TABLE OF CONTENTS

SYLLABUS
aeaewable EDer1Y Engilleertng- 2181910 Chapter - 1 Scenario of Renewable Energy (RE) Sources (1 - 1) to (1 - 16)
1.l lntroduction .......................................................................................................1- 2
ol Renewable berlJ (Ill) Sourca , Needs of renewable enervY. advamaqes anc 1.2 Introduction to Energy ......................................................................................1 - 2
I SclMltO ___..o of conventional and RI! sources. (Chapter I)
11mb110N of RI! present enef'ID' ..,.,,..., • 1.2.1 Classification of Energy . .... .... . .. .. .. . ... . .... ... . . .. ... .. ......... 1 - 2
the sun spectral distribution. solar radiation outside th,
......,. 1rom
t. Solar !Miff l!nerv, av......-
__ ..,
.
........... surface solar radiation qeometry. Instruments for solar
1.3 Renewable Energy .............................................................................................1- s
ea1II s aanosphere aaN at """ ......, 5 •
radladOCI mea.suremenis emplrtcal equations for prediction of avallabillty of solar radiation. 1.3.~ Definition of Renewable Energy . . .... .. ..... . ..... ... ................. 1- s
nclladOD Oil tilted surface 1.3.2 Need of Renewable Energy .. . .. . .... . .. . . .. ..... . .. .. .... . ........... 1 - 6
l0lar enerw conven1on Into heat types of solar collectors. evacuated and non-evacuated solar
1.3.3 Advantages of Renewable Energy .... . . . .. .. ........ ... ... . ........... 1 - 6
air beater concentrated collectors. thermal analysl.s of liquid flat plate collector. air heater and
c,llndl1Cal parabOllc collector. solar enervY thermal storaqe. heatll\i and coollnq of bulldln11s. 1.3.4 Disadvantages of Renewable Energy . . ... . ....... . .. . .............. . .. 1 - 7
101ar pumplnQ solar cooller. solar still. solar drier. solar refrlieratlon and air condltlontn11. solar 1.3.5 Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources ...... . ....... 1- 8
pond. hellostM. solar furnace. photovoltaic system for power 11eneratlon, solar cell modules and
1.3.6 Difference between Renewable Energy and Non-Renewable Energy ........ 1- 8
am,s. JOier ceD types. material. applications. advantaqes and dlsadvantaqeS.
~I.JI 1.3.7 Difference between Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Sources .... 1 - 8

I .,... e-., : l!nerv, available from wind. bastes of lift and drii. basics of wind enerq')'
cwwuluii s,stem. effect of density. anqle of attacll and wind speed. windmill rotors. hortzoma:
and tenlcal ues ro1ors. drae. lift. torque and power coefficients. tip speed ratio. solidity of turbine.
wind llll1llne performance curves. wind enerQY potential and site selection, basics of wind farm
0..-41
1.4 Present Energy Scenario of Conventional and RE Sources ................................1- 9
1.4.1 Solar Energy Status . ............. . ................................. 1 - 10
1.4.2 Wind Energy St atus ................... . ............................ 1- 11
1.4.3 Hydro Energy Status .................................... . ... . ...... 1 - 12

'- llo !-v, . Types of bloqas plants. bl<>qas eeneratlon. factors affectllli bloqas veneration 1.4.4 Biomass Energy Status .......... . .................................. 1 - 12
ldftn~ and dlsadvan~. biomass enerQY, enerQY plantation. qaslHcatlon. types and 1.4.5 Geothermal Energy Status . ............................ . ............ 1- 13
appUcadons of Vastflen <a.ea- SI
1.4.6 Tidal Energy Status ............................. ................... 1 - 14
1 Ocean l!Da'ff ' OTEC principle. open. closed and hybrid cycle OTl!C system EnerQY from tides 1.4.7 Ocean Energy Status ......... .. .................................... 1- 14
admatlon of tidal ,,,_.,. tidal nnm
and .---·
I
.--er Pants. n1
sln".e and double basin plants.' site requlrement.s.
ld9antaea limitations. wave enerQY. wave enervY conversion devices advantaqes and Review Questions .................................................................................................1-15
dlslld'9aniavcs, ocean lhennaI en- 11•-th ·
dominated systems •• u '""' ermal tllerfJ , Introduction. vapor and Uquld
University Questions with Answers ......................................................................1 - 15
.t,..,.___ pll. binaiy cycle. hot dry rocll resources. mavma resources advantaqes and
- • - . a,
a.,.. _ - ap cations. MHD Power •• - nerad on : concept and worlll!li principle.
·
Chapter - 2 Solar Energy (2 - 1) to (2 - 56)

I !coaomk: Analysla . lnltlal and IMual COSt basic 2.l lntroduction ....................................................................................................... 2- 2
repeymau of loan 1n equal annual,.,__ ,._ · definitions. present worth calculations
""""""'ents. annual """"ft5 ..,. I 2.1.1 Essential Subsystems in a Solar Energy Plant ............................ 2 - 2
a.&. economic analysb of add on IOlar -·"• • curn....,tl\le SIIVl!li and life eye e
a.,_.,, SJSlem. paybacl! period. clean development mechanism 2.1.2 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Solar Energy............... 2 - 3
2.1.2.1 Advantages . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3

(v)
 . ... . 2·3 2.7 Empirical Equations for Prediction of Availability
2·4 of Solar Radiation ............................................................................................2. 28

".....,r: AXIi•
uAvailable from the Sun - ·····-······-······················································ ..
2-
4
2.7.1 Numerical on Solar Radiation ..........•.......... .................•. 2- 30

2.2En«IY ..........................................2-s 2.8 Radiation on Tilted Surface .............................................................................2 - 33

2.3 5pedrll [)istribution ...._......-................................ 2-7 2.8.1 Direct Radiation ......... ........ .. ............. .................. 2. 33
23 l Terms used in Sol¥ Radiation ................................... . ... .
2.8.2 Diffuse Radiation .................................................. 2 • 33

2 • Solar RadiatJOn Outside the Earth's Atmosphere .....................................2 - 8 2.8.3 Reflected Radiation ....... . ........ . . .......... ......•............ 2 - 34
and at the Earth's Surface --··-·····................................ 2.8.4 Total Radiation on Tilted Surface ..................................... 2 - 34
~ _,,._ the Earth's Atmosphere (Extra-Terrestrial Radiation). 2 • 8
2.• 1 Solar RadiatiCJn uuuouo: 2.9 Solar Energy Conversion into Heat ..................................................................2 - 34
2.4.U Solar (onstant (GscI • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .•.•.. . 2·8
· the Earth's Surface (Terrestrial Radiation) ..........•.... 2 • 8 2.10 Solar Collectors .............................................................................................2 - 36
2 ,.2 Solar RadiatiOn at .
2 9 2.10.1 Non Concentrating Collectors....................................... 2 - 36
25 Solar R.ac:llation Geometry ....................... ········ ·............ ···· ········· ....................... · -
2.5.1 Oedination, 6 ..•••••..•••......................................... 2 - 10 2.10.1.1 Flat Plate Collectors (Glaze Type) Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 • 36

z..s 2 Hour Anlle (h) ••••••..•..................•.... . .•.......•.......•. 2 - 10 2.10.1.2 Thennal Analysis of Flat Plate Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 • 40
2 ·10 2.10.2 Concentric Collectors ..........................•.................. 2 • 44
u.2.1 Solar Altitude I f:I I . . · · ·
2 · 11 2.10.2.1 Lens Focusing Type 2·45
2.s u Solar AzimUrh Ancte IYcl·
2 · 11 2.10.2.2 FPC with Reflectors . 2·45
2.s.23 Suma Azimuth : , 1ps11 .
2· 11 2.10.2.3 Lens Focusing Type. 2 • 46
2.5.lA Sumce Solar Azimuth ; y (aamma) .
2.10.3 Difference between Concentric and Flat Plate Collector ... . ............. 2 - 47
2.5 2 5 Ancle of Incidence (8) 2 · 11
2.11 Solar Energy Thermal Storage .......................................................................2 - 47
2.S 2.6 Sun Rise and Set Times and Day Length 2 • 11
2.11.1 Sensible Heat ............................. . .................. . ... 2 • 47
Z..S3 Solar Time • • • • • • • • • • • . . . .•.•.•.•. . .••.•.•...•••.•••••..••••.. 2 - 12
2.11.2 Phase Change Reactions (Latent Heat) ............ . .................. 2 - 47
2.53 1 Numerlcal on Solar Tlme . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . 2 • 12
2.11.3 Thermochemical Reactions .......... . .............................. 2- 48
2 6 Instruments for Solar Radiation Measurements ............................................2 - 19
2.6.1 Pyranometer •. ...••......... ..... ............... .........•.... . .. 2 • 20 2.12 Evacuated Tube Collectors ........................................................................... 2 - 48
2.6 2 Pyrohel101'1)eter ••••• ••..•.• ••... .••........•••......••. •••.•. .• ..• 2 - 21 2.12.1 Thermal Analysis of an Evacuated Tube Collector ....... . ...... ... ..... 2 • 50
l 6l 1 Anptrom Electrial Compensation Pyrhellometer . 2 • 22 Review Questions .................................................................................................2 - 51
2..6 2.2 5-r-Oisk Pyrheliometer. • • 2 · 23 University Questions with Answers ...................................................................... 2 - 52
2.6.2.3 Thermoelectnc Pyrheliometer • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 • 24
Chapter- 3 Applications of the Solar ,Energy (3 - 1) to (3 • 30)
2.63 Sun Recorder ....................................... . ............. 2 _ 25
2..6.3 1 Campbel.Slakes Sunshine Recorders • . 2 • 25 3.1 Solar Energy Applications ..................................................................................3 • 2
2 6.3.2 Jonlan Sunshn Recorden . . . . . . . . . . 2•27 3.2 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings ..............................................................3-2
2.6 3.3 Rotabr!I MirrorSunshine Recorders . 2 • 28 . . pace eat ·,ng..... . ..... • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · . .......... . .... 3 - 2
321S H

(vi) (vil)
 . 3-3 3.8.5 Applications of Solar Ponds .. .......... •....... . .•......•.•......... 3 - 19
........ 3.9 Solar Furnace .................................................................................••.........••..... 3 _ 19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
J.l 1.2 PasslW ~ • · · • • ." . . . . ........... 3 - 4 3.9.1 Construction and Working ...... . .. ....•... ..... ..........•......••. 3 -19
J.l.2 5paD! Coolinl (Solar Cooling of Bu1ld1ng) • • · · · · · · · · · · · · • · · · •
3.9.2 Advantages and Applications .....•....................•............. 3 - 20
-···· ······-······-···································································3 - 5 3.9.2.1 Advantages. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 20
3.3 SoQr ~ • . 3 7
3 4 Solar Cooker -·····-·····---··--·········-··································································· - 3.9.2.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 3 • 20
3 7
3-' 1 Boll Type Solar Cooker.••• · · • · • · · • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - 3.10 Photovoltaic System for Power Generation ...•...........••.........•..............•.••••...3 - 20
1 u.1 Consffildi0n and wonarc . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • · · · · 3•7
3.11 Solar Cell .....................•................•..•.............••..........•................................... 3 _ 22
3A.1.2 AdvafflaCeS Mid l)isadvantages. . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 3. 8
3.11.1 Modules and Arrays ........ . ... ........ .. ...... ..... . ......... . .. 3 _22
3 4.2 Dish Type Solar Cooker ••........ • • • • • • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 3 • 8
3.11.2 Solar Cell Types .............................•...•................ 3 _24
3 43 Community Solar Cooker ...•.•............ • . • • • • • • • • • • · • • · • • · · · · · • · • 3 • 9
3.11.3 Material .. ... . .. .......... .. ....... . ......... . ........ . ......... 3 _ 25
3A3 1 Construction • • • • . . • · · • · · · · • · · · · • • · • · · · · · 3 · 9
3.11.4 Advantages and Disadvantages ........ .. ...... . .................... 3 • 26
3A 3.2 Advantages. , • • . • . • . . . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . · 3 • 10
3.11.5 Applications . .. ..... ..............................•.............. 3 • 26
3.4.33 AppliationS . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 3 • 11
Review Questions ..................................................................................................3 - 26
3 S Solar Still (Solar Distillation) .............................•.........•.............................•......3 - 11
3.5.1 ConstructlOn and Working ......................•................... 3 -11 University Questions with Answers ......................................................................3 - 27

3.5.2 Advantages •• •••. ••. •. ...........................•... .. . .......... 3 • 12 Chapter- 4 Wind Energy (4 - 1) to (4 - 34)

3.6 Solar Dryer ·-·····•--"'··"··..................................................................................3 - 12 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................4 - 2

3 6 1 Construction and Details ................. .......• ........ .. . . ... .... 3 • 12 4.2 Principal of Wind Energy (Energy Available from the Wind) .............................4 - 2
3 6.2 Advantages . •• • ••• .. • ..................•........•... .............. 3 • 13 4.2.1 Equation of the Maximum Power ..................................... 4. 4
3 63 Disadvantages • •••..••.. .................... •. .... ...••.•.. . .. . ... 3 • 13
4.3 Basic Components of Wind Mill .........................................................................4 - 7
3.7 Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning ........................................................3 - 13
4.4 Basics of Lift and Drag.......~ ....•...............•.............................••..........•....•..........4 -10
3.7.1 Solar Refrigeration •...•....•........•......•...•.••• •...•• •. ••.•••• 3 . 13
4.4.1 Lift . .............................. . .............................. 4. 10
3 711 l'llot<Mlltliic (PV) Operated Solar Energy System. 3. 13
4.4.2 Drag .. .............. . ....... ... ................................. 4. 11
3.7 1.2 Medlanlcal Solar llefrig@ratlon System . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 • 14
4.5 Basics of Wind Energy Conversion System ......................................................4 - 12
3.7 13 Solar Vapour Absorption System
3 7.2 Solar Air Condition! · · · · · · · · · · · · • . . . . . . 3 · 14
ng • · · • · • • • • • • ... ... .... .. • . ........ . ....... ••.. . 3 - 16 4.6 Classification of Wind Mills ...•••..........................•.•.................•••.......................4 - 13
3.8 Solar Pond 4.6.1 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (Darrius Wind Turbine) ...................... 4 • 13
3.8.1 What ~-Solar Pond? •••••..••••• : ..................................................3 - 17 4· 13
4.6.1.1 Construction and Worlcing . . . . . .
382Conltruction .. · •· ······· ..... ······· ·· ··· ... . 3-17
and Working of the Solar Pond 4.6.1.2 Advantages of Vertical Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . 4 · 14
3.UActvanuaes ······ ·· ············ ·······3-17
3.IA Limitations • ..... • •.•• •....•. ' ... ..... · • • · · · · · · · · · · · · .... ..... ... 3 - 18 4.6.1.3 Disadvantages of Vertical Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 · 14
4.6.2 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) ...... .. ......... . .............. 4 -15
.......•.•.....••...... ' .• · · · · · · · · · · · · · .... ........ 3- 18
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(viii)
 4-15 5.3 Bio Gas Generation ............................................................................................5 - s
. . .. . 5.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion. . . .. ... ......... .. . ..... . ...... . ......••.... .. •. s - 6
•u i (onlCJVdloll and w~ 4 - 15
.....
•.u.2 ~ d HoriZOfltal Wind Turbines • • 5.3.2 Steps in Biogas Production . ...... . . .... .. ....... .. ...... . ... . .•...... 5 - 6
. 4-16
• ,.2.2 l)isaClvanUPS of Honzonul Wind Turbines . 5.3.2.1 Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 8
. d Horizontal Axis Wind Mill ....................4 - 16
• l)lfference t,etween VerticaI Ax1s an 5.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Anaerobic Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 9
1 4 17 5.3.3 Fermentation ... ....... . . . . . . . .... ... . . .............. .. .. . .•..... . . 5 - 9
,., Effect of Parameters on Wind ....................................................... ······· ······· ··· -
4 17 5.3.4 Factors Affecting Bio Gas Generation ... ... . . . . .. ...... . .... • ...... . .. 5 - 10
,.a.1 Effect of Oenstty • • •• . • •• •• •. .•....... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · -
4.11.2 Angle of Attack and Wmd Speed .............. · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 4 -17
5.4 Types of Biogas Plants ••............................................•...................•................•.5 - 12
4 17 5.4.l Continuous and Batch Type ... .... . .. . . .... . • ... .. ....... . .......... 5 -12
4.83 Ora& and Lift . ••••• •.••. • .•...•........ •••••••········· · · · · · · · · · · · · -
5.4.2 Dome and Orum Type . ....... .. . . . . . ... ... .......... .. ........ .. ... 5 - 14
4 8 4 TOfque and Power Coefficients ......••...... • . • • • • • • • • • · • • · · • • · · • · · · 4 - 18
5.4.3 Comparison between Floating Orum and Fixed Dome Type Plant . ... .. . ... 5 - 17
4 .8 S Tip Speed Ratio •• • •.•• • .••......... · . · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 4 - l8
5.4.4 Different Variations in the Orum Type .. . . . . . ... ..... .... . ......... . ... 5 - 18
........................................... 4 - 19
4 8 6 Solidity ofTurbine . . 5.4.4.1 Kachra Gas Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 18
4.9 Wind Turbine Performance Curves .................................................................4 - 19
5.4.4.2 Bio Gas Plant for Water Hyacinth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 19
4 .9 1 Power Speed Characteristics Curves ..........•......• •• •.•. • •.... • .. . 4 - 19 5.4.5 Problems Related to Bio-gas Plant ... ... ....... . . . ........ . ..... . ..... 5 - 21
4 9.2 Torque Speed Curve ....................•...... •• .•... • •....•.. • •• . 4 - 20
5.5 Energy Plantation ......... ........................................................•........•.................5 - 21
4.10 Wind Energy Potential and Site Selection ........................•......•............•.....•.4- 25 5.5.l Advantages of Energy Plantation .. .. ..... . . . ..............•... . .. . ... 5 - 22

4.11 Site Selection Considerations ..........................................................•..•....•.....4 - 27 5.5.2 Disadvantages of Energy Plantation . .. . ..................... . ..... . ... 5 - 23

4.12 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Wind Power ....•.................4 - 28
4.121 Advantages of Wind Power ................... . .......• ..... . .. . ... 4 - 28
4.122 Disadvantages of Wind Power ................ . ....•...•• ........... 4 - 29
4.12.3 Applications of Wind Power ....................... . ..... . . .•...• . .. 4 - 29
4.13 Wind Farm •._.................................................................................................4 - 29
4.13.1 Wind Farm in India . •.. .•................. . ... . ...... . .. . .. .. . .•.. 4 - 30
5.6 Biomass Gasification ...................................................................... ..................5 - 23
5.6.l Advantages of Biomass Gasification Technology .. ...................... 5 - 24
5.7 Types of Gasifiers .............................................................................................5 - 25
5.7 .1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Gasifier .............. . ....... S - 28
5.7.2 Applications of Biomass Gasifier .... . .......... . .. . ...... . ....... . ... s - 29
5.8 Comparison between Biomass and Conventional Fuel ...................................5 - 31

Review Questions .............................. .............. . ············••♦>••···--····························4 Review Questions .....•...................•....•..............••.....................•............................5 - 32

• - 32
University Questions with Answers ...•.................................................................. _ 32 ~ University Questions with Answers ..........•...........................................................5 - 32

Chapter - 5 Bio Energy (5 - 1) to (5 - 34) Ocean Energy (6 - 1) to (6 - 72)

Chapter - 6
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... .5 - 2 6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................6 - 3
5.2 Biomass 5 2 6.2 Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) ....................................6 - 3
5.2.1 Biomass Resources ....·• : :·:·::·:·:·.-:·:·.-·.·:·:·.-·.·:·:·:·.·:·:····..····················.. ·········· - 6.2.1 Open Cycle OTEC System (Claude Cycle) . . ......... . ......•............. 6 - 4
5 2.2 Advantages of Biomass Ene .. .• .................. 5 - 2
52.3 Disadvantages of Biomass E: .• • ..........•........................ . . 5 - 4 6.2.2 Oose or Anderson or•Rankine, OTEC Cycle System ............ . ......... 6 - 6

rgy • • • •• •. ....••..... • .....••..•.•.•.... 5-4 6.2.3 H rid de OTEC ... . ...... . .... . ..... . ........ . . . . · ... . .. · ........ 6 - 7
(xi)
(x)

. .............................................................................................6 - 8
ulleMfits. ..
.................................................................................................6 - 9
6.4 IJ,nltatiol'IS 5 6.20 Geothermal Resources .................................................................................6 _ 46
6 5 OTEC In lndia ............- ...................................................................................... - g
6
6 6 OTEC Power Station in the World ....................................................... ············ - 10 ,
5 6.20.2 Geopressured Resources ......... . ................................ 6 _52
6 7 Site Selection for OTEC ...- .............................................................................. - 10
5
6.8 Energy from Tides ........................................................................................... - 11
6.8 1 Introduction to Tidal Energy ........................ • • • .. • • • • · • • · .. • • 6 - 11
6.8 2 Tidal CharacterisbCS.••....................... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • 6 - 11
6.9 Estimation of Tidal Power in Single Basis System ...........................................6 - 15
6.10 Tidal Power Plants .........................................................................................6 - 21
610.1 c.omponents of Tidal Power Plants ................... .. ...... ..... . . 6 - 21
6.10.2 OasslfiatiOn and Operation of Tidal Power Plant ...................... 6- 22
6.11 Site Requirements for Tidal Power Plant.......................................................6 - 25
6.12 Advantages and Disadvantages ofTldal Energy Power Plants ....................6 - 26
6.12.1 Advantages of Tidal Energy Power Plants .. ........ . ..............•. . 6 - 26
6.12.2 Disadvantages of Tidal Energy Power Plants .......................... 6 - 26
6.13 Wave Energy ...............................................................................................6 - 26
6.13.1 Power In Waves .••• •...•..... .. ..... . ..... •. .. .. ........ . ....... 6 - 27
6.18.2 Disadvantages . ................... . .............................. 6•44
6.19 Geothermal Energy ........................................................................................6 _44
6.20.1 Hydrothermal Resources .......... . ................... . ........... 6 _46
6.20.1.1 Comparison between Vapour Dominated and Liquid Dominated P1ants . . 6 - 52
6.20.3 Petro-geothermal Resources or Hot Ory Rocks (HOR) Resources . ........ 6 - 53
6.20.4 Magma Resources (Magmatic or Molten Rock Chambers Systems) ........ 6 - 54
6.21 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
Over Other Energy Forms .............................................................................6 _ 55
6.21.1 Advantages of Geothermal Energy ................................. 6 - ss
6.21.2 Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy ................................ 6- ss
6.22 Geothermal Energy Scenario : World ............................................................6 - 56
6.23 Geothermal Energy Scenario : India ...........................................................6 - 57
6.24 Magneto Hydro Dynamic (MHD) Generation ...............................................6 - 60
6.24.1 Introduction ...........................................•......... 6 _60
6.24.2 Principle of Operation of MHD Generator............................. 6 - 60
6.24.3 Types of MHD System .................................... . ........ 6. 61
6.24.4 Advantages of MHD Generation .................. . . ................ 6. 66
6.24.S Disadvantages of MHD Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 6 - 66

6.14 Wave Energy Conversion Devices..................................................................6 _ 31
6.14.1 Wave Energy Conversion by Floats •. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. · .•.......••... 6 -31
6.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Energy .................................................6 - 37
6.15.1 Advantages of Wave Energy ........................ . .............. 6 _ 37
6.15.2 Disadvanta,es of Wave Energy • ••......•....... .•......•..... .••.. • 6 - 37
6.25 Comparison between Open Cycle and Closed Cycle MHD System ................6 - 67
Review Questions .................................................................................................6 - 67
University Questions with Answers ......................................................................6- 68
Economic Analysis (7 - 1) to (7 - 20)
Chapter- 7
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................7 - 2

=
6.16 Examples of Wave Energy Applications Around the World ...........................6- 38
7.2 Initial Cost and Annual Cost ...............................................................................7 - 2
Scale Hydro Power ........

=:: ~:m··. ··········. . ........

Small
6.176.17.l Classlfiation ...........................................................6 - 38 7.2.1 Initial Cost ............. . ........................................... 7 - 3
U7 2 ~ : 6- 40 7.2.2 Annual Cost ...................................... .... . ............ 7 - 3
618 ............................. 6-40
7.3 Important Definitions ........................................................................................7 - 4
Advantages
6.18.l and Disadvantages Hydro Power Plant ......................................6 - 44
AdvanbieS
7.4 Present Worth calculations ...............................................................................7- 5
............... ... . .. .. . .. .................... 6 -44
(xill)
 7.5 ~ a# u,an in Equal AMual Installments .............................................7 - 6
.-------Jr CHAPTER - , 1' - - - - - - ~
7 6 AnnUII s,v;ngs. ---···-····-·····-····················································.··.·:·:·.·:·:·:·.·:·:~ ~:
7.61 ~ for AnnUill SaYl"I .. · • . • · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
SC£NARIOOF
7 7 eumulathle Savings and Life Cycle SaVings ······································'"·····...•······· -
7 8
RENEWABLE £N£R6Y {RE) SOURCES
7 11
7.8 economic Analysis of Acid on Solar System •········································· ··· ······· · •
Syllabus : Needs of renewable energy, advantages and limitations of RE, present
7.9 p'fback Period -··-...--•···············································································7 - 12 energy scenario of conventional and RE sources.
7
7 10 Oean Development Mechanism.................................................................... · l4
7
7 10.1 Ob1ectJve of COM •••.•.•......•.. · · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - l6 Section No. Topic Name Page No.
7.10 2 Project Cycle for COM .......... . ...... · · · · · · • • · · · · · · · · · • · · .. · · · · · 7 - 16
1.1 Introduction 1-2
RevieW Quesoons ........- ......................................................................................7-18
1.2 Introduction to Energy 1-2
(S - 1) to (S - 24)
Solved l.Jniwnity Quation Papen 1.3 Renewable Energy 1-5
May- 2011 ..- ..........................................................................................(S - 1) to (S - 2)
1.4 Present Energy Scenario of Conventional and RE Sources 1-9
December. 2011-····-·..·•·········..............................................................(S - 3) to (S - 4)
Review Questions 1 - 15
May- 2012 ••_.............- ..........................................................................(S - 5) to (s - 6)
University Question with Answers 1 - 15
Winter- 2012-·····-····..·•·..···················..···· ........................................... (S- 7) to (S- 8)

Summer- 2013 ......................................................................................(S - 9) to (S - 10)

Winter - 2013 _ ......- ...........................................................................(S - 11) to (S - 12)

Summer· 2014 .....·-······-··.................................................................(S - 13) to (S - 14)

Winter - 2014-.....- .......................................................................... (S - 15) to (S - 16)

Summer· 2015 ....................................................................................(S -17) to (S _ 18)

Winter - 2015 -········.......................................................................... (S - 19) to (S - 20)

Summer - 2016....................................................................................(S _ 21) to (S _ 22)

Winter - 2016 ·--..................·-..........................................................(S - 23) to (S - 24)

1-1 Renewable Energy EnglnNring

 Scenario of Renewable Enel]IY (RE) Sou~
.J- tte fnMP" IRE) Sources
IC 1o-...- ~
1. Primary and Secondary Energy

t '\ lllil •
• •
d IP
» _..,..S• _.,,,_.
--i!III
. . 0 ....- - ~
.-nJ ~ - such as sunlight,
---"le (uaturaliY replenished).
•
•
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as

--. -. _.. Id - -
.....-- arc,_.,..- · came frolD renewables
wood).
• Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive
• II - . .,,_ II % of pabe1 final -,.Y ~ - . . i n 2 . ,
• J".,..... (ramndilJODll
,_.....
~
audi•wuuu-v-~
providiD8 31/e. followed by
l(JUICC,
substances, thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to
earth's gravity.
•

. ...,...
B,6 I •'dJ--dleaat--

-
~ - ..
_..._ ~ w h i c h ~ 1.3 %-
_.,.a. --~

.....--
-,.y, wind power, solar power, and
...., ~ provided IIQIDC o.a % of final eDIS!Y consumption.
.
•. _.__.,,_. are c:riticised for being urtennittent or
Source

Coal
Extractk)n
Primary energy
s.condaryenef'IIY

----Steam
- - - - Toennal
• Saal .........
_...i.-a,..-v. aYlSIY - - ----"
yet die marbt II growmg for many forms of ~ - l e energy.
3 _, ..__ -•• of __._. annualiY, with a worldwide
30
• Wad power • growmg - ""' •- .,.,.~-
_..._ c:apea1Y of aver 100 GW, and is widely used m · several European
EleetricitY
C01111111CS and die Uni1ed State1-
Nuclear

1.2 ~ to EnervY
• NI'/ pbyaical ICIJVl1Y m thia world, wbdher carried out by hum.ID beings or by
.-c, • c:alllC due 10 flow of energy in one form or the Olher- Natural gas
• 1bc wCJrd c,r,sg/ iuelf d derived from the Greek word •eo-ergoo', which means -Thermal

'm-wort'«'wmtwm:nt•
• 1bc work odpla depcDdl 1hc c:ncrgy input.
OIi
Petroleum
• f.ncrlY II one of die maJOf inpUII for the economic deve\opmcot of any countrY•
• ID die C11C of the ckvelopmg countries. the energy sector assumes a critical
Fig. 1.2.1 Major primary and secondary sonrcea
miporllllCC • Vie'# of die ever mcrcum& energy needs requiring huge investments

io.-dlcm. • Toe major primarY and secondary energy sources are shown in Fig. 1.2. l.
• J>rimarY energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary
1.2.1 QIMlllc8tlon of Energy energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity.
• f.aslY ca be claified mto 1CVeral types bucd on the following criteria :
I PrilllrY and Sec:cmdlr>' energy • J>rimarY energy can also be used directly.
• Some energy sources have non energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be
2. mial and Nca-c:ommacial energy
used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.
J I a wtblc and Non-Renewable energy
4 c.:n, ........ and Non-conventional energy
Renewable En•l"IIY Engineering
1•3

1 -2
 ~ ol Rlilll~ble 'f'!!'P" fREl Sources ScenariO of Renewable Enerpy (RE} Sources

------------
1. CIC_ _ _ _ - - , and Noll

• n,, - dll
LC 0 r.-11
- ,._ . . -
~ EnetVY
., tb<-"" m< , ,,,_ price ""'know,
Non - nnewable enervY

• -~cuerl)'
By . . . . . ---of_..,__,,..,-.ooal md
• ~ Cf1/ISIY ronns
.--pdlokUDproctucu- tbe baSis of jndustria1. agricuitural, uansport and
~ c1,:velopmml m the modem world.
• 111 me ~ coun1ries. ~ fuels are prcoommant source not
Clllly for C(XJDOIDJC proctucnoo, but also for many bou5Ch<>ld tasks of general

popillbOO Natural gas

• uanplc:s EJcclrici1Y, hgn.ite, coal. oil. natural gas de-
ll Nae,Ceaaerdai EDera Gll(JlhenTlal energy
Wind energy
• The Cf1/ISIY ,ourccs tba1 arc not available in the commercial market for a price are
Fig. 1.1.1
c:lasSificd as noo<OIIIJ!lOCW energy.
• ~ energy sources include fuels such as tireWood. cattle dung and 4. Conventional Energy & Non-conventional energy
apicultllnl wasteS. which are traditionally pthered. and not bought at a price used
especiaDY m run! households. These are also called traditional fuels. L Conventional Energy
• Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades
~ energy is often ignored in energy accounting. and were in common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy
• Eumple Firewood. agro waste in run! areas; solar energy for water heating, resources, e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
dedriCltY generation. for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for uansport,
dllabing. lifting water for irrigation. aushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting lL Non-conventional energy
• Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large - scale use after
waaa and electricity generation. oil crisis of 1973, are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind,
3. fl;.;btl•rMlfl Energy and Non-Reft8Wable Energy biomass, etc.
• Rmcwablc energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially

• mahe!lbl:,le
Eumplc:s of n:ncwable resources include wind power, solar power, geothennal
eacrgy, tidal power and hydroelectric power (See Figure 1.2.2).
The .,.."'"'....,
---------=:.=..-------------------
1.3 Renewable Energy
1.3.1 Definition of Renewable Energy
• "Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which
• moll 1111po11ant feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind. rain, tides.
the rdealc of harmful ponutants. waves and geothermal heat."
• Nc,n-nllcWlblc
_.a...:...1. . the conventional fossil fuels such u coal, oil and gas
enc:rgy II
wlllWI arc lady to deplete with time. '
Renewable energy Englneerino
1-5

1 •4 Renewable Energy Englneerin9

 Scenario of Renewable Enerqy (RE) Sources

3. Only uses the energy from the sun

t.s.J ...... -' ......... ~people evcr,.,.,-bcre in the wodd. • ~ . is proven 10 be advantageous because even the systemS may fit on already
• 8IISIY • v«Y apormil ~ fossil and nuclc:ar fuels to meet most eXJstmg buildings.
• The systems are not mainly affecting the use of lands; however, it may still require
• w-r --- aan:odY rely OIi
fll _. flll4Y ~ . · t,ecauSC fossil fuels are nmning out materials.

•
-' =
• ....- • rcocwat>lc energy sources 1S groWJDg

•"'
people arc worried - - the way
e.g the _..,,._ e(fect and acid rain-
19- - •
11ir paitiou,e effect IS caused by Ill ilJaCISC m tbe
•
t,uming fossil fuels damages the

cooccnttation of gases such

"- With renewable energy comes the creation of jobs
•

•
Among regions that already have turned to renewable energy, there is a change and
economic growth is even seen.
As for people, they can be employed and enjoy the most from their incomes.
• carboa cioxldc: (CO2) ID the c:arm's allJl()Sllbc:rC· .
• A mmpera1DR nse of juSl one ar two degJCCS Celsius can cause flooding, drought, 5. Facilities need lass maintenance and renewable energy has HUia waste
and stormY wamc:r- products
~ rAel~. when
aop fai)urcs
• GMa such u sulphur dioxide (SOz) and JlitroUS oxides (NOx) The facilities to be used on renewable energy need less maintenance. The fuel that is
L-...a -n.- react with rain dropS to form acid ram. c1 ram can
loail fuels arc ~ •-, ·di wru h hann fi h derived from available and natural resources limits the overall costs, prior to operations.
dlmagC aops and foresu; it CID make lakeS and riven act c c can s
More importantly, renewable energy only has no or little waste products. These waste
and aquatJC life lt CID also damage buildings, products may include of chemical pollutants or carbon dioxide. They are only less and
• (lwnDe)'1 Ill power starloos CID be designed to stop harmful gases from being may have minimum impact in the environment.
rdeatCd 10 the aanospberC 6. The projects provide economic benefits
• 1ba'e are grants avaiJ2b1c 10 help meet the costs of using renewable energy
The projects related on renewable energy provide economic benefits to people, in the
• If we can generate ,ome of our own energy using renewable resources then we do regional areas. Many of the projects are not situated near suburbs and urban center.I. These
not have to rdy on Olhcr countries for our energy. benefits may be associated in the tourism and local services.

1.3.3 Actvantages of ~ Energy 1.3A Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

1. I cannot~ bli depl1tld 1. It is difficult to generate the quantities of electricity that are as large as those
• The aourcca for rmewat,le energy may consist of wind, hydro, ocean. biomass, produced by traditional fossil fuel generators.

geocberma1 and tolar 2. Renewable energy often relies on the weather for its source of power.
• F.acb of 1hcm offm a big advantage as they arc not depleted and are renewable. 3. Hydro generaton need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water.
• They provide dean mcrgy t,ecause they arc non-pollutant and non-contributor to 4. Wind turbines need wind to tum the blades, and solar collectors need clear skies
~ cffec:11 and global wanning. and sunshine to collect heat and make electricity.
s. When these resources are unavailable so is the capacity to make energy from
2. bdlllClid coat ol operatlona
them. This can be unpredictable and inconsistent.
• AJ die IOUICCI are mown to be natural, the operations and costs are reduced-
• This only _ . . thll even the government and pnvate sect.or can save more frolll
1111111 nmwabic IIOURU.

• 11ley . , need lea mamtcnancc

1•6 Ranewable Energy E.ngmeerlnO

 . of a---ble EnerpY (RE) Sources Scenario of Renewable Energy (RE) Sources
scenano ~-----~ -
Non-Renewable sources 1.4 Present Energy Scenario of Conventional and RE Sources
t,9tWMf1 R.,,._able and
• In India, the Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (ONES) was created
1.3.5 ~ ~source
in the Ministry of Energy in the year of 1982 to look after all the aspects relating
~ .... ~
11e1..-ble5oU"C9
Renewable energy can be
. pracliC8DY
.. . N ~ e can't be
~ ·continuouslY without decay to new and renewable energy.

gei181&ted conmuous'Y of source- • The Department was upgraded into a ~ Ministry of Non-Conventional
t ~deCSYo1source esponsible for 91 • 94% of carbon Energy Sources (MNES) in 1992 and was rechristened as Ministry of New and
Responsible for 3 - 4% of ca,t)Ol'I ~xide in enwonment Renewable Energy (MNRE) in October, 2006.
2) diOldde In envirOllffl8Ml Main reason behind "global warming•.
• As per the information furnished by MNRE, starting with the 9th Plan, there has
t,ehlnd •global warming".
3) Nd a reason Exafl1Ple : petroieum products, coal, been consistent increase in pace of renewable energy development.
EJCamP1e
biomSSS, hydro power. uranium etc. • Reportedly, India's renewable energy installed capacity has grown at an annual rate
4) ~ energy, solar energy, etc.
of 23 %, rising from about 3900 MW in 2002-03 to about 24000 MW in 2011-12.
ble Energy and Non-Renewable Energy • Energy generated by using wind, solar, small hydro, tides, geothennal heat and
_ _ [)fffentnce t,etween Renewa
136 Non.,.,,.wable Energy biomass is known a non-conventional energy.
Ra,.e.,.e,le F.nergy The resources that are present in
Sr.No. • All these sources are renewable process of energy generation and do not cause
The resources that can be renewed fixed quantitieS are called
by reprodudlOO are called renewable non-n,newable resources. environmental pollution.
1)
resources- Non-f8r18W8b1e resources are \
• Our country has been endowed with adequate natural resources.
ReneWSble resources are exhaustible. ' • Table 1.4.1 shows the Plan-wise renewable power growth, as presented by Ministry
2) inext,auSli)le.
Non ,enewable resources are affected of New and Renewable Energy.
Renewable resources are not affected by human activitieS- Table 1.4.1 : Plan-wise renewable power growth In India
3) by the tiuman activitieS,
Some abiotic resources are . I Target 11
111 11111 Plan Cumulaliv•
non-renewable. For example - fossil Type Starting of Starting of
AJ blotiC resources are renewable. Achievement Achievement
4) For example air and water fuels and minerals, I of
111
10111 Plan (MW) 11 Plan (MW)
Plan Plan
as on 31.3.12 up to 31.3.12
U.07 (MW)
Energy 1.4.02 (MW) (MW)
1 3 7 Difference betWMn Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Sources- 17353
.. Wind 1,628 7,092 9,000 10260
Non-Conventional Source
Sr.No. eom,entional Source 1419 3395
eom,entiOnal sources of energy refer Non-conventional sources of energY I' Small 1,434 1,976 1,400
are recentty developed sources of I Hydro
to traditional IOUl'C8S of power like energy from sun, wind, water, tideS, 3225
1) c:han::08I. firawoOd, coal, petroleum, 1,780 2042
geothermal etc. Bio 389 1,184
*Thele Power
941
2) ,....,.. IOUfC8I menergy are non These sources are renewable.
Solar 2 3 200 938

1"659 2"914
Initial cost mgeneration is high but 10,255 12,380
3 Gellelalion of energy is expensive cheaper In the long nm. Total 3,453

They are aco friendly sources of

4 They cause large IC8le pollution. energy. Renawable Energy Englneerll\Q
1•9
 ~ of R ~ EnenlY (RE) Sou~ Scenario of R•n-ble Energy (RE) Sources
~-----------_J~~t
estiJDated
i~~and~:
al inslal : ed potm:
capacity of vario\ls
• T able 1.4.3 furnishes the detailed
state-wise sow power capacity in India (as per
• Table 1 4.2 ,tiows 1be . MNRE). MNRE).
renewable energy sources in India (as pd' and 1nstatled capacity Table 1.4.3 : Estlmatad potential and Installed capacity of different r9newable •MfVY
Table 1A.2 : &1lffla1l9d ~ sources In India sources In India
of ditf9rWnl ..iewable _,..,.I

.... &tlmalld
'
.....w
pot9ntlal(IIW) capacllY by -
of 11• Plan
31.3.2012
eapac:tty Target Installed
at the
addition target capacity 111
for 1 z" Plan end of 12 P lan
(2012-17)
Sr.No.

1)

2)
State

Andhra Pradesh

Chhatisgam
Capacity (MW)

15.0

4.0
15,000 32553
49,000 17353 4.8
Mid 3) Haryana
2.100 5495
15,000 3395 2.0
Srnal Hydro 4) Jharkhand
500 1650

--
BiomaU 17,000 1150 5) Kamataka 1.0
poMI'
3385 6) Maharashtra 17.0
1985 1400
5000
Coganeration 4 .0
7) Orlssa
2,600 590
w.ti,IO 90 500 Punjab 4.0
8)
poMI' 1,300 I
10,941 9) Rajasthan 123.5
>100,000 941 10,000
Solar poMI'

>1,19,900 24114 29,500 54414 I 10) Tamil Nadu 8.0

Total
11) Uttarakhand 2.0
1 A .1 Solar Energy Status 2 .0
12) Uttar Pradesh
• India has its potential of energy generation of about 30-50 MW/sq km. of
shadow-free area covered with solar collectors for most parts of the country. 13) West Bengal 1.0

• In solar energy sector, IOIJle large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 knr 188.3
TOTAL
area of the Thar Dc:sc:rt has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to
generate 700 to 2,100 GW
• Ac.cordmg to MNRE, the potmtia1 of solar energy is >100000 MWeq i.e 1.4.2 Wind Energy Status . and has ·gnificantly
. India began m the 1990s SI
30 - 50 MW IQ km and the cumulative deployment of grid interactive solar pawet • The development of wind power m 1arg •installed wind power
up to 3103.201211 941 MW. increased in the last few years. India bas the fifth est
·1y in the world.
• In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion plan, to produce 20 GW of solar pawer capacr · in India to be at least
by 2020 • MNES estimatCS total available wind-generated capacity

• On November 18, 2009, 1t was reported that India was ready to l8Wlch its National 20,000 MW.
Som Miuion under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, with planS 10
gmc:nrc 1.000 MW of power by 2013. Renewable Energy Engineering
1 • 11
 Scenario of Renewable Enerqv (RE) Sou~
-- •
Scenario of Renewable Energy (RE) Soun:n

The ~vailab~ty of biomass in India is estimated at about 540 million tons per year
• The clisttJbution of wind farmS is coocenttated in Tamil Niuiu and Kutch (Gujarat),
covenng resulues from agriculture, agro industrial, forestry, and plantations.
dlolle two stateS accounting for over 750 MW of the installed capacity.
• Principal agriculture residues include rice busk, rice straw, bagasse, sugar cane tops
• The large majonty of all wind (arms (accounting for 775 MW of the total 19) are
and leaves, ttasb, groundnut shells, cotton stalks, mustard stalks, etc.
OCJCDIIICl'CW Wl(lertakiDgs. • It has been estimated that about 70-75 % of these wastes are used as fodder, as
• Repor1Cdly, total capacity of 17353 MW Wind Power has been established up to fuel for domestic cooking and for other economic purposes leaving behind 120 -
1
31• March, 2012 in the country, which is about 70 % of the cumulative l SO million tonnes of usable agro industrial and agriculture residues per year which
deployment of the grid interaetive renewable power. could be made available for power generation.
th • By using these surplus agricultural residues, more than 17,000 MWeq of grid
• The Ministry has informed that against the 11 Plan target of 9,000 MW wind
quality power can be generated with presently available technologies.
power, the achievement is 10,260 MW.
th • A cumulative capacity of 1200 MW (as on 31.03.2012) from biomass power has so
• Further, the capacity addition target for wind power for 12 Plan (2012-17) is
far been commissioned mainly in the states of Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,
15,000 MW. Kamataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Cbhattisgarh, Punjab and Rajasthan.
• Thus the aggJega1C capacity of 32553 MW is likely to be harnessed by the end of
• The biomass power/cogeneration programme was initiated by the Ministry at the
12th Plan. end of 8th Plan and had achieved 86 MW capacity against the target of 25 MW.

1.4.3 Hydro Energy Status • Capacity addition target for the 12th Five Year Plan for this sector is 1900 MW.

• The reported estimated potential for power generation in the country from small
1.A.5 Geothennal Energy Status
/mini hydcl projects is about 15,000 MW from S718 identified sites.
• Geological Survey of India (GS[) has identified about 340 geothermal bot spring.,
• Out of this potential, about 50 % lies in the States of Himachal Pradesh,
in the country.
Utwakhand, Jammu & Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh. • The rough estimates based on OSI studies indicate that energy generation potential
• In the plain regions Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Kamataka and Kerala have sizeable is 10,000 MW.
potennal. • These springs are perennial and their surface temperatures range from 37 °C - 90 °C
• So far 837 small hydropower projects aggregating to 3163 MW up to January, which is suitable for direct heat applications and reservoir temperature 102 °C -

20 12 have ~ set _up in various parts of the country and 364 projects of about 260°C.
1149 MW arc m vanous stages of implementation. • So far the Ministry has been able to undertake only shallow bore hole drilling at

• The some of the geothermal fields.

aboutM ~
.. : set target of 2100 MW capacity addition during 12th Plan and
3 • These geothermal resources· are distributed in the States of Andhra Pradesh,
during tbe 13th Plan period which would take th t ta! installed
capacity from SHP Pro' e o Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh. Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand,
the cxuting potmtial). ~ects to about 8500 MW in the year 2021-22 (about 60% of
Mahar&Shtra. Orissa, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.

1A.4 Biomaa Energy Status

• India u VfZ'J nch m biomass and has a .
plantmom), 5000 MW potential of 16,881 MW (agro-rcsidues and
from wute) (bagassc cogeneration) and 2700 MW (energy recoverY
 ~ of Renewable EnerpY (RE} Sou"=!! Scenario of Rene-ble Energy (RE) Sources
Review Questions
1A.11ldllEMfllYStablS ·
India bas a long coast line of about 7500 km wtth the J. W'haJ is meant by .Renewable energy?
• ~ ., die MNRE. .:.a- .....,0 enough to move turbines for electrical
_ _ . ad gulfs wbrff......,. are - - 2. What are the different fornu of energy?

power piiiCdbOIL 3. What are conventional and Non-conventional sources of energy?

and lhe Gulf of l(uchchh in Gujarat on the west coast have 4. Differentiate
• The Gulf of' Cambay ·dal f 6 77
1hr m•IJIDUDI tidll range of 11 m and 8 m with average t1 range o . m and L Renewable vs. non-renewable energy sources.
S.23 m rapcmvdy. iL Conventional vs. non-conventional energy sources.
• The Ganges DdU m the Sundarbans is approximately S m with an average tidal iii ReMwable vs. non-renewable energy
5. What are the advantages of Renewable energy?
nnge of 2 97 m.
6. What are the disadvantages of Renewable energy?
• The idmlified ClbDlat.ed potmtia1 is of the order of ~00 MW with about .
7000 MW m lhe Gulf of Cambay, about 1200 MW m the Gulf of K.ucbcbh m the 7. Explain in detail the advantages and disadvantages of Renewable energy.
Staac of Guj■nl md ■bout 1oo MW in the Gangetic Delta in the Stmderbans 8. Explain in detail the pre.sent energy scenario of conventional and RE sources.
rqpoa m lhe Srarc of West Benpl. 9. Describe in detail the pre.sent Ocean Energy Status in India.

U.7 0cNn Energy Status Unlvenity Question with Answers

• Oceao-cnc:rgy devdopmait in India is presently limiu:d to a handful of projects in
the propoal age, ■nd a few experimental stations. 1 May 2011

• The Indian OTI:.C program started in 1980 with the proposal of General Electrical WhaJ are the conventional and non-conventional energy sources? Describe
Q.1
Co of USA to imtalJ a 20 MW plant off the Tamil N■du coast and subsequently briefly. (Refer section 1.2.1)
(07]
m 1982, an OTI:.C cell was formed in the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.
-,-Ma
- y-20_12_1
• A prdimirwy design wu also done in 1984. After a survey, a land based I MW
capaaty 0TI:.C pl.am WIS suggested in Lakshadweep.
Q.2 Write short notes on classification of energy resources. Also aplain wh'.ch type
• I.a 1993, N■tional
Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) was formed by the of alternate energy source is the best suitable for rural and agricvltur~
Dqmlmeill of Ocean Development (DOD), Government of India to pursue the applications and why? (Refer section 1.2.1) (0
raeardi actmtlel on ocean energy as part of their various mission-l>Mcd activities. ,,._ l • · b · if about these energy sources with special reference to Indian
Q.3 .c.Ap am ,n ne (07]
• An MOU was lipcd in 1997 between NIOT and Saga University, Japan for a scenario. (Refer section 1.4)
Jomt dndopmmt of' OTEC m India.
-i-Ma_y_2_
01_4 _,I
• NIOT conducted deuiled ,wveys at the proposed OTEC site near Tuticorin. South
India. What are the
1n, primary and secondary energy sources?
Q.4 What do you mean v~ . • ?
• Bucd on the tallpiillllre md batbymetric profile■, the optimisation of the closed prospects of nan-conventional energy sources ,n India.
(07]
:loop ~ WII doae with the help of Saga University in 1998. (Refer sectiom t.2.1 & 1-4)
• Imqp-alion ,_ the plam 1111d stage qualification tests was carried out in 2000-02-
Thc ,_. ._ reported ao be ready for demonstration of the technology.

Renewable Energy EnglnNrlnQ

1 • 15
 Scenario of Renewal>.!! EnerpY (RE) Soul'!:!!

[ Dec. 2014 J CHAPTER-2

Q.5
(RdrrMCtioat.-4)
-~onventionol energy SOIITCes in Indio?
W1tat on tM prospects o,f ,..,.,~ (07]
[ SOLAR £N£R6Y
[ May 2015
Syllabus : Energy available from the sun, spectral distribution, solar radia1ion outside
What an 1M c.onvenlionol and non-conventional energy s011Tces? Describe the earth's atmosphere and at the earth's surface, solar radiation geometry,
Q.I Instruments for solar radiation measurements, empirical equations for
brtef/> (Rrfu teedoa ).2.1) _ _ ___, . (07] prediction of availability of solar radiation, radiation on tilted surface.
solar energy conversion into heat, types of solar collectors, evacuated and
1 Dec. 2016 1 non-evacuated solar air heater, concentrated collectors, thermal analysis of
liquid flat plate collector, air heater and cylindrical parabolic collector, solar
Q.7 Di.fferenrl01e - energy thermal storage.
I Renewable vs. non-renewable energy sovrces. (Refer section 1.3.4)
1. Conventwnal l'.f. non-corr11entronol energy s011Tces. (Refer section 1.3.6) (07]
Topic Name Page No.
Section No.
Sten11ri.o of Renew11ble Energy (RE) So,nces ends ... Introduction 2-2
2.1
Energy Available from the Sun 2-4
2.2
2-5
2.3 Spectral Distribution
Solar Radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere and at the 2-8
2.4
Earth's Surface
2 -9
2.5 Solar Radiation Geometry

Instruments for Solar Radiation Measurements

2 - 19
2.6
Empirical Equations for Prediction of Availability of Solar 2 - 28
2.7
Radiation
2 - 33
2.8 Radiation on Tilted Surface
2 - 34
2.9 Solar Energy Conversion into Heat
2 - 36
2.10 Solar Collectors
2 • 47
2.11 Solar Energy Thennal Storage
2 • 48
2.12 Evacuated Tube Collectors
2 - 51
Review Questions
2 • 52
University Questions with Answers

2-1
Renewable Energy Engineering
 SolarEne
Solar Energy
c. Energy storage
~1lnlrOCIUCtk>n -
. a--t....t clean, cheap and abundant)y available renewable
• Solar coc:rgy IS Ill ......- ~ • Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy storage medium
coc:rgy. . for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods.
• Ii ,_._ _.._ and dilule form with very low power
• It • n,caved OIi Ear1h m eye c, w=uu-
1.nr
. -=
2 Solar _,,,, received oo the ground level IS 1U.J.ected by
• There are three major types of energy storage :
dmsily O ID I a. ..1m . _.., a) Thermal energy storage;
amiospba"ic clarit), degree of latitude, etc.
b) Battery storage;
• fOI" design purpose, the variation of available solar power, the o~timum tilt angle
of solar flat pWC collcc1D13, the location and orientation of the beliostats should be c) Pumped storage hydro-electric plant.

calcubted. D. Energy conversion plant

Units of solar pcM9I' and solar energy : • Thermal en.ergy collected by solar collectors is used for producing steam, hot
water, etc.
• In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units arc ang)ey and Calorie where
• Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steam thermal or gas-thermal
I angley = I Cal/cm2.day power plant
1 Cal = 4.186 J E. Power conditioning, control and protection systam
• FOi" solar energy calcularions, the energy is measured as ar. hourly or monthly or
2 • Load requirements of electrical energy vary with time.
yearly avenge and is expressed in tmns of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m /hour.
2 • The energy supply has certain specifications like voltage, current, frequency, power
• Solar power is expressed in tmns of W/m2 or kW/m . etc.
2.1.1 Essential Subsystems In a Solar Energy Plant • The power conditioning unit performs several functions such as control, regulation,
conditioning, protection, automation, etc.
A. Solar collec:tor or concentrator
F. Altamatlve or standby power supply
• It m:eives solar rays and collects the energy.
• It may be of following types : • The back.up may be obtained as power from electrical network or standby diesel
generator.
o Flat plate type without focusing
2.1.2 Advantages, Disadvantages and Appllcatlons of Solar Energy
o Parabolic trough type with line focusing
o Paraboloid dish with central focusing 2.1.2.1 Advantages
o Frcsnel lens with caitre focusing 1. It is clean, cheap and easily available.

0 2. It is reusable energy source.

Helioaau with centre receiver focusing
3. It is pollution free source.
B. Energy transport medkan
4. Reduces the effect of greenhouse.
• Subatanca IUCb u wata/ steam, Ii "d
tbc:rmaJ qw metal or gas are used to transport the
energy from the collector to the heal exchanger or thermal st 2.1.2.2 Disadvantages
• In IOlar PV orage. 1. It bas high initial cost.
'Yllanl energy transport occurs in electrical form.
2. Storage of energy required.
2-3 Renewable Energy Engineering
2-2
Renewable Energy EnglneertnG
 Solar Ena~
Solar Ene!JIY

• Because liquid fuel engines were developed and fo\Dld more convenient.
l)cpClldcDCY 011 !be weather cooditioDS-
3 • A solar thermal collector system gathers the heat from the solar radiation and gives
' p,lc,ed of n:tiJlg IS per the SUD positioo- it to the heat transport fluid.
• The heat-transport fluid receives the heat from the collector and delivers it to the
1 tJJ ~ thermal storage tank, boiler steam generator, heat exchanger etc.
2. Solar pulllPing
Solarc:ookmJ
4. Solar distilJation • Thermal storage system stores heat for a few hou111.
3 Solar pood
6. Solar water beating. • The heat is released during cloudy hours and at night.
S Solar cells
• Thermal-electric conversion system receives thermal energy and drives steam
2.2 Energy Available from the sun turl>ine generator or gas turbine generator.
• The SUD radiateS about 3.8 x 1o26 W of power in all the direetiODS- • The electrical energy is supplied to the electrical load or to the AC grid.
17
• Out of this about 1.7 x 10 W is received by earth. 2 • Applications of solar thermal energy systems range from simple solar cooker of 1
• The average solar radiation outside the earth's atmosphere is 1.35 kW/m varying kW rating to complex solar central receiver thermal power plant of
2
from 1.43 kWtm2 (in January) to 1.33 kW/m (in July). 200 MW rating.

2.3 Spectral Distribution

Reflec18d from
earth'aautface 6% • The solar spectrum typically extends from the IR to the UV region, wave-length
4% 2
Rad.-llDlpacl range from 3 W/m2/nm to 0.2 W/m /nm. But the intensity is not uniform.
from ctouda and
alfflOSl)hel9 • A typical solar spectrum, as a plot of spectral irradiance vs. wavelength. is sbo'wn
Radiated
direc11y in Fig. 2.3.1.
to space • Typical solar spectrum at the top of the atmosphere and at sea level.
from earth
2_5,. . . - - . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
IN : Visible : Infrared -
I I
: : SunUght at top of the atmosphere
I

5250 •c elackl>OdY spectrum

/
Jllc. l l l : Eae'IY frem tile au
• Solar Thermal Energy (STE) is a form of energy 1111d a technology for harnessing
solar energy to genaate thermal energy or electrical CD'"""" ti • · .i.,.-... and
in the residential md COIIIIDaCial -•o, or use m mu.... uJ ,
sectors. Waveteoglh (nm)
• The first installati<III of solar thermal energy · .
Dcsert approximately in 191 o when a steam ~ e n t occumd m the Sabaf2
sunlight cngmc was nm on steam produced b) fig. 2.3.1 : Radiation spectrum

2-4 Ranewable Energy EnglneerlllO

 Solar Energy
Solar En~

• . the atmosphere), AM\ (at the zenith) and

Toe plot shows AMO (spectrum outside
. . -~,canoed t,y the alJD05Phere- AM2 ( at an angle of 60"). •
• ')be ddfaCINlC IS tbc radiaJiOII _ . , . . . .
• De apdUIII of a black bodY al S2S0 •c is also superunposcd and used for • This again can be modelled by black body spectrum, at various temperatures-

moddlillg .... total area) jntCIISity and tbi"s 1s

. approxunately
. 2,3,1 Terms used in Solar Radiation
• Tbc area under the curve gi-vcs .,... •· Beam or direct radiations (lb)
2
1.35 tWm .nnrn ·--•--' by a blaek body radiation curve at • "The directions of the sun coming on the earth's surface without any change are
• 1bt solar spccttum can be ..,,r _JUDlil"""'
known as the beom radiations.•
canpcraturc of approximately 5250 •c.
• TbtrC IS also a difference: in the spectra measured at the_ top of the atmosphere and
b. Diffuse Radiation ( Id)
swface, due to aunospberic ,cattcring and at,sorption.
11 tbc
• "The r':4iations of the sun received by the eorth after the change in direction by
• 1bt path Jcngtb of the light in the atmosphere clepellds on the angle, which will reflection and scattering effect by the atmosphere such radiations are known as the
vary with the time of day. diffuse radiations".
• This gi-veo t,y the air mass number (AM), which is the secant of the angle
II c. Total Radiations (1-r)
t,etwccn the SUD and the zenith (sec).
• "It is the sum of beam radiations and the diffuse radiations such radiations are
• AMO rcprcsml5 the solar spectrum outside the earth's alJDospbere•
• AM I is when the angle is 7.tfO, i.e. sun is at the zenith and it has an interlSity of known as the total radiations".
2 • Total Radiations are given by the following equation
0.925 k.W/ m . 2
• AM2 is when sun is at angle of liO •c and its intenSity is 0.691 kW m . h = lb+h
• The different spectra arc plotted in Fig. 2.3.2. d. Clarity Index (Cl)
• "It is defined as the ratio of the radiation received on the earth's surface over
given period of time to the radiation on the equal surface area beyond earth's
MfJ atmosphere in perpendicular direction to the beam is known as the clarity index.•
• The value of the clarity index is in between 0.1 to 0. 7.
e. Concentration ratio (Cr)
• "It Is the ratio of solar power per unit area of the concentrator surface to the
power per unit area on the line focus or point focus".
f. Air mass (ma)
• "It is defined as the path length of the radiation through the atmosphere by
',, /Black-body radla1ion S.B00 K assuming verticol path as level of unity".
• Value of the air mass depends on the zenith angle.
• Unity value is considered when sun is at the zenith.

08 14 2 .0 2.6
ma = 2 when zenith angle is 6f/'.
Wllvelenglll i.(µm) ma = 0 just above earth's atmosphere.
........_nt • 1r mass conditions
Fig. 2.3.2 : Typical solar spectrum for ........ 2 -7 Renewable Energy Englneeflng
 Solar En~ Solar Energy

Earth'• Atmosphere and at the Earth•, • The variability is due to both local effects such as clouds and seasonal variations,
2.4 Solar RacllatiOII ()utSlde the as well as other effects such as the length of the day at a particular latitude.
su,tace - • Desert regions tend to have lower variations due the amount of energy reaching the
rth'• Atmosphere (extra-Terrestrial
surface of the earth every hour is greater th.an the amount of energy used by the
2A.1 Solar Radiation ()utSlde the Ea
fladlatlOII) ~ [GTU : Dec.-151 earth's population over an entire year to local atmospheric phenomena such as
clouds.
. ide the earth's annosphere is called extra-terrest1"ia/
• Equatorial regions have low variability between seasons.
• -soii, ,atJiatio,I incident OIIIS
2 ~ [GTU : Jan.-13, May-16]
rat/illiOII.
· . -----·' ,_.1:-ce is 1367 wat.ts1mctd- (W/m )- 2.s Solar Radiation Geometry
• OD avaagc: the cxtra-u:rnat..... w.....-
~ [GTU : May-14, Dec.-15]

2,A.1.1 Solar COftllllll (Gee) V

• 'l7te QlltOll1II of ,o1ar mergy ,.«eived per ll1lil time per 1111it area ~t the mellll
distl1ffce of the earth from the Sll1I on a surface nonnal to the sun is called the Earth-sun ---I-..._
line
,olar constalll Gsc. •
• 1bia quantity is difficult to measure from the surface of the earth becauSe of the
effect of the atmosphere,
• When the sun is closest to the earth, on [)ecember/ 1 the solar heat on. the outer
edge of the earth's atmosphere is about 1400 W/m and when the sun is farthest
2
away on JUDt 21 is about 1310 W/m .

2.4.2 Solar Radiation at the Earth'• Surface (Terrestrial Radiation)

~[GTU: Dec.-151

• The IOlar radiation incidmt on the Eal1h's aunospbcre is relatively constant, the
radiation at the Eal1h'a IUrlicc varies widely due to :
L Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering.
b. Local variatiom in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and
Center
pollution. of sun
c. Latitude of the location; and the season of the year and the time of day.
• The above effects have several impacts on the solar radiation received at the
Eal1h'1 utice.
1
• 1bese cbanga include variatiom in the overall power received, the spectral conten
of the ligbt and the angle from which light is incident on a surface. Equatorial plane

• ID ~ • Uf change ii that the variability of the solar radiation at a particular Fie• 1.5.1 : Solar radiation geometry
location maeues dramatically. Renewable Ener1IY Engineering
2-9

2•I ReMWable Energy EngtneerinG

 Solar En• 'JIX.
Solar Ena

-
~ [GTU : oec,-13, 15, May-141 2.5.2-2 Solar Azimuth Angle ( y c)
• It is defined as horizontal bearing angle from south.
. _ ,,,, ,,.,,once of the sun's ray's north (or sou1h) 0

~eq,,a,or.tJecl;,,atWII
,
U. t l)edinatto"• 6 2.5.2,3 Sulface Azimuth : 'V (psi) ~ [GTU : Dee.-13, 15, May-141
• n,11, the IS OIi~- - .. • ,
1lw tJecliNJliO'I Jesignaled
,tOl'UI posiltve-
__., ___.,. ..-.... _ _ of this
liJle and the proJcenon
OS . lin • It is defined as, surface horizontal bearing angle from south.

• It II lhc: angle t,c:tween tbe sun ..,.. _ ... .,...... ' 2,5,2.4 Surtace Solar Azimuth : y (llamma)
23 4
OIi lhc: cquaiorial plaDC· . • Angle between solar and surface azimuths.
• Tho .... - - - If . . . -- - - .. + : ~ . . .
fall equinOX. to - 23.45" at the wuiter solstice.
SWIJIDCI' solstice:, lO Cf at tbe • It is given by the equation •
• The variation of the solar c1ectinati011 angle mrougboUl the year is shown it y = ~-'V ~{GTU: Dec.-131
2.5.2.5 Angle of Incidence ( 0 )
• The 2.s.1.
fig. dc,;bnation angle 6, in degred, for any day of the yt$ (n) can be calculateG
• The solar incidence angle, 8 is the angle between the sun's rays and lhe normal on
approJ.imatelY by the equation:
6 • 23,45 dD (360 / 365 (214 + ■)) •
a surface,
For a horizontal ~
plane the incidence angle, 8 and lhe :zenith angle are the same.
~[GTU : Dec.-13\
~{GTU: Jan.-13, May-141
2.5.2 Hour AAQle (h)
• The hour angle h, of a point on the earth's surface is defined as the angle tbroug).
·""' "" - wowd ""' .. - ... - of ... p,mt - y '"""' .. 1.u•• ..The
, ...... "' ...
sun is said to rise~·
and•.,
set- - the solar altitude angle is zero.
when
• So the hour angle at sunset, bss, can be found from solving the equation for the

• sun
The hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with each 360/24 or 15 degrees o:
altitude angle for h when a = Cf.
longitude eqwvalent to one hour, aftemOOII boUIS being designated as positive. • Thus :
sin (a) = sin (0) = 0 = sin@• sin (6) + cos (♦)•cos (S)•cos(bss)
• Expressed symbolically, the hour angle in degreCS is :
which reduces to : cos(hss) = - tan(~) tan(6)
h • ± 0.25 (number of minutes from local 10\ar noon)
where, hss is taken as positive at sunset.
Where, the + sign applies to afternoon hours and the - sign to morning hours. • Since the hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with each 15 degree& of longitude
• The hour angle can also be obtained from the Appaffl1l Solar Time (AST), i.e., the equivalent to one hour, the sunrise and sunset time in hours from local solar noon
conccted local solar time): b .. (AST - 12)15
is then :
At local solar noon AST = 12 and h "' ff. Hss =- Hsr = l/15 cos - ll~ tan(7) tan (6)1
• Toe local standard time at sunset for the city of GetmanY is :
• Toercf~, the Local Swidard Time (the time shown by our clocks at local solai
• sunset Standard Time = Hss - E1' - 9.2 (min)
noon) IS :
• Tho day ,.,.., " - "" . - - · - "" ""' .... " - " ' ,niddl< of " '
LST .. 12 - ET :t. 4 (SL - LL)
sunrisC and sunset hours.
• For the city m Germany: LST • 12 - ET - 9.2 [min)
• Tous the \cngtb of the day in hours is :
Renewable Enel"llY Eng\neefll\Q
2.u.1 loW ABudl ( p) 2 .11
• II II defined u Che vertical .....
-h'e to ..__
""" M "' posttlOD.
~- ..

2 -10
ReMWable Energy Englneerl~g
------
 SolarEn•'il
SolarEne

IST - 12.40 l2h 40• T c -- - l' 07• • LST = 82.5° = s20Jo'

[)ay umglb • 2/15 c:os-1 (- WI(♦) tan (5)). DaY of July 25
z.u - - l " " + May + June + July]
d°(GTil , M•Y•l<j No. of days [ n = Jan + Feb+ March + "~....:,

• Solar Tune is a190 )mOWII the 'Local Solar Tillle (LST} or Local Apparent Titn, [ n = 31 + 28 + 31+ 30 + 31 + 30 + 25]
15 ... Ans.

<LAn-
\n = 206 \
• Solar tirne is gencrailY used to compute the boUr angle. SteP 1: CalculateLATorLST
• Solar time can be ol,taiJled frodl the standard time ol)ierved frolll the clock.
To calculate LAT or LSTwe can use following equation. ...(l)
• following correctiOOS arc need to make in lhe solar time in order to obtain the
LAT = IST ± ( 4 " Q.,,, - L,oca1)l + Tc
SteP 2 : As longitude is 78°32' E we have to use -ve value.
•) solar time- in the 1oogitudc
corrcctioo l,c:tWeeD the locatioD and the meridian which is the ... (2)
LAT = lST -(4 x(Lst -L,oca1 )]+ Tc
basis of ,tandard tirne.
b) {:orreetioo in the equatioo of time v.ibich is obtained frolll the experimental ;. Equation (2) after putting the values
LAT = l2b40'-[4X(82°30'-T8°30')]-l'07"
ol,serValiOOS,
Hmce. we can write the equatioo for lhe solar time in teaD5 of the standard time as . = 12h40' -(4X 4)-1'07"
~ ... aJ
LST or LAT= ST±(4X(L 51 - L 1oca1)l:l'L (
[LAT = 12b22'53" J ... Ans.

where, Local Apparent Time is 12:22:53 (i.e. 12 hour 22 min 53 seconds)

LST or LAT = Solar time
Step 3 : Declination (6)
ST = Indian standard time
Cooper bas given equation of 6 as - ...(3)
L = Standard time longitude
51 6 = 23.4Ssing:(2S4+n)1
L local = Longitude at locatiOD
T, = Time corrcctioo equation 6 = Declination
wher-e,
• Sign c o o ~ used arc 'Positive (+)' value is genc:rally considered for 'westetll t\ = 206
,:;uw>yuere,
rcgioo or banisphere and (- ve) value for 'Eastern b-:..J. 6 = 23.4Ssing:(2S4+206)1

2.5.11 NumMtc:11 on SC11ar Timi 6 = 23.45 sin g:(490)1

Example
,,,.,,,,,. 15'2/' : Calculate
2.5.1 N.
corrtdian = (l' 07j
- Locol
78' Ap, JO'"'; enl 11. . .
" ' (L,ll) _, d,d"""'°" at a,_,.
at 12•40 /ST on July 25 Equation of time
6 = 23.45 sin (483.2876)

6 = 23.45X0,8359
•.. Ans.
SolutlOn : Given data, ~ = 19.60" J
Latitude• 25• 21' N, Longitude= 78°30'E 2 - 13

Day of July 25
2 • 12
Rann,able Energy
-----
Englneefi"g
 SolarE~
- ,u' - ... _.., ,f,lay .... - .. - (La</'>d, ------r======-_________!So~la!!rJE~n!!•IJIX~
....,, ..,.,_,,..,,. ,.,,_ I,. •'-" - \
L-------------------~-{:. .G_TU__: 8
_M:=!:._Y·1~ SteP 3 : Declination at 5th July
To calculate declination ( 6) we have to first find th
e nlDllber of dayii up to 50. July.

;. n = Jan + Feb+ March+ April + May+ June+ 5 July

~ : OiVCOdaU, n = 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 5 = 186
~·s36'05'
auinb« of days 5"' Januar)'
6 = 23.45 sin g:(284+n)J

5111P 1 : [)eelinalioo (6) is given by the eooper's equation as.

= 23 .45sin g:~ X (284+ \ 86)J

6 = 23.45sin[~~(284+n)1 = 23.45 sin f360 x470\

L36s 'J
= 23.45sin(463.56)
6 = 23.45sinG~(284+5)1
L6 = 22.79" ]
6 = 23.45 sin [ ~3::~] Declination at 51h July is 22.79°

6 = 23.45sin(285D4) Step 4 : Day length is •

6 = 23.4Sx-0.9657 tc11 = 2 cos-1 [-tan ♦tanlil

... Ans, 15
[11 = -22.64° J = 2 cos- 1 l -
15
tan(36"05')x tan (22.79"))

Slap 2 : CalculatiOO of days length.

= Ticos-1 (--030619)
Day length can be given as.

Day length = rs(cos-• (-tan+tan 11)] = 2

15
xt07.830 = 14.37

ld/ = ~(cos-I (-tan(36"05')tan(-22.64")] G= 14.37 hoUI]

ld/ "'fs[cos-1(- 0.7287x-0.4169)] Day length on 5-m July is 14.37 hours.

Example 2.5.3 : Calculate number of daylight hours i11 Delhi 011 22 December 1995.
2
• isxcos-1(0.3037) Take latitude 28°35' N.

2
"' 1Sx72.3143 2 - 15
 Solar En, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J!So'.!!!la!!r~E§!!n!!•!RX!RX

= 23.45sinl360 x 4701
l36s 'J
"" 23.45 sin (463.56)

♦ • 2r35' \ 6 = 22.79° 1
l)eClinatiOD 5111 July 22.79°
,Number of dayl n OIi 22
n •l)ce.
Jan + feb. + Mardi + April + May + June + July + Aug.
SteP 3 : Day length is
+Sept+ Oct+ Nov.+ 22 [)ee.
2
= 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 +30 + 31 + 22 td/ = IScos- 1
[-tan ♦tan6l

G.356J =
15
2 cos- 1 [- tan(36°0S')x tan(22.79° )1

Slilp 1 : Angle of declinab<JII (6) = 2 cos- 1 (- 0.30619)

15
According to cooper.
2
= x 101.s30 = 14.37
6 • 23.45sin[~:(284+o)] 15
' td/ = 14.37 hour]
= 23.45sin[~:(284+356)]
Day length on 5111 July is 14.37 hours.
. [360X640]
= 23.45sin ~
example 2.5.4 : Calculate number of daylight hours ill Delhi on 22 December 1995.
Take /attitude = 28°35'N ~[GTU : Nov. 2011}
6 • 23.45sin(631.23)

16 - -23.44° Solution : Given data :

StllP 2 : Day 1ength as on 22 Dec. 1995. Latitude "" 28°35'N

2 ♦ = 2s 35'
0

td/ = fscos- 1
[-tan ♦tao6]
Number of days n on 22 Dec.
2 n = Jan + Feb + March + April + May + JWle + July + Aug
= fscos- 1 [- tan(28"05')xtao(-23.44")]

+ Sept + Oct + Nov + 22 l)ec.

2 1
• fscos- (0.2362) = 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 22

& • 23.45 sin[!:(284+n)] G= J 356

Renewable EnefGY Englneetl119

= 23.45sin[!: x(284+ 186)] 2 -17

2 -11
 Solar Ener Solar En•rn

StllP 2 : Solar Isolation on 23 March

G = GSC LI+ 0.033 cos (

3
:in1
6 = 23.45 sin[!: (284+n)] G = 1353 LI+0.033 cos (
3
~:/
2
)1
.. 23_45 sin[;: (284 + 356)] G = 1353 [1 + 0.033 x cos (80.87))

G = 1360.07 W / m 2 \
= 23 .45 sin [36Qx640]
~
Solar Isolation on 23 March is 1360.07
6 • 23.45 sin (631.23) Step 3 : Number of days on June 19

[ 6 = - 23.44° J n = Jan + Feb + March+ April + May + 19 June

= 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 3 1 + 19
SIIIP 2 : Day tc:ngdl as on 22 Dec I995

td/ • ~xcos- 1 [- tan ♦ tan6]

( n = 170]
15
Step 4 : Solar Isolation on June 19
.. ~ xcos- 1[-tan(28"35') tan(- 23.44° )]
15 G = GSC L'+ 0.033 cos ( 3~:S nJ1
c fs X COS-I (0.2362]

'" 2 X 763361 = 10.17 hourS.

= 1353 (1 + 0.033 cos (
360 10
3:~ j1
15
= )353 [1 + 0.033 cos (167.67)1
Day lc:ngdl is on 22 Dec it I0.17 hourS.
= 1353 [l + 0.033 x (- 0.9769)1
Example 2.5.5 : Calcvlale solar Jnsolalion on the top of atmosphere on 13 March
and 19 .hme 201 J Take 10/ar conJtalll • 1353 W / m2 ~
[GTU : Nov. 20111
= )353 X 0.9677

SolutlOn : Give■ : Solar coostant GSC • 1353 W / m

2
[ G =1309.38 W / m:]
To ftlld: 2.6 lnstrUments for Solar Radiation Measurements
~ [GTU : May-11, Nov.-111
i) Solar lsolatioo for 23 March
u · iJlstnllllents
ti) Solar l10lation on 19 June 2011 • Solar radiations can be measured using the fo owmg -
b Pyro beliometer c. sunshine recorder
S~p 1 : No Dayt • on 23 Marth a. PyranotneteT .
11 • Jan + Feb + 23 March Renewable Energy En;1neenn9
2 - 19
• 31 + 28 + 23 • 82 days.

....
 Solar ~
Solar Energy

• 'Jbc!o< mstnJIDeolS can be cli5cussed below
~[GTU : May-15, 16, Dec.•,s
2.6.1 Pyranometer
p,tncipal
A P)nnometer is used to measure global solar radiation falling on a horizoni.
surface lts srnsor has a borizomal radiation-sensing surface that absorbs sol.
radiaDOII energy frOIJI lbc whole sky and tranSfonns this energy into heat.
• Global solar radiation can be ascerwned by measuring this heat energy.
Construction and Working
• The pyranomcter was coostructed using a silicon photodiode which was chosen
its local aVB1lability and hig), sensitivity.
• Thu silicon photodiode is a solid-stale device that converts light energy (photon,
to elcctnc current.
• When radiation at a specific energy level that IS capable of ionizing the atoms
1J1C1dent on the P-N junction pbotodiode, an electrical current arises from th
continuous movement of excess clectronS and holes.
• Electric current produced by the pbotodiode is directly proportional to the amoll!I
• !he . developed pyranometer generates an electrical signal proportional to the
madiance received.
• The pyranometer was constructed in parts and then assembled.
• A hole was drilled. about one quarter ....,........,
,, _____ from one end tn
· thetopof awood
case of 1~ mm thickness with a dimension of 165 mm by 120 mm by so nun
where a diode bolder was inserted and super glued.
• The photo detector was inserted into the diode bolder.
• The ~ surface of the pbotodiode was covered with a transpaiellt plastic
matcnal m order to protect it from dust and other weather attack.
• A ~air of wires was soldered to the anode and cathode terminals of the pbotodiod.c
r, which was then connected to the terminals of a digital multi-meter tbroogh which
the output readings indicating the amount of solar radiation was obtained.
Advantages
• The range· of pyranometer is neat about + or - 2 %.
• Construction of the pyranometer is conceptually very simple and cheap.
• The newly developed pyranometer can be used in any installation where reliable
measurement of solar irradiance is necessary, especially if cost becomes a deciding

of global solar radiation reaching its surface. factor when choosing a pyranometer.
• A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring solar irradiance on 2a
• The sensor clement is mounted on a wooden base, covered with a uansparen:
planar surface and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (W/m )
plastic matenal to protect the sensor from absorbing dirt
from the hemisphere above within a wavelength range 0.3 µm to 3 µm.

Outer glaSldome ~ Inner glassO Disadvantages

ThertnlSUJr ~ • Most pyranometcrs in general use are now the thennopilc type, although bimetallic
pyranometcrs are occasionally found.
~ (GTU : Jan.-13, June-13]
2.6.2 Pyrohellometer
• A pymeliometcr is used to measure direct solar radiation from the sWI and its
marginal periphery.
• To measure direct solar radiation correctly, its receiving surface must be arranged
to be normal to the solar direction.
(a)Bloc•dlOgrMI (b) Conatructlon
of- • For this reason, the instrument is usually moW1ted on a sun-tracking device called
of pyranometer
an equatorial moWIL
fie- 2.6.1 : Solar pyraaometer

2 • 20 Renewable Energy Engineenn9

 Solar ~ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 2S:!!o!!la!:.r!:E!!!ne!!1J111Y1.

Z.U1 ,,.,,._ ElldlDI campensaliOII

n,c llfUCIIIIC of an Aaptrom
f",g. 2 6.2.
-u-
~-~tlo• pyrllellometer is shol>/1} 1 • A temperature difference is therefore produced between the two sensor strips
because one absorbs solar ,:adiation and the other does not, and a
thcrmoelectromotive force proportional to this diffen:nce induces current flow
through the galvanometer.
• Theo, a current is supplied to the cooler sensor strip (the one shaded from solar
radiation) until the pointer in the galvanometer indicates zero, at which point the
temperature raised by solar tadiation is compeosatcd by Joule bcal
• A value for direct solar i.nadiaoce is obtained by converting the compeosatcd
cum:nt at this time. If S is the intenSity of direct solar ir,:adiaoce and i is the
current, then

S = Ki',
• wberc K is a constant intrinsic to the instrument and is dctcrmined from the size
and electric resistance of the sensor strips and the absorption coefficient of their
surfaces.
• The value of K is usually determined through comparison with an upper-class
standard pyrbeliomcter.

2.6.2.2 Sliver-Disk Pymeliometer

• The structure of a silver-disk pyrbcliomcter is sbowo in Fig. 2.6.3.
Fl&, 1..6.l : Sliver disk pyrollellemeter

• 'Ibis is a reliable instrument used to observe direct solar radiation, and has lot
been accepted as a working standard
• However, its manual operation requires experience.
• This pyrbeliometcr has a rectangular aperture, two manganic-strip sensors
(20.0 mm " 2.0 mm x 0.02 mm) and several diaphrag,:ns to let only direct sunh~ a. Blad<• painted silver disk
b. Men:ury - In • glass tt,ermOmeler
reach the sensor.
C. Wooden container
• The sensor surface is painted optical black and bas uniform absorph•
d.eowe,case
characteristics for short-wave radiation. e. Cyfinde<
• A coppcr-constantan thermocouple is attached to the rear of each sensor strip, Bil I. Diaphragm
the thermocouple is CODDcctcd to a galvanometer. g. Shuttar

• The sensor strips also work as electric resistors and generate beat when a cur¢
Oow across them.
• When solar irradiaoce IS measured with this type of pyrbeliometer, the st1ll
sbullcr on !he front face of the cylinder shields one sensor strip from sunll~
Fig. 2.6.3 : Sliver disk pyro laellometer
a1lowiog it to reach only !he other sensor. • Renewable Enef'llY EnglnNr1ng
2 23
 Solar ~

nus msinzncot was (k\etopcd poria1>le version of a water !low pyrbcliomc1ci ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----__.!Solar~~En!!U¥:!!!!!ll
~
011
15 1
..-tudi •-U thc former prunat) standard- • It IS mounted on a sun-tracking device to enable out.door ins1allatl .
· --mna 28 dllll in diarocter with a lhickn operation by JMA. m auu,rna11c
n,c scnsmg demcnl ts a 51lver disk m=-:-...., . . Ci,
• . .
Copper-plated constantan wuc· is
· .... , as the thcnnop1le in lhc sens« portion.
.....,

of 7 min mat IS pam""1 bLu:k oo its ,:adjalloo-r,:CC1'1D& sule. which lS attached to the bottom of the cylinder al right angles to the cylinder axis.
• It bas a bole from the pcnpbCfY toward the centre to allow insertion of the bulb ~ • Toe cylinder is fitted with diaphragms to direct sunlight to the sensor portion.
a ~ o n mercur)•tn-glass thcrmmneter, • It is ~~c of ~ metallic block with high heal capacity and good thermal
• To mamum good thermal con~ t,ctwcco the disk and the bulb, the bole is fill!( conducUVlty, and is enclosed in a polished intem1cdiate cylinder and a silver-plated
Yrilh a small amount of mercury. outer brass cylinder _with high reflectivity to prevent npid ambicnl temperature
changes or outer wmd from distutbing the heal flux in the radiation-sensing
• It IS enclosed outsi<L: b) a hcat-insuJaling wooden container.
• The :stan of the thermometer ,s bent m a right angle ()U!Side the wooden contain,, elcmcnL
• Toe cylinder is kept dry using a desiccant to prevent condenSalion on the inside of
l!ld supported ,n a metallic protccllV< tllbc
• A ~ckr w11h dlaphraglllS ,nstde ts fitted in the wooden container to let dm:c the aperture window.
• In this pyrbcliometcr, a temperature difference is produced be!Wccn the sensor
solar r.,dia!Jon fall onto the silver disk.
surlacc (called the bot junction) and the reference temperature point, LC., the
• There u a mctalhc-plate shutter at the top end of the cylinder to block or allow tht
metallic block of the inner cylinder (called the cold junction).
passage of solar radiauon to the disk. 1 • As lhc ICIDper&ture difference is proportional to the intenSity of the n,diation
• Durtng the mca.urcmcnt phase, the disk IS heated by solar radiation and ~
absorbed. the level of solar radiation can be derived by measuring the thermos
u:mpcraturc nscs.
c\cctrolDotive force from the thermopile.
• Toe mtcnsity of this radiauon is asccrwned by measuring the temperature chang,
of lhc disk bct,!,ceo the measur=cnl phase and the shading phase with th, • Since this type of pyrbcliometer is a relative instrument, calibration should be
performed to determine the msmunental factor throllgb comparison with a standard
mcrcury-m-glass thermometer
instrWDCOt.
2.6.2.l fh«mC)8lectric PyrtltllomP • As the thermoe\ectromotivc force output depends on the unit's temperature. the

Dtylng~-~-~~-
• The structure of a thermoelectric pyrhchometcr IS shown in Fig. 2.6.4. temperature inside the cylinder should be monitored to enable correction.

- ~:;: Smart Interface ~or Apef11Jre nngs ~ Ralf\ shield

2.6.3 Sun Recorder

2.&.3.1 Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Reconlen

•
onto a recording card placed at its focal poinL
~(GTU : May-11, 14, oec.-131

• A Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder conccnttates sunlight through a glass sphere

The length of the burn ttace left on the card represents the sunshine c1uraoon.
Fig. 2.U: Thermoelectr1c pyrhellometer
1 • Toe device's structure is shown in Fig. 2.6.5 (a).
• Thu mstnunent uses a therm opi Ic at ·its sensor, and continuously delivers • A homogeneous n-ansparcnt glass sphere L is supported on an arc XY, and is
dicnnoelectromouve force m proponion to the direct solar irradiance. focused so that an image of the sun is formed on recording paper placed in a metal
• \I,'llllc Ang$lrDm
pyrhehometm have •eledn
~c al compensation· pyrhcliometers and silver-disl bowl FF attached to the arc.
,.'llh 1hc sensor that allows the outer all' to come into direct conta~

r make d Sllltabl ion, 1hu type has transparent optical glass

2 • 24
in the apc:rture ic
.--- -----------::-:~--;;:::::::;::;:-;;:::::~;:;.::::.::;;;:
- ~ :"----==:.•.::or:.,:usc::,.,'.:m~all~w~eath~~er~co~n~di~·tt~ons~.~---------
Renewable Energy Englneeri09
 Solar Ene
IS CCJIICCSllric Ibis t,owl. wtuch b1S three partially overlapP - - ~ ~- : - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - ~S~olar~!En!!!!il!!iX

•
0
----~~···'(<)l_. . _00...._
,_-..
pQO\'d ~~ 2.6.S
n,e pl' ,plOC
O)l•
dOwt,icbiecx,rdin&cai'"'

Toe focus shifts die

___... ,
10 .,.,. in the SUJll!Der winter or sprm· "" u.3.2 JO!dan Sunshine Reconlffl
,or - • & lll/.

moves. and a t,urD tnCC is left on the recording card ,

• A,,_.-,.""""'""•--•~•• >o• m• - • •
~ ...,.,.,.__..... ,.,.~-'"°'"""00 __ _
• One common type bas two hollow semi cylinden ananged back to back with their
flat surfaces facing cast and west (Fig. 2 _6 _6(a)).
15 111111 • Each flat surface bas a small bole in it.
• The Jordan s~ine recorder used by JMA is the same in principle, but consists of
• the focalnee
A burn polllt-II a particullt point indic;a!CS the presence of sunshine at that tun,
and the ,ccordin& card is scaled with t,our marks so tbal the exact time of sunshlllt a hollow cylinder with two boles as shown in Fig. 2.6.6 (b).

be a,ccrwned-
MeasurinS can
• occurrence the overall tcngth of t,urD uaces reveals the sun,rune duration for illal

01
• day recorder r

-
For encl mcasurerncnt. the sunshine must be accurately adjusted
planaC levelling. meridional djreetioo and latitude- 00
• Campbell-Stokes and Jordan sunshinC ,_-das mark the occurrence of sunshine51
recording paper at a position corrcspondinl! to the azimuth of the sun at the tc
and the time of sunshine occurrence is expressed in local apparent time.

~ (b)

fig. 1..6.6 : Jordan aunsblne recorden

• Toe instrUJl\ent haS its cylinders inclined to the relevant latitude and their axes set
in the meridional direction. Pbotosensitized paper with a time scale printed on it is
set in the cylinders in close contaet with the inner surface. When direct solar
radiation enterS through the bole, the paper reeords the movement of the sun as a

1) For winter
• line.
Sunshine duration is ascertained by measuring the lcngtl\ of time the paper was
21For spmg and autumn
3) For summer exposed to sun}igbt.
(a)

L•- recorder
fie. 2.6.S : Campbell ltoka I ..,..,.e
~ -----------22::.:-:21;;------::--------- - - - - ------------2---27____R_e_n_ewa_bl_e_E_n•-rgy--E-n_g_ln_Mrt_n_g
R-bkl Energy engtneering
,,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _::cSo::l""ar~~•r,,,
---.; -- - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -- - ---~!!t~!.!m
Solar Energy

• The Angstrom-Prescott regression mQdel was given by Igbal (l 983).

u.u ,_....,.,, sunshlM
. . R-,dln
.. - - A reflect sunlight onlO the photo sensor, and " • The monthly average daily global radiation on a borirontal surface H1111 is
• A roGDDi IIIJITOI' ,s .._. 10 • • fth ligh "'
-""""'"' of sunshine is de(ecied by measwing the mtenS•ty o
• 1be n,llling
e t recciv'<l
muror sunshine recorder used by JMA has a mirro~ that rotates on«
:: = a+b[s::J ...(a)
evrry 30 seconds aod a photo sensor to receive the reflected sunlight. • Where, H = Monthly average extra-terrestrial solar radiation at horizontal surface
me ioStIUIIICllt is set to an angle corresponding to the latitude at the site 0
08
Once S = Monthly average daily sunshine boun s.,.,.. = Maximum possible daily
8
adjusting the scale on the body at installation, the double-surfaced ~ r refl~ sunshine boun at a given location. a and b are constants.
SWJligbt as required throughout the year regardless of changes m the SUn • In eqaution (a), one needs to have a value of H00 which can be estimated from the
instanllmCOUS value of cxtra-ierrestrial solar radiation.
clcvalion.
• A)though the radiation received by the pbolO sensor contains both direct SOit • "Integration of extra-terrestrial radiation over a day will give the daily value of
radiation and diffuse sky radiation, the latter is removed by differentiating 11, extra-terrestrial solar radiation, H (= H.,. if it is estimated for a given day of a
0
output signal for time electrically, and only direct solar radiation can be detected t month), which can be written as
the peak of the maximum differential coefficient..
The instrument emits a pulse when the signal exceeds the thrcSbold value of
Ha = S, f cos8dt

s"1
•
120 W/m2 corresponding to the definition of direct solar inadiance, and the .. .(b)
f (sin♦ sin6+cos♦ cos6cosw)dt
360 sunw
processing unit counts two minutCS of sunshine for every four pulses.
= S 1+0.033cos
[ 36
sunrls•

(1) Photosensor • Here t is time in hours. It can be converted to time in angles oo (radians) as :

(2) Rolabng retlectiVe rnorror ... (c)

180 d
dt = 151t w
(3) LabtUde adiusting scale

"'f (sin♦sin6+cos♦ cos6 cosoo)dt

...(d)
(~) Latrtude adJusting marl<
Ho = ~ s [1+0.033cos !~s"1 -(j),
3

(5) Des,ccant contamer

(61 Level adJusllng SQ8W • The integration in equation (d) will give us the following
(7) Converter

(8) Fan
Ho = ~ s [1+0.033COS
3
:;1 "'[ (sin♦ sin6+cos♦ cos6sinoo )
- (j),
5 ...(e)

· · W/m' H will be in W-blm'. Multiplying term w in equation (e) should

• 1S lD , s
Fie- 2.6.7 : Rotatinc mirror su11.1hine recorder beSin radians. Equation
If 0
(e) can be used to calculate the daily value of H0 •

• Here, the declination angle in the equation represents the day of the year.
2.7 Empi~cal Equations for Prediction of Availability of Solar
Radiation ll has been shown by Klein (1977) that of H 0 is calculated for a parti~ular day of
~ ~ - - - : - - - - - - -- ---- 00
the month, its value will be equal to its average value over the month (1.c., H ).

:e
• To estimate th~ amount of solar radiation falling on a solar collector at a give!\
and locallon, the direct or beam radiation and diffuse radiation sh ould
er measured or esllmatcd using empirical equatiODJ.
b(

2 · 29
Renewable Energy Englneeflng
 Solar En•IJII
Solar ~

n,e dala Ill which

. Ho IS
. " 'I-
-••' ID ber
Hoa are : JIIIIIIIY 17, FebnWY 16,0cMarch 11 NOVI, the global solar radiation on 1he horiv:>ntal plane can be estimated using equation
15
16
0
Afri IS, May 15, June II, July 17, August • sepeem ' tober 11 as;
~ 14 u,d [)ecallber 10.

2.1.1 Numeflcal on Solar Radiation Hp (1 1.90S1)

35S60.06694 = 0.28+0.47 11.9J
EPfflPle Z.7.1 : CaJcu/atibll of all paromdm fix a particW"' day in March /or
2
Hg,, = 26677.21302 kJ I m 2 or 7.410 kWh I m - day
Vijayawada locafion :
I,atihule : J6. 5 N.
Toe monthly average daily diffuse radiation on the horizontal surface, H c1a can be
Longilude : 80. 64 E,
A.sswne values for a = 0.28, b = 0.47 catculaled by ;

Solution: :da = 1.311 -3.022 K.T +3.4271<.l-1.82I Ki

p
CaH 1 :
l<. = {Hp 11-1.,.) = (26677.21302/35560.06694) = 0.7S
1
On horizontal surface Hc1a = (1.321-3.022 (0.7S) + 3.427(0.7S) 2 - 1.821 (0.75)3) x {26677 .21302)
AssUme sunshine houn per day is 11.9051
2
For March 20, = 5707.67 kJ I m
Day number n • 31 + 28 + 20 = 79 Example 2.7.2 : Calculate monthly average of daily global solar radiatwn on a
l) = 23.34 sin ({360/365) X (284+79)) =-2.406° horizontal wrface located in Ahmedabad Gujarat stare (2l'.00' N, 73".10' E) for
the month of April. Average Solar day hour• are JO hrs. Angstrom's constants
The sunshine hour angle is :
for Ahmedabad, a = 0.28. b = 0.48 !Es' [ GT\l ; May 2012, Marita 7 1
w, = cos-1 (-tan ♦ tanll)
= cos·1(-tan{l6.5) tan (- 2.406)) Solution : Given :
♦ = 22·
= 89.288°
Avg. solar day hours = 10 hrs.
Day length • (2/ 15) X (1)5
smxa = 10 hrs.
= (2115) x (89.288) = 11.9 h
Nllillber of days on April
The extra - tcrrCSttial solar radiation can be calculatcd 81 :
n = Jan + Feb + March + April
Ho = ~ S [ l +0.033cos 360n] (w,sm
. ♦ sin6+cos ♦ cos6sinro 5 ) = 31 + 28 + 31 + 30
II 365

Ho • ~ 1.367 x 3600 [1 +0.033 cos 3~:s'9] (1.5575 sin 16.5 sin (- 2.406))
[n = 120]
Amstrong'• constants
+ 005 16-5 005 (-2.406) sin 89.283) a = 0.28 and b ~ 0.48
Ho • 35560.06694kJ/m2 -dayor9.87kWh/m2
 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,.l!So~iar~e§!ne!!!lllrn
Solar Ene
= (1.4654 sin 22° sin 14.58 + cos 22• cos 14.58 sin 83.96)

= 37211.26 l(0.9&43) (0.1354 + o.8935)1

H.. = 37687.307 kl/ ml day

... (I v) EqU&tion (I) l,ecomCS

Hga ~11
= 37687.307 fLo.28+0.48 (~11.19JJ

Hp = 26718.58 kl/ m1 day

... (:
"4 f.
tt., = ~ s l1 -o.033 cos 365
360 01 Hga = 26718.58X ( -4870.8 j
1353 = 7421 82 w / m
.
1
day

~[GTU : May-12}

2.8 Radiation on Tilted Surface

caJcaJatloa or 6 ud U>, • ln practice, the solar collectors are jnstal)ed tilted for better energy collection.
1 According to eoopers cquauon, • 'Ibe radiation falling on tilted surface will be the swn of direC\ radiation. diffuse
6 = 2345 sing: (2&4 +- n)1 radiation and reflected radiation.
• These can be estimated as follows :
6 = 23.45 sing: (284 + 120)1
2.8.1• Direct Radiation
'Ibe -ratio of the direct solar radiation falling on tilted surface to that falling on a
[6 ~ 14.5~ borizOntal surface is called the tilt factor rb for the beaID or direct radiation-
• The rb for the collector surface facing south {y = O") will be given as
sin 6 sin (♦ -il)+cos ocos {♦ -ill cos Ol
II) Hour aacJt (w,) : -
cos 8
w, = co,· 1 (-tan ♦ tan6J rb = ~ =- sin6sin ♦ + cos 6 cos ♦
cosOl -
• COS 1(-tan22° tan 14.58)
• siJJlilarly, the rb can be written for a situation where the collection is not facing
• 83.96° (I 4654 rad)
the south diJeclion. i.e., y IO"
• Toe beam radiation falling on a tilted surface will be given by lb " rb, where lb is
ui) ·ow,
., the iJ1St811taDCOUS value of beaID radiation.
smxa • TT x ro,
2 2.8.2
• Diffuse Radiation
Toe diffuse part of solar radiation is one of the elements neccssaIY for the ,sesign
- 15 )( 83.96 • 11.19 hours
and evaluation of enerl!Y production of a solar system-
frooicquation{2)
Renewable energy Englneertng

----------------2-33
 Solar Ene!il
Solari;

• ApP(Oximately 30 pcrcent of the solar energy impinging oo the earth is reflected

-"-"' rai:!iaDOII. tih fai;IOf for the diffuse radt
s.,.a. to die tih faclO< for dlC """"." . · 00 the tilted surf: a~1 back into space.
rd defined as lh• ratio of die [ldiatJOD flUX faJ)ing ace to • Toe remaining 70 percent, approximately 120,000 terawatts (I terawatt is equal to
II ,..iialiOO falling 00 1he b(l(izOOtal surface•
diJfu9C . . . 1012 watts), is absorbed by the earth and its atmosphere.
. . ,___. as ,_..-.nic source of difJ'uSC radiallOD (tt may not be~.
• Solar radiation reaching 1he earth consislS of the bealll radiation !hat casts a
If tbC sky IS COOSl°"'"" ,..,..-r· 15 shadow and can be concentrated and the diffuse radiation tba1 has been scattered
mall cOOdrtiODS), the rd can be writl01
along its path in space from sun to earth.
1 +cos~ • The solar radiation reaching the earth degrades in several ways.
rd = ~
• The diffuse ,adialioo falling a tilted surface wl be given by Idrd, where Id • Some of the radiation is directly al,sorbed as beat by the atmosphere, the ocean.
00
and the grolllld.
1he inSWllaJlCOUS value of diffuse radiaUOll- • Another component produces atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
• A third component evaporateS, circulates, and precipitates water in the hydrologic
U.3• Renected Radiation
Th• reflected ,adialion from the ground and SUffOUDding area can also reach t
cycle.
collector with tilted surface.
• Finally, a very small fraction is captured by green plants and drives the
• 'The tilt faclOr for lhe reflected {1dialioo r, is given by 1be following equation.
pbotosynthetic process.
• Toe thermal conversion process of solar energy is based oo well-known phenomena
rr = p ~
2 of beat transfer (Kreith 1976).
• In all thernial conversion processes, solar radiation is absorbed at the suxface of a
2.BA Total Radiation on Tlltad Surface receiver, which contains or is in contact with flow passages through which a
• '!be total radiation on a tilted surface of the collectOf will be the sum of due;
working fluid passes.
diffuse and reflected racliati(l(IS, • As the receiver beats up, beat is ttanSferred to the working fluid which may be air,

• ll will be given by water, oil, or a molten salt.

Ir= Ibrb+ldrd+(\b+ld)rr • Toe upper temperature !hat can be achieved in solar thermal conversion depellds on
• Where lb' Id and Ir an: lhe mstantaneOUI values of beam, diffuse and reOCCI the msolation, the degree to which the sunlight is concentrated. and the measures

radiationS, respectively. taken to reduce heat losses from the working fluid.
• And r.,. rd and rr an: the tih factor for the beam, diffuse and reflected radiatiOI • Since the temperature level of the working fluid can be controlled by the ve\ocil)'
at which it is circulated, it is possible to match solar energy to the load
respccttvcly. requirements, not only according to the amount but also according to the

~-:-----~====~~~----------
2.9 Solar Energy Conversion Into Heat
• ~gy is not
I
good unto itself; it is valued rather as a means of satisf)'lt •
iernperature \eve\, i.e., lhe quality of the energy required-
In this manner, it is possible to design conversion systems that are optt1111.ZCd
accordin8 to both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.
1D1portant needs of a society.
• Toe collection and conversion of the solar radiation to mermal energy depends on
• In a morethcmlodynamics,
classical energy is defined as the capactly
. to do work,. \.
from
society. I"--
_,..;,. • •
1 pomt of VICW• ........,,,
- D J 111
• the mam
. stay of any .tnd"'~
...,•.
the collector design and die relative amounts of direct beam and diffuse radiation
absorbed by the collector (Kreider and Kreith I 981).

• To maintain our
an mcreasing present
portion soeial lllrUCtUre• rt
of our • .II desirable,
• therefore, that we sup!
energy needs from n:ncwable sources.
2·S4 R9Mwable Energy Englnee ~ 0
·
 ~
Solar ~
. di.scUSSion of solar thc:nnal collectors, the colleq _______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ ..!So~tar!!!.:E§n!!!•!!'IIY.
JD'.

AS ,ndicated m the rollowm& . . can collect only the direct radiation fJ<>c A. Construction and worl\lng
lhc sun. 005 • The construetional details of flat plate collector are given below-
used for bighcr tcmpcrarurc applicab "'
__._. by ,_..,,..,,, for _,,.ess beat and by utilities 1
• High ~ l,eal is . , _ ,_..,~, y•--- '

el=c•IY· l@"[GTU : May-15, 1,

2.10 Solar ColleetDfS

---
• Solar thermal energy is the most readilY available source of energy.
• The Solar energy is most impmtant kind of DOIK"l'venti~ source of ener,
which bas been used since ancient times, but in a most prm1111ve manner. Fig. 2.10.1 : Solar Oat plate colkctor
0
• Th• abundant solar energy available is suitable for harnessing for a number
a) Insulated Box
applications. • The rectangular box is made of thin G.l sheet and is insulated from sides and
• The application of solar thermal energy system ranges from solar cooker of I U bottom using glass or mineral wool of thickness 5 to 8 cm to reduce losses from
to power plaot of 200 MW. conduction to back and side wall.
• These systems are grouped into low temperature (<150 •q, medium temperani,
• Toe box is tilted at due south and a tilt angle depends on the latitude of location.
( t 50-300 °C) applications. 1
• Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incidtt • Toe face area of the collector box is kept between 1 to 2 m .
radiations into thermal energy by absorl>mg them. b) Tnnspareot cover
• nus beat JS extraeted by flowing Ouid (air or water or mixture with antifreeze) r • This allows solar energy to pass through and reduces the convective beat losses
the rube of the collector for further utilization in different applicatioris. from the absorber plate through air space.
• The transparent tampered glass cover is placed on top of rectangular box to trap
Types of solar collectors
the solar energy and sealed by rubber gaskets to prevent the teak.age of bot air.
• The collectors are classified as;
• It is made of plastic/glass but glass is most favourable because of its tranSmittance
I • Non concentrabng collectors
and low surface degradation.
2. Concentrating (focusing) collectorS. • However, with development of improved quality of plastics, the degradation quality

2.10.1 Non Concentrating Collectors bas been improved.

1
• In these collectors the area Of co11ector to mterccpt
. the solar radiation is equal • The plastics {Ire available at low cost, light in weight and can be used to make
tubes, plates and cover but are suitable for low temperature application 70 - 120 •c
the absorber plate and bas concentrabon
. ratio of I.
with single cover plate or up to I SCl'C using double cover plate.
2.1D.1.1 Flat Plau Co1eet1n (GIia Type) Colllctor • Toe thickness of glass cover 3 to 4 mm is commonly used and I to 2 covers with
• Flat. plate collector is most ,mportant
. part of any solar thermal energy system. spacing 1.5 to 3 cm are generally used between plates.
• collector
II JS sonplCSI m design. and both direct and diffuse
and con·--• . radiations are absorbed l • Toe temperature of glass cover is lower than the absorber plate and is a good
•«..., mto useful beat absorber of thermal energy and reduces convective and radiative losses of sky.
,_h_
• These coUeaon are swtable for beating to --,-......~ below 100 °C.
 Solar En, Solar En•rn
El The different factors affecting th• perfonnance of system are

c)Ablel'bffplale • Following factors affect the perfonnaoce of Flat plate collector-

• It mtefCCPlS and al,solbs the solar energy,
. __.._ . or steel and .IS m
f _,.,...,,,, alumimllDI . the thicknes
.
•) Incident Solar Radlatlon :
1be a!,sonlff plat< IS m- 0 -~.--• S
0 • The efficieocy of collector is directly related with solar radiation falling on it and
• the most ilnpo!Ullt part of collector along with lhc tubes products passing 1
1102mm.
increases with rise in temperature.
11 15
•
liquid or air to be heated
The plat< at,sorbs the maximum solar radiation incident on ~t ~~ g1
34 b) Nnmber of Cover Plate :
• The increase in number of cover plate reduces the intetnal convective beat losses
(cover plat<) and uansfers the beat 10 the tubes m con1act with mmunum h,
but also prevents the transmission of radiation inside the collector.
losses to IIJD05l)bere-
• Toe plat< is black painted and provided with selective material coating to mere, • More than two cover plate should not be used to optimize the system.
ilS absorpbOO and reduce the emission. c) Spacing:
• Toe absorber plat< has high absofptioo (80 - 95%) and low transmission/rellecbtt
• The more space betweeo the absorber and cover plate the less intetnal heat losses.
cl) Tabes The collectOr efficieocy will be increased.
• The plate is atlllched to a series of parallel tubes or one serpentine tube throe:
which water or other liqwd passes. · • However, on the other hand, increase in space betweeo them provides the shading
• The rubes are made of copper, aluminium or steel in the diameter I to 1.5 cm r by side wall in the morning and evening and reduces the abso<bed solar flux by
arc brazed. soldered on top/bottom of the absorber water equally in all the rub 2 - 3 °/4 of system.
and collect tt back from the other end • The spacing betweeo absorber and cover plate is kept 2-3 cm to balance the
• The header p,pe IS made of same material as tube and of larger diameter. problem.
• Now-a-days the tubes are made of plastic bill they have low thermal cooducUI d) Collector Tilt :
and higher coefficient of expansion than metals. • The fl.at plate collectors do not track lhe sun and should be tilted at angle of
B) Advantages latitude of the location for an average better performance.
• The own advantages of Oat plate collectors are : • However, with changing declination angle wilh seasons the optimmn tilt angle is
• It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating. kept as +1 5" or 15".
• Rcqwres less maintenance. • The collector 1s placed with south f.acing at northern hemisphere to receive

C) Disadvantages maximum radiation throughout the day.

• Large beat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area. e) Selective Surface :
• No trading of S\111. • Some materials lilce nickel black (a = 0.89, E = 0.15) and black chrome (a = 0.81,
E = 0.088), copper oxide (a = 0.89, E = 0.17) etc. arc applied cbcnucally on the
• Low wata lempcrature IS achieved.
surface of absorber in a 1hin layer of thickness 0.1 µm.
D) App~catlons
• These chemicals have high degree of absorption (a) to short wave radiation
I. Solar .,i-ata heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.
(< 4 µm) and low emission (&) of long wave radiations (> 4 µm) .
2. Desalination plant for obtaining drinking
3. Solar cookers ~ dom . water from sea water. • The higher absofption of solar energy increases the temperature f absorber plate
or c!bc cooking.
4 Drying apphcatioos. and working fluid.
• The top losses reduce and the efficiency of lhe collector mcreases.
S ~dencc heating. 2 - 39 R--bl• Energy Engineering
 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ ____!Solar~~E"!'i1!!!!11X
Solar Ene':ii

3 • The temperature is maximwn at any midpoint between adjar.ent cbanne\s, and the
_,.,- ••huld be able to withsW>d high ldllpcrarore of 00-400'( collector plate acts as a fin attached to the walls of the flow clwmCL
'lbc sclCCUVC ,...,_ ""' . . • Toe thermal performance of a fin can be expressed in terms of its efficiency.
c05I css. sl,ould not oxidi,.e and be (;OtTOS•ve r,:s1stanL

'lbc propcrtY of nwena) should not change with tiroe. • Toe fin efficiency 11r is defined as the ratio of the rate of heal flow through !he
real fin to lhe rate of beat flow through a fin of infinite themial conductivity, that
z.11 u n,ennal AllafYSIS ot F1al Plat• eouector
• In orda to detennme !he efficiency of a solar collector, lhe rate of heat ttllDSfer ~ •
is, a fin at a wtiform temperature.
We shall now derive a r,:Jation to evaluate !his efficiency for a flat-plate solar
the worl<inS Owd must be calculated.
If lflllSlCDI efICCU arc neglect«I lhe rate of beat tnDSfer to the fluid flowin; collector.
d,rougli a collector depends on the temperature of the collector surface ~om whict • 1f Uc is the overall beat loss coefficient from the collector-plate surl'ace to the
ambient air, the rate of beat loss from a given segment of the collector plate at
bcol IS uansfcrrcd by convection to lhe fluid, the tempcrarore of the flwd, and th:
x, yin Fig. 2.10.2 is given by the equation -
beat..uansfcr coefficient bctwCCO lhe collector and the Ouid. ... (2.10.1)
• To an,lys<: the rate of heal tranSfer, consider fi15l lhe condition at a cross sec110t

of !he collector v;ith flow duclS of rectangular cross sections, as shown in

Tc is the local collector-plate terllj1Cf8ture (fe > T . )
fig. 2 10.2

0 T. is the ambient air temperature.

U c is !he overall beat loss coefficient bc!WeeD the plate and !he ambient air.
Uc includes the effects of radiation and fr« convection betweeo !he plates, the
radiative and convective iransfer between !he top of the cover and the
cnvironmcnl, and conduction through the insulation.
• If conduction in the x direction is negligible, a beat balance at a given distance xO
for a cross section of the flat-plate collector per unit length in !he x direction can

be written in the form

--
... (2.10.2)
11 l dy-Ue(T e - T1 ) dy +f-1.
l -t 5:cY \ \Jj l-kt d:cy \
y,xo Y +dy,xo
=0
5 1

• If the plate thickness I is uniform and the thermal conductivity of the plate is
~ j _ independent of temperarurc, the last term in equation (2.10.2) is
~T' 1
dJ•\ +(d~e\
~ dy
Ft&, 2.10.l : Th•rmal au}ylll of lbt flat plait collector dT• \ dy
dy y +dy.xo Y y,xo Jy. lW
• Solar radiant energy ,mpmges on the upper face of the collector plate.
and equation (2.10.2) can be cast into the form of a second-order differential
• A part of the total solar radiauon falls on the upper surface of the flow cbanllel~
=.:other part is mcident on lhe plates connecting any two adjacent f}o• equation
... (2.1 0.3)

• The lalla IS conducted in a 1ranJV = dirccti on toward the flow channels.

 Solar Ena~ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___;s~o!!!lar!!_!En~er:af'llY.X

dcScribcd earlier at a fu<ed xO arc

• lf °'.e entire fin were al the temperature T iJCol,
a situation co~nding
physically to a plate of infinitely large tb.crmal conductivity, tb.e rate of heat
dUCIS die heat flow is 0, or at Y = 0, dTc ~ o
The t,oundatY ccr,dltiOIIS for the system
tranSfer would be a maximum, 'ltow• max. As mentioned previously, tb.e ratio of
I Al die center t,etwecn __ any_,,run,
!WO is •Ti,(x0} or at y = w = (I' - 0 )/2, the rate of heat transfer with a ~ fin to the maximum rate obtainable is the fin
2 Al the duct. the plate ........-- ' efli0iency Tlr With this definition, equation (2.10.8) can be written in tb.e from
Tc ~ T• (x0) where q 10tal(xo) = 2w11r{a,1, -Ucff b(x 0 )-Tall ... (2.10.9)
T,,(xO) is the fin-baSe
2
temperature·
d., T _ (f + a I IIIJ equation (2.10.3} becomes where 1lr • tanh mw/mw.
• If we let m = Ujkt an ,. ~ c a s,.., '
• The fin efficicocy T\r is plotted as a function of the cfuncosiooless parameter
... (2.10.41
d2♦ = m2♦ w(UJl<t}ln in Fig. 2.10.3.
dy2 • Wbco the fin efficiency approaches unity, tb.e maximum portion of the radiant
energy impinging on the fin becomes available for heating the fluid.
• SubJcct to the boundary conditiOOS
• ln addition to the beat tranSferrcd through the fin, the coergy impinging on the
~ = Oaty=O portion of the plate above the flow passage is also useful.
d)
• The rate of useful energy from region available to heat the working fluid is
and ... (2.10.10)
q10tal(x ) = 2w Tlr{a,I, - Uc[T b(xo)-T.J}
0
• Thus, the useful energy per unit lcogtb. in die flow direction bccOmcs
q (x ) = (0 +2 w11){a,l,-Ucffb(x0 )-Tall ... (2.10.11)
• The general solution of equation (2.10.4) is 0 0
... (2.10.5)
♦ = C 1 sinh my + C 2 cosh my ,.o
• The constants C and Ci can be determined by substituting the two boundal)
I
condiuons and solving the two resulting equations for C1 and C2.
0.9
• 1111s gives
... (2.10 6)

• From the preceding equation, the rate of beat tranSfer to the conduit from the
portion of the plate between two conduits can be determined by evaluating th<
tempcrarurc gradient at the base of the fin, or

qf., = - kt d;c\ = ; (a,l,-Uc(Tb(x 0 )-T1 ]tanhmw} ... (2.10.7)

y• w
w
u )'12srnW
(i;
• ~ince the condwt is connected to fins on both sides, the total rate of b eat tran5fe!
IS
Fig. 2.10.3 : Fill efficiency for 111bc and sheet llat-plate solar collccton
q - i(xo) • 2w (a ,l, _ Uc(T b(xo )- T,]1 tanh mw ... (2.I0.81 2 • 43 Renewable Energy Engineering
mw

2 • 42
 Solar En•!lll
Solar ~
~ [GTU : Dec.13,15, May-14)
2.10.2.1 Lens Focusing Type
ferred as heal to the worlcin& fluid.
• The energy 'lu (Jlo), must be inns ·-• wall of the flow duct is neg1·1gt"blY small " • The Fresnel lenses arc used to concentrate the radiation at its focus. The lower side
~ -·• · tance. of the me= of lenses arc grooved so that radiation concentrates on a focus line.
If the U I Q ~ resis between the duel and the plate, the rate of ht
thae is no contact resistance compound Parabolic Collectors
tnnSfer to the fluid is ...(2.l0J:
• These collectors arc line focusing type.
q.(xol ~ Phc.,[Tb(xoJ-Tr("o)I • The compound parabolic collectors have two parabolic surfaces to concentrate the
. · f the flow duct, which is 2{D + d) for a rcctangui.
Where p 15 the penmeter o . solar radiation to the absorber placed at bottom.
duel Contact resistance may become impor1llDI m poorly manufactured collect~
Incoming solar
in which the flow duct is clamped or glued to the collector plate. irradianoe
CollectorS manufactured by such methods arc usually not satisfactory.
~ [GTU : Dec.•1:
2.10.2 Concentric Collectors
• Concentrating collec1or is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity o
solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface.
• Such collectors use optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors.
• These collec1ors are used for medium (100-300 °C) and high-temperature (abm Parabolic
cooc:entratOf
300 °C) applications such as steam production for the generation of electricity. Fig. 1.10.4 : Solar parabolic con«ntri< collector
• The high temperature is achieved at absorber becauSC of reflecting arrangeme:
provided for concentrating the radiation at required location using mirrors ar.
2.10.2.2 FPC with Retlecto~
lenses. The mirrors are placed as reflecting surface to concentrate more radiations on FPC
• These collectors arc best suited to places having more number of clear days in
absorber.
year. • The fluid temperature is higher by 30 °C than achieved in FPC.
• The area of the absorber is kept less than the aperture through which the radiauo
• These collections utilize direct and diffuse radiation.
passes, to concentrate the solar flux.
• These collectors require tracking to follow the sun because of optical system-
• The tracking rate depends on the degree of concentration ratio and needs frequc:s
adjustment for system having high concentration ratio.
• The efficiency of these collectors lies between 50-70%.
• The collectors need more maintenance than FPC bccause of ns
. opll"cal system-
Types of concentrating collectors ~[GTU : Nov.ii, May-14, oec.11

• The concentrating collectors arc classified on the basis of reflector use>

concentration ratio and tracking method adopted. Fig. 1.10.S : FPC wltb reflecton
z _45 Ren•- ble EnefVY Englneenng
 SolarE~ Solar En•JJIY

2.10.3 Difference between Concentric and Flat Plate Collector

2.10.2.3 i.-- FOCUlin8 Type __ ..,,
• Ibc Fresnel .lemCS are .....,
,_ f i-•- is omnved so that radiariOll conccntratcS on a
• Ibc lo,.cr """' o -
~
. . at 1·1s ,ocus.
concentrate the radiauon Concentric collec10r
10 Sr. No. Flat plallt collector
focus line.
It is less elliclent solar collector Highly efficient
.,.-- 1
Power produced is more.
2 Power Produced is less
Maximum Temperature of fluid up to
Maximum temperature of fluid up to around SOOO'C can be achieved.
3 300'C.
It can be used in solar furnaces and
11 can be used in water heating. solar power plants.
4

2.11 Solar Energy Thennal Storage

• In traditional energy systems, the need for thermal storage is often short-term and
therefore the technical solutions for thermal energy storage may be quite simple,
and for most cases water storage.
~- 1.10.6 : Fraael kaJ type conc:eatric collector • Storage based on chemical reactions bas much higher thermal capacity than
sensible beat but are not yet widely commercially viable.
Advantages of concen1ric collectorS • Large volume sensible heat systems are promising technologies with low heal
• The heat delivered by concentrating solar collectors is available at much high< losses and attractive prices.
temperatures. There are three main physical ways for thermal energy storage sensible beat,
• Higher temperatures allow the use of power generation equipment to produce boil phase change reactions and thermo chemical reactions.
electricity and beat.
• Large economy-of-scale effects are observed when moving toward lar,- 2.11.1 Sensible Heat
• The storage is based on the temperature change in the material and the unit storage
conccntration syslCIIIS, rendering such technology very cost-effective ( comparo.
capacity [Jig) is equal to beat capacitance x temperature change.
with PV for example)

Disadvantages of concentric collectonl 2.11.2 Phase Change Reactions (Latent Heat)

3
• Since concentrators can focus only direct solar radiation, their perfiormance is po<I • base t , ....;" temperature while heating the
on cloudy days. • If the material changes its P a ""' ~
substance, then heat is stored in the phase change.
• Reversing, heat is dissipated when at the phase change temperature, it is cooled
• , mechanisms must be used to move the collectors during the day to ke<1
Tracking
thcm ,ocused on the sun back.
• The storage capacity of the phase change materials is equal to lhe phase change
• m=ased.
MunlCIWICC and COIISIJUCt!OD costs of the system are therefore considerabll enthalpy at the phase change temperature + sensible heat stored over the whole
remperature range of the storage.
• desert meas arc only prac11.cal .m areas of high
Coota11ra1ors . direct insolation, such as arid an,

2 • 47
,_------------------~~-::--~So=la:!r..!:~ ------------------------~~~!!m
su,rage ···-
_ ...••e ....ncess
Solar En•rm
15
!..awn bca1 Y" __ of roelting or crystallization of a mattna1 l • F"1g. 2·12·1 · a schematic cross section of a single tube in an evacuated tube
collector.
,u,rebeaL • • Evacuated tube devices have been proposed as efficient solar energy collectors
. selcctcd for this purpose evidenCC a roucb higher sto'."ge capac,,
since the early twentieth century.
11>e ,natmals u,_ _. -rure range COlllpared to conventional ston,
w,tbin a smal~ acuu- terD,,.,•-- - --. • In 1~ , Emmett proposed several evacuated tube concepts for solar energy
,natmals stonn8 sensible bcal- coUcctJon. Speyer also proposed a tubular evacuated flat-plate design for
• TI,ercfore, applications that funetion within a small temperature range arc cspec,a1; bigb-te111perature operation.
swt.ed for lalent heat stora8e, • With the recent advances in vacuum technology, evacuated tube collectors can be
• Many appbcariOOS eXJst in building.,, for ~pie as cold_ storage [' reliably mass-produced.
air-wnditioning. w!,ereaS other applications are foWJd m industrY or tn the mob,lr
• Their high-temperature effectiveness is essential for the efficient operation of
proposed solar air-conditioning systems and process heat systems.
sector
• Since close packing of Concentric-Tube Collector {CTC) tubes in an array can
2.11.3 Thennochemical Reactions result in shading losses at any angle other than normal incidence, it is
• The sorption or thermo chemical reactions provide thermal storage capacity.
cost-effective to space the tubes apart and to use a back reflector in order to
• The basic principle ,s : capture radiation passing between the tubes.
AB + heat <'> A+B;
Incoming $Olar radlabon
• Using heat, a compound AB is broken into components A and B which can

~~~
stored separately; bringing A and B 10gether AB is fonned and beat is released.
• Toe storage capacity is the heat of reaction or free energy of the reaction.
• The storage systems based on chemical rcactioos have negligible losses whereai
,ens1ble heat storage dissipates the stored heal to the environment and need to h

isolated.
(•)
-w- (b)
I,, radiabon

2.12 Evacuated Tube Collectors

• Two general methods exist for significantly improving the performance of SO• Fig. 2.12.1 : Evacuated tube coUecton
collectors above the mmtmum flat-plate collector level.
• Fig. 2.12.1 shows lhe geometry of part of a CTC array with lllbc spacing is a
• 1bc lim method increases solar flux incident on the receiver.
cutaway drawing of one tubular assembly.
• It will be described m the next section on concentrators. • Beckley and Mather have analysed the CTC in detail and have shown that a tube
1
• surucc
The sccond method mvolvcs the reduction of parasitic heat loss from the rece1 • spacing one envelope diameter apart (i.e., d = 2D.) max.imi,..es daily energy gain.

• Toe specular reflector improves perfor111ance by I 0% or more.

• This can be accomplished by P1acmg
IUbe and - 8 lllbular receiver inside another transpare"
• CTC arrays can collect both direct and diffuse radiations.
cvacuatmg the armular space betwcco them to about I 0-4 mroHg.
1 • Each radiation component must be analysed in tum.
• This IITlllgcment elimmatcs convecti I .
evllCUalCd tube collector. on osses and u commonly referred 10 as
• The optical efficiency l1c, may be expressed as
2 • 49 Renewable En•l'IIY Englrwerlng
 Solar En,, Solar Energy

...(2.1, • )½ is oegligil>le for commercial designs, aod R and ~ are approximately given
by I

__ (IIE,)+(l/Eg)-1 . .. (4)
R1
a(T, + Tg) (T;- +Tf}
Wberc, . . . both dircctlY intCICCJlled and .mtercepted at
I ctr is the effective solar ,adialJOD
... (5)
refection from the bacl< reflCCIOf
• the beam and diffuse radiation compono
'<-,1 and 1<'-<> are rcspecnve1Y' are the glass
ted unit collector aperture area T• and a, eov,i.
mtercep per . I Where,
inmsmitt.anct and receiver al,sorplanCC, respecttv• Y
T, is the receiver (absorber) temperature
Toe subscript e denotes envelope (tube) properties
• II,, is the exteroal convection coefficient for the glass envelope.
Th• total effective insolanon 1,,r can be calcul21ed by summing directly interc'JII
The receiver-to-collector aperture area ratio is !tD/d, where d is the
and reflected radiations, that is, centre-to-ceoll'C distance between the rubes.
1,n- = 1b(cosi+cosi ~)+ lc1<[1tFr,(l+pF)] ··· (212 • Therefore,

q. = dD, [t,a,1,n- -1tU 0 (T, -T.)]

... (6)
Where,
Fn is the radiation shape factor from a tube to the sky dome F is a measwc • For aptimlllll performance, a specularly reflecting back surface and a rube spacing
the shape factors of diffusely illuminated Sll'lps to collector tubes. of one envelope diameter apan are recommended.
• For tubes spaced one diameter apart, Frs =0.43 and F =0.34.
• The optical efficiency 'lo equation (2.12. I) is not, therefore, a sunple collec Review Questions
property mdependeot of operaong conditions, but rather a function of time thro. ~ .:..:..:..:..:..:.--=.:..:..:.:.=..::~---------------------1
Wnot ., solar consrant ? Explain briefly.
I.he mcidcnce angles. 2 Define arr mass.
J. Erp/am terrestrial and extra rerestrarial solar radiations.
2.12.1 Thermal Analysis of an Evacuated Tube Collector
4. Explain solar spectral distribution.
• Toe heat loss. qL• from an evacuated tubular collector occurs primarily by rachau
5. Explain solar energy available from the sun.
from the absorber surface and can be expressed as
6. Define the terms i) Clarity index ii) Concentration ratio
ql = U (T - T ) = T, - Ta ... (21~
C ' • R1+R2+R3 7. Explain solar radiation geomttry.

Where,
8. Defin, solar radiation gt()metry. I
9. Explain so/at flat plait collector with ntal sutch.
R, is the tbcrmal radiative resistance between the surface of the tube and the tD1' IO. Explain solar concentric collector with neat sutch.
mrface of the glass tube. JJ. Differentiate between solar jlot plate collector and concentric collector.
R, IS the tbcrmal resistance of the glass tube.
RJ IS lhe 1bcrma1 •
envuoomcnt by -~stance between_the OUlCr surface of the glass tube and r
•-on and convecbon.
12. Explain solar energy conffl'slon in to heal.
l J. Explain solar energy thermal "°''!'.:_ \
Renewable Energy Eng!neeflng
2 - 51
 _,
SolarE""'JIY

of April.
Ah d. b Average Solor d."Y hours ore IO hrs. Angstrom'• comtarlls for
U o,,tw "' ,:q,rasi/JII far """ond Jmgtl,..
day why d ., dt/f,r,nl from the standard clod: ""'• of me " ad. a = 0.28, b = 0.48 (Refer eumple 2.7.l) [7]
/j 'fttlllS-by,a/Dr,_
Dec. 2012
I 6 C!Dssi/Y t/N -,1,od, of solar .-gr ,wragt.
Q.10 Wrile a brief note on effect of various parameters on performance of flat plate
collectors. (Refer section 2.10.l.2) [7]

Q.11 Define following terms with necessary figure.

()) Sunrise/Sunset hour angle (2) Solar tilt angle
Wntt name of so/or radialiDn ,neasuring ~ - Explain sun shine record, (3) Solar altilUde angle (4) Declination angle
wllh figure. (Refer HClio■ 2.6)
Q.1
p (5) Doy length (6) Surface azimuth angle. (Refer sedlon 2.5) [7]
Wntt brief note on efftct of w,ritnlS parameters on performance ofJim p/i,
Q.2 O May 2013 \
CQ/lectors (Refer HClloa l.J0.1.1 (E)) r
Define the following terms with necessary figure. Q.12 Describe advantages and drawbacks of solar energy utilization.
Q.3 [7]
(I) Solar altitude angle (2) Solar zenith angle (Refer section 2.1.1)
(3) Solar azimuth angle (4) Decll1lllli0n angle Q.13 Explain the principle of working of a pyrheliometer with a neat sketch.
(5) Latitude angle (6) Hour angle. (Refer section 2.5) [7]
(Refer section l.6.2)
Q.14 Describe the working of a flat plate collecior using air as working fluid with the
1 Dec. 2011
help of a neat sketch (Refer section l.10.1) (7J

Q.,4 Whu:h are the non- conventional energy sources ? Slate the merits and demer.. Define /he following terms (i) Zenith angle (ii) Concentration ratio
ofsolar energy. (Refer ,rectio■ 2.1) ~ Q.15 (iii) Instantaneous collector efficiency (Refer sections 2.3.1 and 2.5) [7]

Q.5 Calculate the solar insolation on the top of the atmosphere on 23 March and
/9 June. 2011 Take Solar constant s 1353 Wlm1 (Refer section 2.S) V I Dec. 2013

Q.8 Which instruments are used for solar radialion measurements ? Exp/,.
con.11n1etion and working of pyrometer. (Refer sections _ and _ _ )
26 26 1 ~
Q.111 Define the following terms with r.ecessory sketch.
I. Solar declination angle 2. Hour angle
(07]
Q.7 Give classification of solar concentrating collectors. Explain compound parab 3. solar zenith angle 4. Solar incident angli,_ (Refer sec:tion 2.5)
concentrator briefly. (Refu section 2.10) ~ Q.17 Define sun rise hour angle, also calculate the. day length in Ahmedabad (230 N)
on 2z-' December and 27!"' March. (Refer section l.S) (T)
1 May 2012 1
Q.18 List different types of concentrating collector. Explain any one with figure.
(T)
a.a Exp/aut
., ,_ the Con«pl Of "Solar ConstanJ • """
_ _, •~tr
. Mass" ? What is the variati, (Refer section 2.10)
o, so..,, constant w11h llme and what IS. the reason for this variation ?
(Refer NCliH 2.3.l) r Q.19 Discuss the working of Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) and slate its
advantages and disadvantages. (Refer section 2.10.2) (T)
Q.9 Cokula1e IIIOlllhJy average of Daily
S,ufau located in Ahmedabad . Global Solar Radiation on a Horizo~•
GuJorat slate (21'.00' N, 7J'.10' E) for the mo!."
 Solar Energy
----------;:::::::::::71----:::-----=So~~
[ r,tayltl~ (3) E:x.tra-terresrnal radialu,n (Refer Hdion 2.4.t )
(4) Beam radiation (Refer Hdion 1.3.l (a))
co/kdO" dasnfied , With nem sketch exp/•,
(5) Diffuse radiation (Refer section 1.3.2 (b))
Q.20
Ha,. tn dit ~ (llder ll<dioD 2.10) l1
(6) Declination angle (Refer section 1.5.1)
~ ""' warbnr of'""So/8
1611d - constant, arr ,naJS, solar declination, z.,,, (1) :lenith angle (Refer section 2.5.2) [7]

Q..21 Define d,t fal1owl"!__, __,_ tune solar aJnn,de anglt. Q.31 List oU/ the types of Solar concentrating collector. &plain co,utrudlon and
angk.4'1,/mgllt.""""-
(Rdtt oc,cdoal 2.J,I ud ~
working of OJmpound Parabolic O,ncentra1or (CPC) wilh MQI sketch.
11
., ___,,,_ (Refer adioD 2.6.1) ,, (Refer HCtion 2.10.2) (7)
/)raw - /a/,dd SUI£,, '1, PJT,,,.,.....-. I'
Q.22
[ l}ec.2014 J Q.32 &plain application, principle, construction and working of pyranometer with Ma1
sketch. (Refer section 2.6) ~ -- -~ (7)

DefiN IU1IU AJtitudt angle ,w:/dtnl angle, u,u1h angle. solar azimuth ang" 1 May 2016 1
(U3
/atitr,d, a,,gk. d«{;,,arwn ang/t. /,ow ang/t {Jufer MdioD 2.s) (1
Q.33 Define differenJ seven solar angles. (Refer section 2.5) (7)
DefiN ,oJar constant What ,s the ,Jiffuo,ce l,erweDI a pyrheliometer and ,
CU4 Q.34 &plain constrUclion and working of pyranometer with Ml11 sketch.
pyranometer • (lltftr tttllau 2.A.t.l ud 2.6 ) V (7)
(Refer section 2.6.1)
Daaibt Ill brief. t!rl d,fftrtnl magy storage methods used m the solar S}ll,.
Q.25 Q.35 Name the different types of solar collector. &plain paraboloidal dish collecror
(Rdu ~ 2.11) _ _ _ _.., r wilh Ml11 sketch. (Refer section 2.10) (7)

1 May 2015 1 1 Dec. 201, 1

Q.28 Wltid, tn ,ue,J for ,olar radJl1twn measurements.
I/IS1rlllftDIU bpk.
conmv£han and working ofpyr-,me1er (Jufer l«tlon 2.6) r Q.36 Explain the concept of "solar constant• and "air mass" ? Wllat is the variation of
solar constant with lime and what ,s the reason for this variation ?
(7)
Q.21 Ckwt/i dtffertnl type, of 10/ar collectors and o:p/a,n the construction detotl• (Refer HCtioDI 2.3.1 (a), 2.4.1.1 and 2.5.3)
a jla1 plate coll«u>r w,th Mal sknch (Rtfer Mdion 2.10) r Q.37 How are the concentrating collectors classified ? With the schematic diagram
Q.21 /xfine tire fi,//awing explain construction and working of any one. (Jufer IICdion 2.10.2) (7)
I So/ar c,,,,stant 1 A,r ma.tr
3 Er:ro-terratrial rad1D11on 4 Tl!rratnal rad1111wn Solar Energy ends.-
J IJea,n radiation 6 D,jfustd radUJtton
7 Global radiario,, (Jufer Metions 2.4.1 ud 2.5) r
Q.29 Dmnnuw the monber of day /,girt h<nlrs in Srinagar on 5"' January and 5~ J,
LatinuJ, 36 dtgrer 05 Mimau. (Rdcr secdoa 2.5.1) r
1 Dec. 2015 1
cuo Defi,w

d~ connanr (Rtfer llffllo■ 2A.l.1J

~ trrmrla/ radiatUJn IRder Hdlo■ 2.4.2J
2 • 55
 CHAPTER- 3

APPLICATIONS OF THE SOLAR ENEREiY

5y11abu• : Heating and cooling of buildings, solar pumping, solar cooker, solar still,
solar drier, solar n:frigeration and air conditiooing, solar pond, heliostal,
solar furnace, photovoltaic system for power generation. solar cell modules
and arrays, solar cell types, material, applications, advantages and
disadvantages.

Page No.
Topic Name
5edion No.
3-2
3.1 Solar Energy Applications
3-2
Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings
3.2
3-5
3.3 Solar Pumping
3-7
3.4 Solar Cooker
3 - 11
Solar Still (Solar Distillation)
3.5
3 - 12
3.6 Solar Dryer
3 - 13
Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
3.7
3 - 17
3.8 Solar Pond
3 - 19
3.9 Solar Furnace
3 - 20
PhOtovollaic System for Power Generation
3.10
3 - 22
3.11 Solar Cell
3 - 26
RevieW Questions
3 - 27
University Question• with Answers
 iut10ns of th• Solar En,, ________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _J.Ae~pl~ica;;!!!tlo
2!n'!•!..!
! of~th!!•15o~lar!!'..§En!!!"'la.~

3_2.U AetlV• System

• Active system consists of the following componcnlS as shown in Fig. 3.2.1.
_1 5o1ar energy .Application•
. Ii-"-• -n,cse me ~ below :
3
• Sol# cner1D baS ..,ck app - - -
,.__ IJiNd sow Enef1IY ApplieatloM
• (I includcS the appiicatiODS ~ 2. Solar bearin& and cooling
Solar wal<f hcating 4. So!Jr still /,..,-r--
Solar drier 6. So!Jr pond __,,
radiation•
s. Solar cookff
Solar water pumpm&
---------
~
e. Solar Electrical Applications
I Solar cells
2 Qcean thermal energy convcnion
Pump
3. n,ermoelectric convmion
Fi&- 3.2.l : Solar active apace laeatln&
c. Biomass Energy Appllcatlons

3.2 Solar Heating and Cooling of Bulldlngs • Storage tank is used to srore the water heated by the solar eollectorS-
• As the sun rays are incident on the solar eollectorS it is theo tIBDSfered to -the
3.2.1 space Heating stora&e tank, with the use of the heat eoergy the walef from the tank gets heated.
• Heating and cooling of building, offer great opportunities for energy eonsCf\• • The heated water is theo supplied to the auxiliary heaters where it gcts heated and
as well as utilization of solar energy.
the tcmperalllIC of the water mcrcases-
• A fust step in designing an eoergy-dicieot building should be an assessme!!
• The heated water is theo supplied to the buildings.
lhe various options for conservation.
• These should ioclwle energy-efficient lighting, double - or triplc-glaz.ed wlllil:
3.2.1.2 PasslV• system ~ l GTU : Dec-15, June-13, Nov-11 l
. . .
sbadmg, incteaSCd insulation, and "-'-·" e,ww,auOD of unnecessary air Leaka!' • In this type of the system no mechanism is required for the system-
mamtatn mtcnor comfort • Heat flows difc,clly into the building without any mechanical eomponeots like
5
energy measures are
• These . of the architect, but recently peciaL
_ usua1I_Y the_ domain
pomps or blowers.
eonservanon eogmeenng for buil":-- f • Solar ,adialiOOS are collected by means of the s1nJCMC clements (Concrete. st00e
architectural design. ..._. bas become a part o

• Solar heating system can be divided into . etc.)

I. Active systems the following two categories. • Sunlight is kept out during sumJOef usiog roof ovc,bangs-

2. Pwive systems
- ~ [ GTU __________________ J_Appl~!!!lca!:;!!!tion!!!!!;•!.:D!!!f[.!the!!!_Solar~!!.!En!'lll~~
"--------------:--:::::Af'P'~elcatic1~;";s~o:f~lh;•~So~DecI~
~ - - ,~...... Cc,Ollnll of sulldillll) : 1 - No moving parts.
3i2space---- . . ·!
__ __.. . me air cooditi(Jlling and refrigcration. • Quiet operanon
• ~,_,gycanbe,......ID . ..
L____. . ___.__,,,...,,, IIIIY be the filtUrCS air condilloning • More compact syst,m.
• n,c - - - ab,orpDOII _..,,vo, Us,

• oolar power. cooling

/JJIOIPOOII is ~ 111 air conditioning
ck:c1JicitY but by I beat sc,urce. in Ibis c:asc lhc SIIIL
system driven not
-3.3 Solar Pumping
• In many remote and rural areas, band pumps or diesel driven pumps
water supply.
a,c used for

• Eva,cualCd-tube solar collecUJ11 and solar panels absorb the sun's beat which ,s ll,
used ID beat up a 1200 gallon u,suWecl bol water ,u,rage tank until the "l
reacbos 180 &cgrees fal,reDbcit-
• 1bc bol wllla" is lhco pmnped anlD a gmc:rat« tbc:D into a chiller.
• 1bc chiller c;OIIWllS an al,6orbcn1. usually litbiulD t,romide sa!L
• This absori>enl yields the refrigmDI, which coodalSeS and produces chilled waJ:
1bc iur from inside die building is pushed. by a fan, over the the coil II!!
eonl&irung the chilled watcr.
• 1bc, now cooL air as cuculatcd back into lhc building.
• There arc singlc,-elfect and doublo-cffect absorplioo systems.
• Doublc,-elfect sy'1l:lllS use the beat twice in die series and arc twice ss efficient c;
require nearly twice as much heal.
• Diesel pumps consume fossil fuel. affect the environment, o-1 more mainlenmCC.
and arc less reliable.
• Photovoltaic {PV)-powcted water pumps have received coosidttable attention
t,ecauSe of major developments in the field of solar=ll maraws and power
eJectronic systemS tcehoology.
• Two types of pumps arc commonly used for water-pumping applicalioras :
• Positive displacement and centrifugal.
• Both centrifugal and positive displacement pumps can be further clasSified into
those with motO<S that arc surface mounted. and those that arc submerged into me
water ("submersible").
• DispJacemcnt pumps have water output directly propo<tiooal ID me speed of me
pump, but almost independent of bead.
• These pumps arc used for solar water pumping from deep wells or t,on:s.
• They may be piston-type pumps or usc a diaphragJD driven by a cam or rowy
screw, or usc a progiessive cavity system.
• The pumping rate of these pumps is directly relaled to the spc:cd, and bcncc
constant torque is desired.
• The typical PV swid-alone system consists of a solar array and a ballt:IY connected
as shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
• The PV array supplies power to the load and cbsrges me battCrY when mere is
sunligbL Toe batter}' powers the load otherwise-
• An inverter cooverts the DC power of the array and the battery into 60 or 50 Hz
power. InvcrterS are available in a wide range of power ratings with efficiencies

ranging from 85 to 95 ¾.
• The array is segincnted with isolation diodes for improving reliability.
• In such a design, if one string of me solar array fails, it does not load or short the

remaining string$-

3•S R~ble EMf'IIY Engineering

·'_---------------=-~ApPl~~ieatto=~"~•~o~f~th ~ - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - ~ A pi!JpP!l~lea!!tlo~ns!_E:ofLltha~!!!So!!Jlar!!.!Ena~'iY-'iY-
=•~So~~•E
• A battery is often added to meet short-tenn load peaks. In the U.S~ the
are prc<med for ,diabilitY·
MaiDpk a,....,.n c:adi with a 35 ¾ ,aling. an: prcfcm:d to one ~ Envuoomental Protection Agency sponsors grid-<:0nnected PV programs in urban
• for csanplc. dircC m...,.... areas wh= wind towers would be impractical.
HJS %IIIIDI- . ·
,emaioill8 r,,,o CIII cont111ue supp1ymg
· most 1. • In recent years, large building-integrated PV installations have made significant
allVanCCS by adding grid COIIIJcaioos to lhe system desigll,
If - sudl - - f.ai)s, the
-1mefail<d_
•
.. rq,airodorreotac<d. .
- " also .,.uods IO usJDg rnulbplC battenCS,
. • 'Jbe project was part of lhe EPA PV DSP program. The system prooile. 18 kW
power and is connect£d to the grid. In addition, it collects
Th< - clesign - - mstaDcd in d,:velopJD&
. . to provide ,
countncs
Most ~ PV systmt5 are "' • Sufficient n:search dala using numerous instnnnents and computer data loggers.
-,:5Sllics such .. ligbllll& and puinpin& - · - - - ~ - L1 • The vital data are sampled every 1O seconds, and are averaged and stoted every
l2
L3 IOminuteS.
L4
.__ _,,__LS • The incoming dala includes information about air temperature and wind speed.
ACloads • The performance parameter.I include di=1 current (DC) voltage and current
genenited by the PV roof and the alu:mating CUirCDt (AC) power at lhe inverter
I

•-
output side.
~ [ GT\J: May 14 l
3A Solar Cooker
• A solar coolcer is a device which uses lhe energy of di=1 sunlight to beat, cook
Fie- J.J.I : Selar pu,plaC or pasteurise drink.
• Phc,covoltaic (PV) power 5)'S(all5 have made a successful transition from s,:; • Many solar cookers currently in use are relatively inexpensive, \ow-tech devices,
allhough some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional st0ves and advanced.
sundalone sttes to wge grid-c;omlecl<d sy,u:rns.
large-scale solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people.
• Toe utility inlacormeclioa brings a new dunensioo to the renewable JlO"
• Because lhey use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, rnany non-profit
economy by pooling the tcmpOral excess or the shortfall in the renewable ~
organi7Jlliort5 are promoting lheir use worldwide in order to help reduce fuel costs
wrth tbe COODCCllDg grid Iha! generaleS ba5e-load power using conventional fucb
and air pollution, and to slow down lhe deforesiation and desertification caused by
• This improves the overall ecooorny and load availability of the renewable plant
galhering mwood for cooking.
the two unportant faclon of any power S)'!lml.
• Solar cooking is a form of outdoor coolcing and is often used in situations where
• The grid supplies power to the site loads whffl Dfflled or absorbs the excess po minimal fuel cor15wnptioo is unportant, or the danger of accidental fires is high,
from the SIIC when IVlilable. and the health and environmental consequences of alternatives are severe.
• A lrilowm-bour llldl:r is ulCd to measure the power delivered to the gnd. '
anodler 15 UICd to mcaure lhe power drawn from the grid. 3.4.1 Box Type Solar Cooker
• The two
bul5 lllows IR gcoerally . pn'ced diflii:rent1y oo a daily basis or on a )°'
lbat IIICla1 u .1.1 construction and w~ng
cacrgy swappmg and billing the net IIIIIUa! difference. • Solid and efficient, the box cooker is composed of an insulated wooden ~
• The llbcM figure . . containing a smaller box with a black base and internal walls covered m
..,.._ h ,_...,.__"-~~cal circuit diagram of the grid-connected pl/ po•
lhown.
•,- .._....,. wnu we local "'""'"
~•, lines· at the OU1put side of the invell~ · aluminium.
3-7
 of the &<>Lair tr..,
~ - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -~Apl!Jp[!!llca~tio!!!,
" !!!ns!.2:of~tlle~,:!:SO!!!lar~E::!M!JIX~LL

• The traclcing of the cooker is manual and thus has to be adjusted in 15 to

0-,V.......,,,
o...-"""
lr""'l-
Flc- JAi :
• A doabic--glaz<d g1us u,p covers dJc
• It can be made usmg local materials
read> • t.c:mpmture of 120 io
• Easy 10 make dJc \)')I coour 1S dJc ooe most ~ used
U 1.2 Advlntlgll and Diudvlnlalll'
,_.....,.,,,,
-Reftedor
•
20 minutes during cooking time.
It has a delivering power of about 0.6 kW which cao boil 2 to 3 liters of w•~ in
half an hour.
Glas SMet 001/er • Toe tcmperarurc achieved at the bottolJI of the vessel could be around 350' to
400" C which is sufficient for roasting, frying and boiling,
• Toe cooker having a thennal efficiency of around 40 % cao meet the needs of I 0
to IS people and can be used from one hour after sunrise to one hour before
sunset on clear days.
• Dish solar cooker is being fabricated and promoted in the counlJY by a few
manufacturen/ suppliers.
• The cooker can be easily dismantled and assembled by anybody and thus may be
... type oelar ce<)ktr
nicely packed and tnmsporttd anywhere in the country.
asscmblY md produces a greenhouse effCC". • The cooker is user friendly as the place of vessel to be kept for cooking is at •
level which is convenient for the people to use.
c-.ood. sheep's wool. etc.) and car "'
• The cooker could be useful for individuals in rural as well as urban areas and also
,so •c for small eslllblisbmenls like dhabas, tea shops, etc. on road sides.
• The cost of the cooker is Rs. 6000 - 7000/- and it cao save up to 10 LPG
cylindcn/year oo full use at small eslllblisluncnts.

'Jbc solar cooker IIVCS IIIDC, IDODty and cnagy

3A.3 Community Solar Cooker
2 No risk for !he environmcaL
3 Solar cooking is slower lhan lndilional cooking methods and consequently, enat. 3.0.1 ConstrudiOn
dJc procb:tion of hcallhicr dillies, pn:xrvmg bodl LISie and nutrients and m..1:' • The unique feature of this cooker is that it is possible to cook using solar energy

m<al more lcndcr. within !he kitchen itself.

• The 7 m2 large reflector standing ouiside the kitchen reflects the solar rays into lhe
4 Vcgdables. 6uits 111d meal coot pcrfcctly wi1houl Wala, thereby acceleraUng c
kitchen through an opening in its north wall while a secoodary reflector further
cooking procaa. while cereals and Mmdiy foods need Jen than a third of "
concentrates the rays on to lhe bottom of the pot / frying pan painted black.
IIIIOUIII of WIier required for nditionaJ cookmg.
• The tempm.ture att.ained is so higb {400 °C) that the food could be cooked in a
S It can be Uled IO coot all types of food (vcgetabl- ftuita meat, cereals, bre>
&) ..., ' shorter time unlike box solar cooker.
It therefore acts like a conventional cooking device with the diffcmice ~
instta.d
3A.2 Dish Type Solar Coolter of conventional cooking fuel like gas, electncity or firewood, the food 1s cooked
• It II I 0DDCCalralmg lype -•-~- . with the help of solar energy·
1-1 llldft' and ,_, ,_...., ,.............. dish IOlar cooker with aperture diamet<f
-..._.o.21mdcr
• Thcrdlcclans~
llwd wbicb IIICd for fabrication of Ibis cooker is anodized a]UJ!linf-
1111 1 rdlcctivity of over 75 o/a. ~ Ene!VY Engl!INf1ng
3 •9
 Applications of the Solar En•IJIY

F. Multiple use ;
• During the period when cooker is not in use for cooking. it can be used for hot
water production.

W2 ~
A. CoDlDIUlty cooklDC
Cooking for about 40 to 50
3,4.3.3 Appllcatlon•
• Tue cooker could be useful to residential schools, institutional kitchens such as
industrial and achninistrative canteens, religious ashrams, hotels, hospitals, police
and armed forces kitchens, etc.
• One cooker can serve for 50 people.
• For larger number of people, more cookm could be installed.
persons is possible with 7 ID2,· size dish cooker. It can save around 35 to 40 LPG cylinders / year on full use in community

• Same not possible with other typeS of solar cookers. kitchens.

15
• One dish may
msolanon take around 1 to 2
aYaJlable. boun ciependmg 00 the type of dish and "- 3.5
- -Solar
- -Still (Solar_Dis
---''--_ _tillation)
_ __,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
~ [ GTU : May 16, May 15, Dec.· 13, Nov. -11 l
• The cooker, however, wens nicely in an:as where solar insolation is good dur,,
• "The device which converts saline water into the pure drinking water is .tnown as
most pan of the year.
the solar still".
• It is possible to cook two meals with the coour in tbo,e areas.
• Drinking of the pure water is one of the primary need of the human beings.
B. Indoor cooking :
• Solar still or solar distiller is the device used for the distillation of the water.
• Since the solar rays an: cllrec1cd mto the kitchen, it enables cooking indoors.
• The cook, therefore, does DOI have to go OUIStdc in the SIDl to load and unload t
cooking potS as being done in box solar COOkCI'. 3.5.1 Construction and Working
• It consists of the glass cover through which the solar radiations enter in to the
C hstcooklag: solar still.
• ~ to high temperatun: and power II focal point, the cooking rate is significa,;". • The glass cover is provided with the slope so as to provide maximum entrance to
higher compan:d to other solar cookcn.
the solar radiations.
D. Cooi<ing or lradltiollal food :
• The saline water is placed in the solar still.
• Due to high
mduding mabng cbapatis, n · posstblc to cook almost all traditional ~
temperatUre • 15
• Solar radiations passed through the glass cover and is absorbed which are
before adding lhe vegeiables,~dbosa ele. u well as doing 'Vagbar'rTail converted into the heat due to the black surface of the glass cover.
• Toe saline water gets heated due to the beat, vapours condenses over the cool
I'.. Aatomallc tratldDc ;
interior surface of the tran5parent cover. Which are then collected into the purified
• There is a mecbanicaJ clockwork .
rctlcetor to 1rlck the - IUIOmllicalJy
lmngancut wbich rotates the outside priJ]lt water tank.
• The cook bas to act Ibis rcOectcr in .r, . • Solar still provides near about 15 to 50 litres of the water per day.
thereafter for 1a1 of the time the OCUS only once a day in the moflllng c
•UlOlllalically. cloctwort keeps on rotating the reflc:C'•
 11cat1ons of the So~, E,,._
Applications of th• Solar Energy

• Solar is also used for food products such as fruits, grains, and fish.
• Crop drying by solar means is environmentally friendly as well as cost effective
while improvmg the quality.
• The less money it takes to make a product, the Jess it can be sold for, pleasing
both the buyers and the sellers.
• Technologies in solar drying include ultra-low cost pumped transpired plate air
collectors based on black fabrics.
• Solar thermal energy is helpful in the process of drying products such as wood
Pur-.l- fie- 3.5.I : Solar dill chips and other forms of biomass by raising the temperature while allowing air to
pass through and get rid of the moisture.
3.5.2 Advantages
3.6.2 Advantages
• Low cocrgy coosumpbOD
• Dried products arc healthy.
• Stmple mecharusm
• Improves the bargaining position of the farmers.
• Less mamienance
~ [ GTU : June • 1: 3.6.3 Disadvantages
3.6 Solar Dryer
• Compromising in the quality of the product.

3.6.1 Construction and Delalla •

Product is often unhygienic.
• Solar thermal energy can be useful for drymg wood for construction and •
3.7 Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
fuel, such as wood chips for combustion.

3.7.1 Solar Refrigeration

• Solar energy can be used to provide refrigeration at temperatt= below 0°C.
• There arc three approaches to use solar energy for refrigeration :
i. Photovoltaic operated refrigeration system
ii. Mechanical solar refrigeration system
iii. Solar vapour absorption system photovoltaic operated refrigeration system.

3.7.1.1 Photovottalc (PV) Operated Solar Energy System

• Involves the direct convmion of solar radiation to direct cumnt (de) electricity
using semiconducting materials.
• The py powered solar refrigeration cycle is simple in operation. Solar photovoltaic
panels produce de electrical power that can be used to operate a de motor, which
is coupled to the compressor of a vapour compression refrigeration system.

l'lc, 3.6.1 : Solar dryer

3 -12
 ons of th• Solar E111, - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - -~Appll!2!~c:alio!!!!'
1 !!!ns !2of!Jthe~~Solar~~E"!'JIX.=!>IL

. . . the PY refrigeration cycle "" • Toe condense<, the expansiQn device and the cvapomor ~ in the enctly
~ m ~ __,-,;<tics of the motor dnvmg
-•• same manner as for the vapour compression syst,:m. Ammonia vapours exiting me
• n,. ...,.- · thc electrical cn,u--- _,..,fnr...l b th evaporator (State 1) arc absotbcd in a liquid solulioo of water-ammonia in the
~ IDIIChiDI and vohaSe being I " = - - y e PY "ii
~ ,rid, thc available current absorber.

17.1.l llldlllllCII
• Solar ~
Sallr...,..
rdrigcranon
splllll a conventional vapour compression SJ
uses-,1,....,,t -.ilb a solar driven heat power 'l
• The absorption of ammonia vapours into the water-ammonia solution is analogous
to a condensation process.
• The process is exothermic aod so cooling water is required to carry away the heat
. by~pawertblllSP'.-- . C
driven -,iclered f« this application 1s a Rankin cy,, of absorption.
Toe bell power cycle usuallY lcvlltd pressmc by heal exchange with a It. • The principle governing this phase of the operalion is that a vapour is more readilY
which a fluid is vaporized II ID e absorbed into a liquid solution as the tcmperallll'C of the liquid solution is reduced-
hcalod by solar collecllld-

=-•
·--~ can he inciudod IO provide l(IIOC high temperature thermal storai, • The ammonia-rich liquid solution leaving the absorber (Stale 2) is pumped to a
• A .unge"""' higher pressure, passed through a beat exchanger aod delivered to the generator
.--...1, turbine « pis1oD expander to produce mccbat_
• 1bc vapour flows (Stale 4).
power, as shown in Fig. 3.7.1. In the generator. the liquid solution is healed. which promoteS desorption of the
• The Ouid exiting the aponder is conclcnSed and pumped hack to the be;-_
refrigennt (ammonia) from the solution.
pRSSIR where it is again vaporised Expander • Unfortunately, some water also is dcsorbed with the ammonia. and it mUSt be
separated from the ammonia using the rectifier.
.--------To...- waterheatsr

L-4..J\/<IM,-t------ Cooling
water Hot water
Condense< from solar
water heater

Pump
6
Pie, 3.7.1 : MecMaka1 IOlar nfrlpntiH oystem
3.7.1.3 Solar Vapour AblGrptlon SW--
• Unlike the PY and solar mecbanical refrigeration options, the ab~
n:liigentioo systcm is c:oasidered a "heat driven" system. It replaces ·
cncrgy·mtalsivC COIDpRS.10r in I vapour
• Compn:asioo system with • let of devices such as absorber generator pumP r
pressure RGICing valve • •

• ~schcma1ic of a singJo-stage lbeorpli011 system using ammonia as the refi,grl

WIier u the abeorbcnt is shown in Fig. 3.7.2.
--
Chilled --t:.:.:.:..-_-_-:...,
f"lg. 3.7.2 : Solar vapour ablorption IYJlem
0
Ahlorptioo cooling l)'StaDs that 1" ' - ' - - frtg(.
workmg Ouids u,c UWUIID bromido-water abSOJJ)tion-re 3 - 15 Ren•-ble EnervY Engtneenng
cannot be U9Cd 11 ICmpcratures below O"C.
 11cat1ons of the Solar E!>,, Application• of th• Solar En!!]l1

.
W-dbGU' mt use of a rectifier, wllO' c,ulS
the al ~
~ 5 withwhich
th ammonia
al e
refrigeration 3.B So::la:;.r_P
and 11-, - - _o_n_d_ _ _ _ _~;_::~
l.:G:.:TU
~·:..·D
::::ec~:::-·:..:1~5,~J::_:u~n~
e:_:•1'.3~,
.:: .:
M=•Y
?:.•:..:1::
2,~N
: :o:.v:.:..·.:1..:.
1.!1

......-tor ..,-t,ere a,crcases

it "' :::.:---
~
die cv...---
'Q) . t .,.eded drive the ,:iesorption process , 3.8.1 What is Solar Pond 7
to
tbis sotun tclllperawre 20 •c and 130 C. • A solar pond is a body of waler that collects and stores solar energy.
• Solar energy will warm a body of waler (that is e,cposed to the sun), but the water
00 1
obtAined using the low-<:<>st non-tracking
IIJlll)Ollia-Wa!Cf is in the range l,etWCCII loses its beat ucless some method is used to tnp it.
TClllpenrur<5 in this range can be t • Ware< warmed by the sun expands and riseS as it bce<>mes less denSC.
collccton· evacuaied tubU)ar collectorS may be more suitable • Once it reaches the surface, the water loses its beat to the air through convection,
At these 1Cfllpenrur<5• the th . lticicocY is less sensitive to the oner. or evaporates, taking beat with it.
the flat-plau: collectorS as cir e · ...., • The colder water, which is heavier, moves down to replace the warm water,
creating a naniral convective circulation that mixes the water and dissipa!CS the
~-
3.7.2 Solar Air conditioning . beat.
• Different from the coovcntiooal air conditioning system, the solar absorption ett.. • Toe design of solar ponds reduces either convection or evaporation in order to
_....,;no •-.....rure to IOBk• ~ use of solar ~
opentes al a Iower rcg a=~_..,--- •
store the heat collected by the pond. 2
The first solar pond, in India, was built with an area of 1200 m at Central Salt
than the coovcotional abso<JJtlOII chiller•
• It is strCSSed thal every effort must be applied to realiu an energy •Ilk,. Research Institute, in 1973.
perrormance for driving the solar al,sorption chiller as much as possible. • Thereafter, a number of solar pond have beCO built and are in operation.
• A solar air conditioning system consists of a collector, storage tank, absO!V, • The lateSI pond (the second largest in the world) built at Bbuj (Gujarat) bas an
area of 6000 m2 and provides daily 90,000 litreS of hot water al SO •c as process
chiller, air-<:Ollditioner, piping and dw:l works.
• In order to make a solar air-<:Ollditiooing system work effectively it is nccessar heat for can-sterilisation.
design the systcol corrcctlY bod, in theory and practice. • This pond, owing to bigll radiation intenSity and low thermal losses, maintains a

• There are several points quite different from the way in which convenOC:: stable gradient with a maximwn temperature of 99 •c.
• Toe heal stored by the pond is adequate to generate 150 kW power.
air-<:Ollditiooing system design is practised.
• For example, oversizing the equipment often leads to an unexpcctcdlY lower ~
perccotage the available
became pipework
systems. Similarly, heal source
insulation is particularly in the case
is limitedimportant beaten«.
of solar
because 1, 3.8.2 Construction and Working of the Solar Pond
through the entire system are equivalent to a reduction in the availab1hl)' of • Toe solar pond works on a very simple principle.
heal source. • It is well-known that ware< or air is heated they became ligllter and rise upward.

• •- t. ....._ ..,_, . . o, _ _. """'oo

fu< " " , . -,, •"
1,s even more important than tbal for solar systems because the fossil ~ s;,;iody, io m . . . . , ..-, . . =' '"Y'""''" '"" _,'" '"'"'1 -
from within the pond rises and reaches the top but loses the heat mto the

· more prec1ous
ICCIIDlulaled in the past 15 · than solar energy
' available at present atmosphere.
dl\cimeystrategies are also _·
• Control • . . . , . , , , _ _ . .,• .., • Tho . . . , .. . . . . . . . ., . . . - • . . _..w,
h · tc!Dperarure .
• The solar pond restrictS this tendency by disSOlving salt in the bottom layer of the

ovcr-compliclled . ,gnmg control systems, because it has t,een foUJld c pond making it too heavy to rise.
• Care must be llken in des · ../ __ _ _..:___ _ _ _ _ _
or sophisticated control systems often do ttot work as anticiP3"' ---:~-;:;--a:;:::;;;;~;;;;;i;;~;i;;;
•
3 17
Renewable energy Engineering

l • 111 ~ l e Energy englnee

-------~'
 WlndEl'l!'il

If
in the moving air (watts),
'-1 l,drOduc;tion _,,lndiOO of ,rind.
lbel"-- • p = Mechanical power
!Dldl�of
• M!lDIII of air
IS tbe and die air lllOVCS from high pressUrc � • p = Air density (kg.Im\
. .
m • c15 bc:aled due to solar radiation i... blades (m ), and
[)Ille io me ditreraice � cqullOI' g -.. • A = Arca swept by the rotor
2

rd .
mr
meia- pressme U#,
bcCOID es loW, this low density au (m/scc),
• V = Velocity of the air
,..�� .
twO poles
and do,lilry
_,,Jy aartb and
lll)lllh.
au • Toco the volumetr ic flow ralC is AV, the mass flow
ing in the upstream
l
ralC of the air in ki ograms
wind is
14"'ard. al low bealCd air and replaces the heated nd is pA V, and tb.e mccbanical power com
u,wardl die zone of per seco
This cool air flowl s
from di e equator. given by the following in watt
l r.onrdt poles and IWIY ... (4.2.3)
• Tbus. a,r llow
gaiemadle.W.
• 'Jlu,s,all'IIIOlion
c win d powa:
• Wmd energy IS port of
die tolar CDCIIY· d in termS of the specifi
wind siteS arc compare
IJl a ro1Dr consisting of t1 • Two potential the rotating blad es,
die wind's kiDellC cnagy e meter of area swep t by
• The wmd turbillc capmra
ckdri cal generator. expressed in watts per squar by the following
coupled ID ai of the site , and is given
1110R blada med,anically also refe rred to as the power density
. • It is r-swept area :
a IOWCI' ID enhance the energy capture square meter of the roto
• The turbine is IIIOUllled on 1111 expression in watts per
al ooc site to build a wind farm of ... (4.2.4)
• Numerous wind u.bild are illllalled = ipV
3
cies,red power genentioa CIIJICity. Specific power of the site
ergy over the year wind available.
• Obviously, si1a wt1h llady hip wiDd producca more en maximum value of the
design. Equation (4.2.4) gives the
• Two distmctly diffennt coafiginliom R available for twbinc upstream wind.
• This is the power in the directly
honzontal axis configunlion md !be vatical-u11 configuration. energy of the wind is
.4) we can say that kinetic
• However, IIIOII modern wind lllfflina UICI L-'--•-•
·
DUrUUUMU ax1J design.
, • Froro the equation (4.2
of the velocity.
proportional to the cube the cube
• E.xcq,1 for lhc rotor most ocba
-m arc the same in
both designs. eeping the blades and with
�- dcnSity of the air sw
some diffcrcnc:a in
their
.,.__
..
• It varies linearly with the
of the wind speed. is left in
wind power, as some power
4.2 Principal of Wind all of the upstream
Energy (Energy Available from the Wind) • The blades cannot extraet with reduced speed.
conti nues to move
• Toe power m lhc wind II proportiouJ the downstream air that
to die wind speed cubed
e swept area,
• The kinetic ........,
--.., m ur of 111111 • For Aero twbine with larg
following m joula :
m IIMJ\omg with speed v is given b) : ... (4.2.5)

Kinetic energy • ! mV 2
2 of the rotor.
• Where, D is the Diameter
• Toe power m
•--·
IIIOVIDg lllr is 1be UU Wl'lle V
p = �xpxA x
3
ofkinctiC energy pe second in wall>
r 2
POWcr I
2 (Ma.flow pcrlCCClldJV2 ...(4;
 ____________ _____!Wl�nd!!.E!=n!!!•�rm.lll-
_________
I
.f4 K.E. =2PAbVbxv�
l,c Vld
p• =!,cpKD
8
avaiJable at the wind rotor 15 du = _l_pA y3
( _ sb
a WI dill power 2 b b
• E.qulliOO 41 6)
tqUIIC-
proportioaaJ ID the � power available at the
the dillid« of !be rotor lbe Now,
f we vary
• Thus. i disc can be given as
u,c:reases four tiIDCS- force on the rotor ... (4.2.9)
f =cPu -Pd)Ab
quation of the MaxifflUIII PoW9I' ...(4.2.10)
U.1 E kiDdic energy of the wind 10� F=m[V.-Vdl
by die coawning A)so,
• W-md energy is obtained and downstream sides, we get

7
electrical energy. A pplying Bernoulli's equation to upstream
e maximum power let's ...(4.2.11)
• To ob WJ1 the malhemllica1 idllioD l,dwem di I 2 I 2
following assumptio ns P 8 +2 pV 0 =Pu +2pVb

i. Flow of wind is mcompasiblc 1 I 2 ...(4.2.U)

2
b
11, W°md as coostanl IDIII flow l'IIC. and Pd+2pVb =Pa + 2pVd
(4.2.12) we can obtain
Let, Solving equations (4.2.11) and
...(4.2.13)
P, = AllllOlplmC wind p-elllft,
Pu = PraslR OD llplllalll of wind turbine
and (4.2.10) we get
pd = Preulft OIi dawmlream of wind lllrbine Equating equations, (4.2.9) ...(4.2.14)
V, = A1Dtospberic wind vdocily (P 0 -Pd)Ab =m(Vu -Yd]
we get.
Vu = Velocity of,..,.._ -"-' turbine
-,--- 0 f WUIU Solving equations (4.2.13) and (4 .2.14)
vd • Velocity of..____ )
_ff,...._,, of wind twbine ½p(vi-vJ)Ab =m(Vu -Vd
vb = Velocity of wind II bladea
.
A,, • Area of bladea
m = Mus blow Ille of wind ...(4.2.15)

p Da,,ny of lir
ce between the
The kmetic energy of ..:.., work." 'W' is nothing but differen
· g
"-l!Jam s-am In a wind turbine system •speed flow
aiveo by·
through the turbine rotor is ""
I downstream and upstrealll
KE. m v�
2 )
W =(K.E) u - (K.E d

"'½m[va-vfl
4•5 Renewable Energy Englneet1ng
 �n'.!!•!!l!illlX
nd!JE
--- - ---�Wi!!!i �
Wind - ----------
--------

= *pA{�v.1[�va1
...(4.2.19)
Pmax = 27 pA b vJ
8
ms 1 i.lllil!IIISI
<• ofwo« dooe) is given by
'P' ofwind utiDe 19) can be modified as
'lbc P""'"' aollpUI Eqllllioo (4.2.
8 2 2 Multiplying R.H.S
p -;m[vJ-VJ] pmax = 27 X 2 X P A
b V� l

...(4.2.20)
Pmax = O.S93uPAb J1
V

PTou!

) pA bVu = PToul po
I 3 wer of wind stteaDl
pAf• ;Vd)(V;/J) but tn equation (4.2.20 2
. .
s

Gmax
...(4.l.21)
= 0.593 PTou1J
--v.+v
- d equation (42'
v b-
2 'P ' wer coefficient
fficie nt of power or po
. Ratio of � = coe
p -- PAb
- -cv. +vd i(v,; -v:) . . ( 4;
4
11 is indicated by 'Cp'
..- mwmum power we will diffcrmciale equmon (4.2.17) w.r.t dVd and eqi,.
To- Cp = 0.593
IO :r.ero
ts of Wind Mill
4.3 Basic Componen
1. Anemometer e controller.
wind speed data to th
easures the win d weed and tranSJllits
• M
2. Bladn
e blades-
either two or thre
• Most turbines have blades to "lilt" and ro
tate.
ing over the blades causes the
• Wind blow
3- Brake to
Y, electrically, or hydraulically
cb can be applied m.ecbanicall
• A disc b rake wbi
crscncies.
stop the rotor in c:in

4-7
 Wl nd ill
--------� � � _!:EM!!!!:'il
---------
---- a o
shaft at about 30 to 60 rot ti ns
,ow-epeed shaft : The rotor turns the low-speed
• 1
minut e,
per
e11e
1. ,..c and includ es the gear
e lle, which sits a top the tower
or attaches to th e nac
• 'Ibe rot and brake .
high-speed shafts, generator, controller,
t,oit, tow- and
nacelle. Some nacelles are large
A cover prote cts the components inside the
• ng.
ician to stand inside while worki
enough for a techn

8. ptteh in
to keep the rotor from turning
Blad es are turned. or pitched, out of the wind
• icity.
or too low to produce electr
winds that are too high

w.. 9. Rotor

-
e rotor.
hub together are called th
• The blades and the

10. Tower
her e) or steel lattice.
from tubular steel (shown
• Towers are made to captur e
r towers enable turbin es
increases with height, talle
Ille- 4.3.I c-p.e.11 ef wlad mill • Because wind speed
e more electricity.
more energy and generat
4. Controller
11. Wind direction
into the wind.
use it operates facing
• The controller SW1S up die machine 11 wind speeds of about 8 to I 6 miles turbine, so-call ed beca
. • This is an "upwind"
hour (mph) and shllll off..__ g away from th e wind.
- machine • about 65 mph nm "do wnwin d", facin
• Turl!incs cannot opcnlc II wind lpceds abov • Other turbines are desig11ed to
e about 65 mph because
Scncnton could ovabcst. 12. Wind vane
e ya w driv e to
orient the turbine
mJDunicates with th
5. Gur bo1 • Measures wind direct ion and co
wind.
• Gean conn.ct the low properly with respect to the
-tpeed shaft lo tbe bi�
rotabooal -.I. ....-oi-u� shaft and increase
30 1o 60 .
1500 rpm,..,...... frum about per minute (rpm) to a1><>ul 1200 13. Yaw drive rotor facing
the llllllioaal 1peec1 _,,;....rwliooJ is used to keep the
• .,_ .., 0,
by IDOlt .,enerators to produce e)cc trtCIQ into the wind ; the yaw drive
o 11,e -- I..... • • Upwind turbine s face
- II • CClllly (and cCtion chan ges.
OXJll<Wlllg "dina-<ki • '-Yl part of tbe wmd · turbine and engin eers into the wind as the wind dir the rotor downwind.
e wind blows
need gear boxea. � PDcnlan that
llpente II low er rotational speeds and d<1 don 't r e quire a yaw drive; th
• Downwind turbi nes
11. Generator
14· Yaw motor
• Ullllllly Ill the yaw drive.
off.
�mduclion • It is used for Power sourc e for
&alerllor that-..., ictQ
• � lbft · Oma . . ____
,...........,,. 60-cycle AC eJccu
----==== ::;:;:-;�:-;:: :;::::;::-
�--------
tbe &alerllor. Engin eering
Renewable Energy
4•9
 n�d!_!E�M!!IJUIJU
__ __ __ __1Wl
__________
_____
defl�Qll is at f1aic time.
1bC ma in skydiving use of
• nt upward
Wbell a canopy is flared, some air is deflected downward wi1h a resulta
•
the canopy.
· stream 011 111otion of
diiection of the arr py's forward speed.
U1 LIi to tbe s also increases drag, slowing the cano
fCJltlC II riglil m,glcs • But thi slow do-wn as fast
• 1k COIIIIJOll'II' of mass and less drag, does not
IS tbc lift 1bC pilot beneath, having more
...... is tnoWII •
liftintwOflYS- and swings fmward. increasing deflection
AallDP'iproG,ICCS attack of the canopy, greatly
podu&:CS ,c,mc lift ges the entire angle of
Ibo wing itself • 1bis chan
• Tho bm of w any air speed remains.
r aver the top of the ing than of air as long as
al air mUSI tloW fasU
W-mp are shaped 50 di
,.,.20ra9 on of the stream is known
as the Drag.
JIRS5U"' (leaeaSCS.
t,oaom.
of air ial:RIICS, ill mponent of the force in the directi
• WhCII 1be vclocitY • The co flow and the wing.
g, and a corre on between the air
• 1bis acata a low
pressure ara OD the top of the win • Put si mply, form
drag is the result of mcti
k of it is as lift
you can even thin
higher prasure below. gs incur to some extent and
It is a peoaltY all win
die low prCS5UIC area. - towards the back.
• 1blls 1be wing is "li&d" towards ties in the
air flow from irregulari
LA drag is the resu lt of disruptioos of the
• Puasite
wing.
Chanin turbulence.
• The cell openings create th e slider,
points, the pilot chute,
lines and line attachment
• Seams, packing tabs, lift.
contrib ute drag but no
and even you, the pilot, airplanes
very effective wing s in comparison with
• Parachutes have never been t of paras drag.
createS a great amoun
ite
because their very struc ture
Ffc. U..l Caape ef 1ft ud dnc air flow over a wing.
results of
• Lift and drag, then, are both more
• Deflcctioo of air is die second type of lift. that crea tes these flight forces,
over the wing
• Because it is the flow of air
. .
• If air is clefleClcd one way, lbcre must be an equal reaction m the o •·
-"--'- - the ._ principle 1bat ilow means more force. speed, four times
WHMJUll Ids 115 111m, track, and perform other frc(i,. ed: twice the
tric proportion to spe
manoeuvres. • Lift and drag increase in geome
.
• the lift - and the same for drag
The� of ... ......
._ ----"- md fo1111 1iJ1 ancc.
II I complex one is cru cial to pcrfonn
• This means that air speed
• If dcfleaion -- the princjplc control respoose .
e
of lift, in a right toggle tum ( th �!> mor e lift and crisper
trailing edge pullod down) air � • Going faster mea ns - to a poi nt - eral design
would push the right side of Ill canopies have sev
canopy up, paamg the canopy in 1 .._,_downward · goes up, w hich is why fast slid ers, and
• It also means drag
uam to tbc left and creatmg a left tum• pilot chutes, collap
sible
• Bia in &a,
lbe ...._,._ ' f eatures to reduce drag such as remov able
pulling rigid -- down
dill lido. recb::ea lift, because it increase5 draS
small diameter lines.

-------------::-:--:::---;:--.-:::::=
• W°llh the nata i
l do IIIOYing

�---
llawcr• d Cleatea laa WL ,...,.
• The _,
--YI '-L.- lo lbe rigba_
rgy Engi.-i11111
Renewable ene
4 - 11
 wi ElllfVY
s s l8ffl
�� y � .::..-
---
----
�jfjc;ation of Wind Mills
Wind En•!JIX.

ot n d l
are classi fied as per the following catego
ries -
Eleclrical • Wind mils
- as ------•• to axi s positio n
--- -----• --- ---- ,._ ,-ceordlng
d Mill CJAWM')
• Vertical Axis Win
,....,.....
,--
s Win d M ill (HAWM')
• Horizontal Axi
'
'
'
' size
, ,-ccording to
Ublllygr,l 8
.•�
��
.____________
�...:.-
••�
__ • • .! L----
c;e.b111
--- --•-•--•
v,tndtur""'8
•-•
�
•••' - --....
...... -------------
---- ..
• smaller turbnes
• Medium turbines
i (lower than I 00 kilowatts)
(up to 100 kilowatts)

fie. Ul: 1111k

-,..-11 of WECS
• Large turbines. (Gre ater than 100 kilowatts)
outp ut po-r
c. Depending on
typical wind energy conversion system include a 11
fa
• The major compoocnu o stems. • A.C. Power
....-ms, and control sy
turbine, • gcncnl«, � nes will • D.C. Power wind mills
- r.n, gcncratorS for wind turbi
• At the present time and for 1be o D ding on utilization of output
ous generators, and md\XI\ . epen
syncmooous geomlOn, perm--' magnet synchron
and wound rotor type . • Battery Storage
geocnton , mcluding the iquimkage type nverter.
et g nerato rs d n to ele ctromagnetic co
• For small to medium power wind tmbines, perman
ent magn e
• Direct Connectio the aero turbin es
_ their reliab1hty • E. Depend ing on the rotational spe ed of
sqwrrekagc indudicll gmnlOII ll'C oftm used because of
cost advantages. variable p itch blades
und r., • Constant Speed with
and wo
• generato rs, fixed p itch blades
pallllllCIII magnet .
syncbrooous
. . ines • Constant speed with
�•1•=•v-��� -•-, ,_. m vanous high power wtnd turb
gcncrllon IR_,..__.,
Wind Turbine)
d Turbine (Darrius
• lnt.en:onnection lpplfllUD ll'C devices to achie ve power control, soft start,; 4.6.1 Vertical Axis Win
int.en:onnectioo limClioaa.
•U.1.1 Construction and Wor1dng otation is vertica
l.
in which axis of the r
• Very often, power eleclroaic CODYatcn IR used as such devices. turbines are those
• The vertical axis wind e di ection of the
the direction of th e sam
r
• or rotates in
• Most modem turbine .lllva1ln IR forced ted PWM inverterS 10 pro,,� • In vertica l axis type the rot
fixed voltage and liud hqucncy �
OUlpUI With 8 high power quality . wind, d is often called 1hc
of an egg heater an
• Both voltage IIOUR:C rtical- axis m achi ne bas the shape
hoeffill&c
controlled m · and voltage source c · • The ve
·
controlled mvatas been applied . Wind . veners Darrius rotor after its in
ventor.
m turbines . vertical shaft.
E • For ccnam bi8h . are attached to a
. • Both ends of the blades de the stiffness to
.,.,.. wind IUlbines, eftiectiv e tr an be a cbi e�ed' e tension which provi
double PWM (Pld».Wldlh
�
power con ol c
ut<- th e b lade due to rotation is pur
power Oow bet,._ ) c:onvatcn which provide a bidirei: • Toe force in
the 1mbine s-ator help the blades,
111d lbc utility gnd. ropeller typ
e.
ade lighter than p
• The blades can thus m
 i n !lfliYD
________yw �nd!!_!E� !•
_______________
____
Horizontal Axl, Wind Turbine (HAWT}
� 4.6.2
n and Worldng
I

4.&.2.1 const,uctlo
I

from the beginning

I I
0

ontal-axis machine has been the standard in Denmark

I
I

horiz
I

• 1be
I I

of the wind power industry.

called the Danish wind turbine.
• 1berefore, it is often
rator through step-up gear box.
• Rotor drives a gene
is to the downwind of the tower.
• Orientation of the rotor
the top of the tower.
ted on the plate; plate is attached to
• 1be components are moun
wi1h air foil cross sections. ng of rotor blade.
by c:arwd blades operation there is continuous flexi
1bcSC types arc cb,iraclaiJed • When the machine is in
structural advantage.
becllllC of ill specific
It bas heal used in die pas!
Genera1D<
TllllinN
U.1.2 Advlnllllll ol Vll1icli W'nl
d low capilal cost.
• High speed. high efficiency ao
Nacelle

e most of their moving

lo main1aiD becaus
• Vertical wind turbines arc easier
the vertical wind turbine's shape.
arc located near die giound. This is due lo
arms to a shaft that sits on 8 her.
• Toe air foils or rotor blades arc coani:cud by
and drives I gc:ncnlOr below, -1ly by first connecti ng to a gearbox
.
'-"cc is not needed, reducing the need
• As lhe rotor biadcs arc vatical, 1 yaw ...... wind turbine
Fig. 4.6.l : Horizontal uh
this bearing and its cost.
. . . Wind Turbines
• Vertical wind turbines have 1 bigba 1111" foil pitch angle, giving un U.2.2 Advantages of Horizontal centre of
the side of the tur bine's
.
aerodynamics while deaasing chg II low and high pressures. • In the horizontal wind turbine, the blades are to
gravity, helping stability. angle
4.6.1.3 Diladvlliagal ol Vll1i:II Mid Tlllblna the turbine blades the be:st
wing warp, which gives
• It need, staning machinay. • They have the abil ity to
of attack.
• Vibraticm phcncmaim may al.ave_ gives greater control, so the
be remotely adjusted
• Al l owing the angle of attack to wind ener gy for the time of day and
There may be I beigbt .
lo how tall a vertical wind turbine can be i,; amount of
turbine coll ects the maximum
and how midi swcp1 ma�
ha ve. season. in a storm, to minimize
• Most VAWTS need lo be . pitch the rotor blades
IIISlalled on a 1atively Oat piece of land and sol!lc f • also have the ability to with wind shear.
::i1o
could be ton steep b them

�
0 the IOlor is on it
�
while available to HAWTs. VAWTs that user'
Id ii in place CRlle ICrious
s for the bottom bearing as. a!l 1
The blades
damage. Tall towers allow
d shear sit
access to stronger
es, every ten rnete
win d in sites

rs up, the wind speed c

an increase by
111d lb c Jll'Ob! 9 • In some win
guSl\ guy WJrCs em • c ut by 34 %.
m rease downward tbnJ5I tll 20 ¾ and the power outp tions.
n land or in offshore loca
• Sotvmg this proi, ement on uneve
lan wrcs I � • Tall towers also allow plac
WO CID share the W Rq line.
to hold in place the top t,earillg II-- ests above the tree
-=--- eight of the rotor. • These can be placed in for
 !!•liY�
________..!Wl!!!!n!!d.!:E:!:!n
_____________
___
of Parameters on Wind
�
_.__ t,ccause of highe r produ•M,
uon,
,elf�
• Moll SC ...
-.,.__,,-fac10[S and efficiencies. ,.s.1 Effect
of Density
-_ mrt,ialll� c performance reduce.
n,c )lanJOlllli m5""""- , "-" ,:;JIJllldlY
When air density dccrcascs both engine and aerodynami
and, • r apart from
lllpl'lilll:S density air molecules arc furthe
- WIIII T _.... • The reason being is that with lower
J ftdlllllll
"'-•""
turbulent winds beca11st
U1J • ,., L in - pound. . each other. air
IIIVC "'"' ......
, -� ·
lamJll3r W\Dd flOWS. ti tude/pressure, temperature
and humidity) influence
KAWT•
L...... t,carmgS -
__.a � �
• A number of factors (al highe r tempe rature and higb
humidity
)... md -
•
pressure area,
0 feet long) arc difficult to 1ransJiO: density. A higher altitude, low
g bladi:s l• ID 18 one result : they lower the density of
the air.
n,e 1111 _.en and lon ac,count for 20 •;. of equipment costs. all have
and land- r � ca 1111'1 a reduc tion in aircraft/ engine performance.
0 very tall and expensive crane, And as a result of that :
difficull ID ialllD. needing
• Tall HAWTs arc d Speed
ski1kd opmwrs- gle of Attack and Win
een 200 4 and 2006, n: ,.a.2 An foil meetS the oncoming air
flow
is 1cls da dcmlDd and betw k is the angle at which the air
• The supply of HAWTs • The angle of attac
pnces mcreased up ID 60 %. (or vice versa). and the fluid is
� (USA) bas raised concerns about tall HAi of a b elicopter, the obje
ct is the rotor blade (air foil)
• The Fedm i Avia lioo • In the case
force bues.
effects on radar in prounitY ID air the air.
and it always actS pcrpcndic;ular
aircraft. Offshore tower s can i a mass of air is deflected.
• Hetgbl can be a safety bmrd far law..ititudc • Lift is pro duced when
navigation problem. to the resu ltant relative wind.
generate positive lift.
• Downwind variants suft'a from 6lligue and struetmal fail
ure caused by rurbuko .. must have a positi ve AOA to
• A symmetric air foil
is gene rated.
Mill • A1 a :zero AOA, no lift
..·7 Diffe rence belwNn Ylf1ic:II Axil and Horizontal Axis Wind r 'a'.
• It is indicated by the lette
• Horizontal axis md vcnica1 1111· llabines can be differentiated as follows
-
gative lift is generated.
• At a negative AOA, ne even
ce positive lift at zero, or
metrical airfoil may produ
Sr. No. Pll1lcar HAWII VAWM • A cambered or non-sym

..
,

1 PowarPIOCUlld u... Less - small negative AOA.

• "Wind spe ed iJ the rate or movement of air
flow as it travels fr
om high to low

2 Fallgue Donat .. Earth" .

Can suffer pressure, in relation to the
3. Noeeproeblld
More 4.8.3 Drag and Lift

=:.o1,-
on of motion.
4 Design ea..,.. dicular to the directi
Simple • The lift force is perpen
5 rce BIG.
We want to make this fo and Lower air
Ellllll No such problem al pres sure on the upper
is a co nseq ueoce of the unequ
6 • The lift force
Vbaian1111eia1•ion
Natblld foil surfaces
Found of motion.
to the direction
• The drag force is parallel
small.
• We want to make this force
 WlndEMl"JIY.
--- . friction forces at the surface of th
04
--- ---
Ill vi,cOUS ' "'
(or cc 11 cue t,oeb . foi surfaceS
l facing toward and awa y r...
0.3
lb< drlC OIi lbc O "�
pn:111111
a,d IO ..,.quaI
QIIC(lllllllg flo,w t 0.2

-�--
c.
01

0.0
2 4 6 8 10 12
Tip speed ratio -
� r)lg� Fig. 4.8.2
::.,..-' d4 Cho!d

ck, D�g • Wind energy conversion system decreases with increasing tip speed ratio.
fie- UI : Uft, .up ef atta
• As high torque requires high solidity so WECS are best at low tip speed ratio.
,.u Torque and p_, cc,ellidenls
produced by the wind turbine u.6 Solidity of Turbine
• "Torque coefficient IS die nllO of die rorque
the mnunum torqUe" • Solidity is the ratio of blade area to the rotor circumference.

• It ts given by the cqulllOD­ At low solidity speed increases but torque decreases.

T • As solidity increases and speed decreases but torque increase.

­
c,-
,_ • Low solidity (0.10) = high speed, low torque

• Similarly, the Power cocfli� (C ,.I can be defined as- High solidity (>0.80) = low speed, high torque.

• � puwtr dt/Mrtd by 1M """' to the marumon power available m the ,und

4.9 Wind Turbine Perfonnance Curves
• It is gwco by the equanon-
4.9.1 Power Speed Characteristics Curves
C p • __!_
p-
• Performance curves of '"""�
-,- 111d power coeffic1eo1 arc discussed below
Power
4.8.5 Tip Speed Ratio
• Tip-speed mio IS lbe
l'llio of lbe speed
free stream Wind. of the rotating blade tip to the speed ol

• There IS Ill ..,.........

nn,;_,_" - .,A,e o Max power
f lllack Yfflicb evm,_at
• Bccawe 111g1e of creates the highest lift to drag rauo V = 5 m/s
lllack
Tlllo IS � on wi nd speed, . . ""
th ere is an optunwn up-,,
• Po..cr tocllict
cm VlncaT
<ilbbp. lpccd
• Characicriuct by c, \'J Tt
p SJlecd D...,_
ratio

._.,Curve

4• 19 R-wable Energy EnglnNf'lng

IL-----------�--===��==�Wino
Wind EnerRl

by plotting ex • tor que coefficient, C, is defined as:

be � • Th
ar .
wmd asill rl' ld CID at various wind speeds
A 1riDd ...,_ __;,,,,r __.i
si,eed
_
DY of ptlfltS --- a se t of curves su C , - __T
daiwdCIIWi _.....i .., wiDd roto r prodUcCS ch , !pAV 2 R
11111P
_i-- v, a 2
e
• sanillrlY, di and
.
wind sp eed V for a rotor of that confi guration
fig. 4,9.I. witb cbc maxunwn power output Ill I t � T is the actual torque at
a,iDcidcl
• The muilDUID cflicieDCY
ra(\iUS 1L
wind,pccd.
Torque
► p- Coeflldelll

• Efficiency is mually
..--i • a �oo al
ratio of shaft-power

puain& tbloUllb a dilc or shape baving the same am

by wmd-poWcr wn as the ;
mill n,lllr; dus ratio is kno
vertical profile of !be wind
ii ..-.:a0Y apesscd IS
Coefficient" or CP 111d
Pump torque requwment
Cp =-p- _ (Fa< p,ston pump)
�__,____,,____
!pAV3
2 B'--____,.___,__ Speed (rpm)

• The speed is alJo CGIMlllionally apreaed DOD-<limcnsionally cllancterist!ca carve

Fl&, 4.9.l : Torq11e ,peed
IUIO",
of 80 m
• This is the l'Ulo. of the apced of die win d mill rotor tip at radius R when wind 1t1rbine has diameter °
ller type, h orizontal shaft 25 C has
. Example 4.9.1 : A prope Win d at I bar and
at CII radians/second, to the--'
...- al.,_
-• ....., V, and 1s 'numerically .
...:-.a 40 rpm at maximum effi
ciency
and its operating speed is Tora/ pow er density 1n
rhe wind stream,
IIIR Calculate i) density
._ . a velocity of IO mis. onable obtainable power

==
V obta inable power density, iii) A reas and the axial thrust
1i) Marimum ue
produced. and 11) Torq
• Wbcn the wmd mill rocor 11 �. 111 tip-lpecd ratio is also zero, and th• r asSrJming 11 35 %, iv) Total pow er Dec ,-15, May -151
t,i'(ume as
is stalled. produced at maximum efficiency
• This OCClll'S when lhe torque = 25 °C 298 K,
by the wind is below the level needed 40 rpm, p = I bar, T
s
overcome the raislancc of lbe m, N
Solution : Given data : D 80
• A hp-speed ratio of I means 3S /4
0

the blade ,_ vi-1omfs, 11

. -..- are moving at the same spe ed as
wmd (50 the wm d aog)e •seen ,._, ,
• v1 tbe blades II
tJps are mnvmo . the s
-· -o II tv.1ce Wt be 4S0) and when 11 t> -· Density of air is given by
.
peed of die Wind, and so on. . 1X1�=1 l69kg/m
3

4.9.2 Torque SPMcl CuMt P = .1. = 287x298

RT
• The second SCI
of curve. lbow ind stream
non-dimcnsi the Q Total power density in the w
c,n a1 measure of di e 111rquc torque coefficients , which arc
111
given Yiind s d (torque . lb rotor
pee 11 e twilling fi� by a given si u of Total power,
on:e on the drive sha
ft).

y Engl.-tng
Renewable Energ
4 - 21
 WindEnel'!IX

3
. P,. 'pvJ = !xl.169X(I0) T = 30" C = 303 K, Cp = 0.41
pawcrdenll!Y O A 2 I 2 y "'23.5 Ian/hr= 6.S3 mis, p = 1.01 bar,
1
l 1 MW, D = 25 m
• 584.SW/■ rota! capac ity =
l)ellSity of a ir is given by
ti) MJxiruum power
di:DSilY :

=
p =
Maximum power di:DSilY ';'
f, P v;1 RT
5 _
= L_=l.Olx!0 -l.!Glkg/m3
x303
p 287
3
• f,xl.169X(I0) 0 AVa i lable power
density of wind

= 'J46.37W/a1 Power density

= i = 1P Vf = 1xl.161x{6.SJJ
3

...Ans.
:
iii) A reasonable ot,wnabl e power density
±
= 161.637 W/m
p = II x p = 0.3S x S84J = 204.575 W/m 2
A y of wind mill
ti) ACllt8i power densit
1v) Total power produced:
Actual power density = A
!.
= C P x!J..
A
P = Power density x Alea
2 ... Ans.
= 0.4lxl6l.637 = 66.27
w/m
= 204.S7S x i(D2) = 204.S75 X �(80 2 )
4
• 1028.3xl01W. 1028.3 kW ...Al iii) Number of wind mills :
v) Torque and axial thrust Power developed by wind mi ll
ty x Area
ov3 P = Actual p ower densi
Tmax =
2 ·p
__ 1 =3_x l.l69x80xl03
21 N 27 (40/60) 2
X ;25
= 66.27 X ;0 = 66.27
2

= 10391.1 1 N.m

(F,)mu = �po2y,2 = II xl.169x(8Q)2 x(I 2 = 32530.21 W

9 9 0) farm
. . Total capacity of wind
= 261157.l N N o. of wmd mills = Power developed by one wm · d mt·11
• •.AJ>
Example 4.9.2 The follow.
mg daza refer 1o � = 30.74
Average wmd spttd 215 willd mill of a wind farm in &Jar¢ "'
bilJu.. A� 32530.21
temperature = Jo• C � r ...Ans.
p essure = I.OJ bar' Armosp
he(I{
owe, coeffic ient 0 , 1
farm c / MW n-..:...
de,u·
-� otal power output capacity of w"'3
1i
&

'-""-�w · i) A · � = 31
, wind mill. ;11) Noanbe, of· . vailahle
0.r n
Wind milb ;,. die fi uy o f wind, ii) Ac tual r nnwer des//\
ann iftJie rotor iame r is 25 m.
d te

-
71
q, [ May-12, Marils
ng
4 • 23 Renewable Energy Engineeri
 [May2015
J CHAPTER-5
site for wind energy com,ers
,_,_anon in 5eJecting the i-0,_ B10ENER6.Y
w ,nQIII cons,-,•
Q.12 l)o:Tibe �
ediOD 4.11) .
JYS'D"- (Refer 5 e hos diameter of 90 meter biogas
_, sL
. lllui d wind turbin .
-.,• . OIi! : Types of biogas plants, biog� generation, factors affecting
Wrnd at 1 bar and 25 . energy
l,oriZO
Q.1S A propeller,_,1 .
IJ'Pf!
ilS ,na:n mum effi ciellCY · � generation, advantages and disadvantages, biomass energy,
. ,s 50 r.p.m at of gasifiers.
on, types and applications
pla ntation, gasificati
operanng s�
2 mis. Calculate :
J,as a velocll}I of l
i ly th e d stream
1 Total power dens
in win
able power dens ity Topic Name
Page No.
2. Mtzxb,1111'1 obtain ng 11 = 38 % N o -
sectiO" 5 -2
de nsity ass umi
nable power
3 /wJ.S()flOble obtai
Introdu cti
4 Total power produce
d 5.1 5 -2
on
efficiency.
and a:.ci al thrus t produce d at ma:.cimum
Pl _ B io m a ss -- - -- -- ---;-- - - -:,
S. Torque
52 -- S -5
(Refer section 4.9.1) - ---
______, .::::::::::.:=:__ _ - .
l__!; � + B io Gas Ge nerati on
r Dec. 2015 ] S 3. 5 - 12
-- -- - --i-�-=-:-"\
y e������::__::���--- -
ind at I bar and(_ !S-�4_-i,_�T� p s -_21
s Plants
s of Bioga

the availab le from wind energy. W _ ----t"-::-- ::-1

Q.14 Derive srrea11 nt ti --
er
Pl --
n of pow
rgy a�� -
equatio
S 5 _j�E�� e �� ---
sity in win d
IL_!:_
Total power den on
5 _ 23
zo•c has a velocity of 12 mis. Calculate (1)
n a

---,-:;--:-l
·
ced if rotor diameter is 60 • a����� -- - -- - - -
5 - 25
pow er produ a� s�
s� G�
B� io�m�
l
[7ll■L !5!8_..l--�
(2) Maximum power dens ity (3) Tota
and similar example 4.9.3)
si ficatio n

_ ·
and ils runs at 50 rpm. (Refer section 4.2 II

IMay 2016 I 5.7 Type s of Gas e

5;!.8_l�C�o� m�p�
ifi rs

�n�b�e�tw�ee��B�
a�riso
n io�m��s ��
a s and�
� ::
C o�:
nv n::ti· o::,:
e::: n:: u=
F.:
al_:. el
-
5 _ 31
-4"- -;1
�
5 - 32
l�� -! - - - -
- - - - t � �;1
l

�s'..---- -
s p �tr l
s - 32
time
Q. i5 Show that marimum power obtaine from ie�w�Q�ue::s�
is 0.593
�
mill
o
wind
v
d
-l _!R�e� � ----'
[lllI��
tion

D\lailable in the wind. (Refer Section 4.2.1) I -- _ _ ___.1.-

� � � � � � � _ _
1 u n ive rs�ity�O�u�e�s �· _
rs
AASNe
ctio ns of di/fererJ \ll
[11 1 ___ � � � � �
t io ns with

Q.16 Explain construction of horizolllal a:.cis wind mill and give Jun 1l
components. (Refer Sectioa 4.11)

1 Dec. 2016
1
Wrtte a brief note on 0arr·,w""6me. 1''
r11
(Refer Section 4.6.1)
Q.17 .
·h
Q.18 Explain connrucrw,i and working 0,,.
1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HA ff"[) wit
neat schematic �am. (Refer Section 4.6.2) [7l

ngineering
hit En•l'IIY E
----
(len•"'

"' .. 5. '\