for each species. The observation that

Leopards exhibit a more varied range of stereotypic behaviours highlights the

need for species-specific management strategies in captivity.

Discussions
The study found that the Indian Leopard was more susceptible to sudden

changes in temperature in comparison to the Indian Spotted Deer. The

leopards showed signs of distress and discomfort during abrupt changes in

temperature, while the deer adapted easily. The adaptability of both species

was found to be closely related to anthropogenic factors, such as the quality of

care provided, the level of human interaction, and the availability of resources.

The study also revealed that both the Indian Leopard and Indian Spotted Deer

were heavily dependent on anthropogenic factors for adapting to the stress

caused by climate change and captivity. These factors included the quality of

care, access to resources, and the level of human interaction. The overall

adaptability of the two species was found to be a direct function of

anthropogenic factors and their effectiveness. The effectiveness of the

anthropogenic factor here, can be defined in many dynamic ways. One of

these approaches may define this effectiveness as being affected by the

amount of expendable assets possessed by the ones who are in charge of

taking care of the animal in captivity. In facilities such as NZP Delhi, the

effectiveness of the anthropogenic factors can help the animals in captivity to

cope with the stress caused by a sudden change in climate to a certain extent.

Further analysis of the behavioural patterns revealed that the Indian Leopard

exhibited more aggressive behaviour than the Indian Spotted Deer, which

displayed a more docile behaviour. The leopards were observed to be more

territorial and were often seen marking their territory, while the deer preferred

to stay in groups and avoid confrontations.

Conclusion
In conclusion, this study provides valuable information on the behaviour of

Spotted deer and Indian Leopards in captivity, particularly in relation to their

activity patterns and stereotypic behaviours. The results suggest that the

provision of enriched environments can promote increased activity levels and

reduce the incidence of stereotypic behaviours in captive animals. These

findings can inform the development of management strategies for captive

populations of these species and contribute to improving their welfare in

captivity. This study also highlights the importance of adopting proactive

measures to mitigate the effects of climate change on captive animals. These

measures may include the creation of climate-controlled environments and the

provision of enrichment activities that can help alleviate stress in animals. It is

essential to recognize the role of human activity in the stress experienced by

captive animals. Anthropogenic factors, such as habitat destruction and

climate change, have significant implications for the welfare of captive

animals. Therefore, conservation efforts should focus on addressing the root

causes of these problems to ensure the long-term well-being of animals in

captivity. Moreover, this study underscores the need for further research into

the effects of climate change on animal behaviour and welfare. There is still

much to learn about how climate change will impact animals in captivity and

what steps can be taken to mitigate these impacts. In conclusion, this study

highlights the importance of recognizing the impact of climate change on

captive animal welfare and the need for proactive measures to address the

issue.
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