Phase Behavior of a
Gas-Condensate/Water System
Sunil Kokal, SPE, and Mohammad Al-Dokhi, Saudi Aramco, and Selim Sayegh, SPE,
Saskatchewan Research Council
Summary
Gas-condensate reservoirs are an essential part of Saudi Arabia’s
hydrocarbon resources. A good understanding of the effect of wa-
ter on the phase-behavior properties of these hydrocarbons is es-
sential for accurately forecasting the performance of the reservoirs
with numerical simulators. In addition, the scaling and corrosion
tendencies of the produced brine are strongly influenced by mass
transfer with the hydrocarbon phase.
This paper presents unique experimental phase-behavior data
for a typical Saudi Arabian gas-condensate three-phase (aqueous/
condensate/gas) system. The objective of this work is to quantify
the effect of the aqueous phase on gas-condensate fluid properties.
The results show that appreciable amounts of carbon dioxide
and methane are partitioned from the gas-condensate phase into
the aqueous phase. Another important observation is the mass
transfer of water into the condensate phase. The mass transfer
between the condensate and aqueous phases results in a slight
decrease in the gas/condensate ratio (GCR). The carbon dioxide in
solution makes the brine acidic and can dissolve carbonate min-
erals from the formation (e.g., calcium carbonate). In addition, the
acidic or sour brine will be quite corrosive. The experimental
results are compared with equation-of-state (EOS) and other cor-
relations published in the literature.
Introduction
Natural-gas reservoirs are an essential part of Saudi Arabia’s hy-
drocarbon resources. The phase behavior of such hydrocarbons has
been studied extensively, both in-country and worldwide. One of
the factors that has not been studied is the effect of water on the
phase behavior of gas-condensate systems. This is important be-
cause natural-gas reservoirs contain interstitial brine in equilibrium
and frequently are underlain by an aquifer. In addition, the mass
transfer between the hydrocarbon and aqueous phases strongly
influences their scaling and corrosion potentials.
Previous work1,2 on oil/water and gas-condensate/water mix-
tures has shown considerable solubilities of carbon dioxide, hy-
drogen sulfide, methane, and ethane in water. Mass transfer occurs
when the oil or gas condensate is contacted with water/brine, and
these components will partition into that phase (Fig. 1). As a result,
the composition of the hydrocarbon phase is altered, and some of
its properties [e.g., saturation pressure, gas/oil ratio (GOR), and
formation volume factor (FVF)] can be altered as well. Another
important aspect is the partitioning of water into the hydrocarbon
phase at reservoir conditions. This dissolved water in the hydro-
carbon phase may drop out in the lines as the gas condensate is
produced and may lead to corrosion and/or scaling problems.
The literature contains limited data on the solubility of hydro-
carbon gases in the aqueous phase, and the available data are for
single hydrocarbon-water systems (e.g., methane-water). Even
more limited are data on the solubility of complex natural-gas
mixtures in water and brine. This paper provides experimental data
on the effect of contacting one Saudi Arabian natural-gas conden-
sate with water and brine.
Copyright © 2003 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 87307) was revised for publication from paper SPE 62931, first presented
at the 2000 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, 1–4 October. Original
manuscript received for review 14 June 2001. Revised manuscript received 14 July 2003.
Paper peer approved 8 September 2003.
412
The main effects that are observed involve the mass transfer of
some of the more water-soluble light components of the gas con-
densate (carbon dioxide, methane, and, to a lesser extent, ethane)
into the aqueous phase. The loss of these lighter components (es-
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pecially methane) from the condensate phase leads to a change in
its gas-related properties (e.g., the GCR, dewpoint pressures, and
liquid yields). Some water is also partitioned into the gas-
condensate phase.
As a result of this mass transfer, the brine can become more
acidic owing to the dissolution of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide. This can then dissolve some of the carbonate minerals in
the formation, which could then precipitate in the wellbore or at the
surface when the pressure is released.3,4 The acidic brine is corro-
sive,4 and large savings can be realized by its effective mitigation.5
The experimental apparatus and procedures are described. The
properties of the gas condensate and brine used in this study are
then presented. Following that, the experimental results are pre-
sented. Finally, some conclusions are drawn. It must be pointed out
that in this paper “water” refers to pure water, and “brine” refers
to the saline, aqueous phase (reservoir brine).
Experimental Apparatus and Procedures
Apparatus. The apparatus consists of a high-pressure, high-
temperature, three-windowed pressure/volume/temperature (PVT)
cell (Ruska Model 2730*) with a volume of approximately 400
cm3. The cell is placed inside a temperature-controlled bath. It can
be isolated and rocked inside the air bath (Fig. 2).
The volume of the sample inside the cell was measured using
a cathetometer and the Ruska pump. The volume depended on the
dimensions of the cell, pump position, temperature, pressure, ref-
erence points, and calibration factors. The internal volumes of the
cell and connecting tubing were calibrated, including temperature-
and pressure-correction coefficients. Frequent calibrations of the
pressure transducers, temperature readers, and gauges ensured the
accuracy of the measurements (temperature ±1°F, pressure ±5 psi,
volume ±0.2 cm3). In addition, several data points were duplicated
to check for reproducibility. The measurements were repeated if
the duplicate results were not in agreement or if they fell out of
trend with other data points at different pressures. Finally, the
results were checked for thermodynamic consistency by compar-
ing them with EOS calculations.
Dry Gas-Condensate Measurements. The recombined gas-
condensate sample (composition is shown in Table 1) was charged
into the cell by mercury displacement at pressures exceeding 8,000
psia. At these conditions, the sample is in a supercritical fluid state
(above its critical pressure and temperature). The term “dry” refers
to a system that has not been contacted with water. The volume of
the charged sample at system temperature and pressure was re-
corded. The first test conducted was a simple constant mass ex-
pansion (CME) test. The pressure was reduced in steps by with-
drawing mercury from the cell. The pressures and volumes were
recorded at each step. The pressure at the first sign of “liquid”
dropout was noted as the dewpoint pressure at system temperature.
It was usually observed that a fine mist or cloudiness appeared in
the fluid at this pressure. The liquid in the text refers to the “heavi-
* Trademark of Chandler Engineering, Houston.
December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

Fig. 1—Phase behavior in gas-condensate reservoirs.
er” or hydrocarbon liquid phase (relative to the other hydrocarbon
gas phase). Several cycles in pressure (reducing slowly, increasing
and stabilizing, and reducing slowly again) were made near the
dewpoint to ascertain the dewpoint accurately. Dewpoint-pressure
measurement is inherently difficult and requires great attention and
concentration. Repeatability is generally about ±15 to 25 psi.
Below the dewpoint, the pressure/volume (P/V) relationship
was continuously measured down to approximately 1,000 psia.
The liquid dropout at each successive (lower) pressure was re-
corded using the cathetometer. There were some gaps in the data
resulting from the interface hiding behind the “blind” portion of
the cell. Fig. 2 shows the details of the cell.
After the last pressure, the temperature was increased to the
next set temperature, and another CME was conducted at this new
temperature. The fluid was compressed again to 7,000 psia and
rocked. The gas condensate (fluid) was flashed, at constant pres-
sure, into a sample container maintained at room conditions. The
gas was collected in a gasometer, and its composition was ana-
lyzed. The properties of the liquid were also measured.
Condensate/Water and Condensate/Brine Equilibrium Mea-
surements. Water/condensate and brine/condensate equilibrium
measurements were carried out after an initial dry condensate mea-
surement had been conducted. The normal procedure was started
by charging the apparatus with water or brine at a predetermined
water/condensate volume ratio at the test temperature and 7,000
psia. The fluids were left to reach equilibrium, generally for a
period of 24 hours with rocking. A CME test was then performed,
similar to the procedure described earlier for dry condensate. The
difference was that this test was performed in the presence of water
or brine. Dewpoint pressure and liquid-dropout data were obtained
at this water/condensate ratio (WCR).
At pressures above the dewpoint, only two phases were ob-
served: a dense hydrocarbon phase and an aqueous phase. At
pressures below the dewpoint, three phases were observed: a
hydrocarbon gas phase, a hydrocarbon liquid phase, and an aque-
ous phase.
After the experiment was completed, an additional amount of
water (or brine) was added to the cell at the test temperature and
7,000 psia. This represented the second in a series of constant
WCR tests. Another CME test was performed at this WCR. This
procedure was repeated at higher WCRs up to a maximum ratio of
∼2. This was the maximum ratio at which a reasonable number of
liquid-dropout data at different pressures could be obtained.
These experiments show the effect of contacting the condensate
with water (or brine), and the resultant mass transfer, on the com-
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positions of the phases. It would have been desirable to sample
the phases after each addition, but this would have meant that a
fresh charge of condensate and water (or brine) was introduced
into the cell for each point; otherwise, the volumetric balance
would be altered.
It should be mentioned that the terms GCR, gas/water ratio
(GWR), and gas/brine ratio (GBR) are defined here in a manner
identical to that of the traditional GOR. In other words, they refer
to the volume of gas liberated from the condensate or water or
brine phase corrected to 60°F and 1 atm. The WCR and the brine/
condensate ratio (BCR) simply refer to the ratio of the volume of
water or brine to that of condensate at the pressure and temperature
of the equilibrium cell. The FVFs of the water and brine phases are
also defined in analogy to the condensate FVF: the volume of
water or brine at saturation conditions divided by its volume at
60°F and 1 atm.
After the last water/condensate and brine/condensate CME test
had been conducted, two sets of flashes were performed, with the
fluid remaining in the PVT cell. The pressure in the cell was first
raised to 7,000 psia. The first flash was with the hydrocarbon fluid.
Throughout the flash, the fluid in the PVT cell was maintained at
7,000 psi by injecting mercury into the PVT cell. The gas-
condensate fluid was flashed into a sample container (graduated
tube) that was immersed in dry ice and maintained at atmospheric
pressure. This was done to capture all the water that was dissolved
in the condensate phase. After flashing, we obtained three phases:
a hydrocarbon gas phase, a hydrocarbon liquid phase, and a water
phase. However, the amount of water was very small, and it was
essentially pure water. The gas was collected in a gasometer that
was maintained at room temperature. The amount of liquid hydro-
carbons was measured volumetrically as well as gravimetrically at
room temperature. The amount of water in the hydrocarbon liquid
was determined by Karl-Fisher analysis. The GCR was then cal-
culated from the amounts of gas and liquid collected (after con-
verting them appropriately to standard conditions).
The second flash was conducted with the aqueous phase. A
sample of the aqueous phase was withdrawn at constant pressure,
flashed through an evacuated separator, and analyzed. Water/gas
ratios were calculated from the amounts of water and gas collected.
Results and Discussion
The gas-condensate candidate selected for this study is from the
Khuff reservoir in Ghawar. This gas condensate is sweet, with no
hydrogen sulfide present. The experimental results are discussed in
the following sections; dry condensate, condensate/water, and con-
densate/brine equilibria are presented successively.
413

Fig. 2—Schematic of PVT apparatus.
Fluid Properties (Dry Condensate). The separator gas and liquid
samples were recombined physically at the separator conditions of
383 psig and 135°F. The separator GCR was 9,985 scf/bbl (at
separator conditions). The total GCR of the reservoir fluid was
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∼12,400 scf/bbl (calculated at standard temperature and pressure,
60°F and 14.7 psia). The compositional analyses of the separator
products (gas and liquid) and the calculated hydrocarbon compo-
sition of the wellstream based on separator conditions are pre-
sented in Table 1. The properties of C12+ (dodecanes plus) also are
presented in the table. The main water-soluble components are
carbon dioxide (0.9 mol%) and methane (70.98 mol%).
Fluid Properties (Brine). A sample of separator brine was ana-
lyzed, and synthetic brine was prepared to match the main com-
ponents of the formation brine. The composition is presented in
Table 2. The synthetic brine was used in all the phase-behavior
tests for better control of the experiments.
Dry Condensate Equilibrium. Several tests were conducted with
the gas-condensate wellstream sample, as shown in Fig. 3. The
separator liquid was recombined with the separator gas to prepare
the reservoir fluid. This fluid then was used in the study. Every
time a fresh recombined gas-condensate sample was added to the
cell, it was designated as a new “charge.” Several dry-condensate
CME tests were carried out with the recombined wellstream at
several temperatures. As explained earlier, a dry CME test was
performed before contacting the condensate with water or brine.
December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

Fig. 3—Gas-condensate three-phase tests.
The effect of temperature on the dewpoint pressure of dry con-
densate is shown in Fig. 4, and the relative liquid-dropout results
for different charges are shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 4 shows that the
dewpoint pressure drops slightly with temperature for the range
measured in the tests. However, as shown in Fig. 5, temperature
has a very significant effect on liquid-condensate dropout. As tem-
perature is increased, the liquid dropout is reduced. All the curves
in Fig. 5 show the characteristic shape of a liquid-dropout curve:
a tail near the dewpoint pressure and a maximum liquid dropout at
pressure ∼2,000 psia. The pressure at maximum liquid dropout
increases slightly with increasing temperatures. The “missing”
points in the curves result from the interface between the conden-
sate and gas getting into the “blind” portions of the PVT cell (Fig.
2). The data show good repeatability of liquid-dropout curves, as
evidenced by the three runs carried out at 260°F shown in Fig. 5.
The P/V relationship of dry gas condensate at different tempera-
tures is shown in Fig. 6. All relative volumes in this report are vol-
umes relative to the dewpoint volume at that particular temperature.
Condensate/Water Equilibrium. After a dry run had been con-
ducted with the charged gas-condensate sample, it was contacted
with water. Figs. 7 through 10 show the effect of contacting the
condensate with different amounts of water. Fig. 7 shows the effect
of water on dewpoint pressure. It is observed from this figure that
the dewpoint pressure decreases negligibly with increasing WCRs.
A small amount of water-soluble gases (mainly carbon dioxide,
methane, and ethane) partition into the aqueous phase. Similarly,
the volume at dewpoint (Fig. 8) decreases slightly with increasing
WCRs. The effect of water on hydrocarbon liquid dropout is
shown in Fig. 9. The liquid-dropout relative volume indicated in
the figure is only the hydrocarbon liquid volume. The amount of
liquid dropout increases slightly at the first contact of water and
then stabilizes. While there is some scatter in the data, this char-
Fig. 5—Liquid-dropout relative volumes of dry gas condensate.
December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
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Fig. 4—Effect of temperature on the dewpoint pressure of dry
gas condensate.
acteristic is real. There was approximately a 20 to 25% increase in
maximum liquid dropout with the contacting of the condensate
with water. This effect, we believe, is caused by the partitioning of
the water into the vapor phase that reaches a maximum at the first
introduction of water into the system. Even at the lowest WCR,
there is an excess amount of water available in the system. In-
creasing the amount of water beyond this minimum has little effect
on the fugacity of water in the vapor phase. In other words, the
fugacity of water does not change with increasing amounts of
water added to the system.
The relative total hydrocarbon volumes are shown in Fig. 10.
These data show trends similar to those observed for the dry con-
densate samples. The curves are smooth, and the data show rela-
tively little scatter.
Samples of the condensate and water were flashed and ana-
lyzed at the end of each series of contacts to see the effect of water
on the final properties of the phases. The results are presented in
Table 3. The first column shows the original dry gas-condensate
reservoir fluid. The second and third columns show the hydrocar-
bon gas and hydrocarbon liquid compositions. The fourth column
shows the wet-gas stream compositions after recombination of the
separated gas and liquid phases. The last column shows the aque-
ous phase composition.
The main effect observed is a reduction in GCR from 12,400 to
approximately 9,947 scf/STB. This reduction in GCR was mainly
caused by the loss of carbon dioxide, methane, and (to a lesser
extent) ethane from the condensate. This is supported by the water/
condensate solubility results presented earlier. The amount of wa-
ter measured in the hydrocarbon gas-condensate stream was ap-
proximately 0.49 lb/Mscf. The amount of water measured in the
hydrocarbon stream was approximately 1 mol%. This is the
amount of water that has been mass transferred into the gas-
condensate stream at reservoir conditions.
Table 3 also shows the GWR of the aqueous phase (∼31 scf/
bbl). This value compares very closely to the values reported in
Fig. 6—CME data for dry gas condensate at different temperatures.
415
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Fig. 7—Effect of water on the dewpoint pressure of gas condensate. Fig. 8—Effect of water on the dewpoint volume of gas condensate.

Ref. 6. The low value suggests that hydrocarbons have only a

PVTsim by Calsep.7 The Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) EOS was
limited solubility in water.
used to correlate the data. The first step in the correlation proce-
dure was to tune the EOS with dry gas-condensate-fluid compo-
Condensate/Brine Equilibrium. The effect of brine on conden-
sition (Table 1) data, including the C12+ heavy-fraction param-
sate properties is shown in Figs. 11 through 14. The results are
eters. The EOS was tuned by adjusting the C12+ density and mo-
similar to those observed when contacting the condensate with
lecular weight by a maximum of 10% (of experimental values) to fit
water (Fig. 8). The dewpoint pressure is relatively unaffected by
the saturation-pressure data. The tuned EOS was then used to match
the brine present. This can be explained by the fact that dewpoints
(a) the dry gas-condensate properties and (b) the three-phase data.
are affected more by heavier components than by the lighter, more
The EOS predictions for the dry gas condensate are shown in
soluble components. The presence of salt in the brine retards the
Figs. 15 and 16. Fig. 15 shows the phase envelope for the dry gas
solubility of these gases further in brine than in water. The results
condensate with experimental saturation points (dewpoint pres-
clearly show that the brine does not affect the reservoir fluid prop-
sures). The phase envelope is well tuned with the saturation data.
erties significantly.
The tuned EOS also was used to predict the GCR. The separator
Samples of the condensate and brine were flashed and analyzed
GCR was 9,985 scf/bbl at 383 psig and 135°F. A second stage was
at the end of each series of contacts to see the effect of brine on
added to flash the remaining liquid at standard conditions. The
the final properties of the phases. The results are presented in
total GOR was determined to be 12,400 scf/STB.
Table 4. The properties of dry condensate wellstream also are
The liquid dropouts at different temperatures and relative vol-
shown for comparison.
umes were then computed with the EOS, and the results are pre-
The GCR was reduced from ∼12,400 to 10,726 scf/STB. This
sented in Fig. 16 along with the experimental data. The liquid
reduction in GCR was smaller than the reduction for the water case
dropouts match well at the higher temperatures and are slightly off
(compare with the data in Table 3). This is primarily because of the
at 80°F.
suppression of the hydrocarbon solubility in brine compared to that
The tuned EOS was then used to compare the results obtained
in water. Salts in the brine reduce the solubility of hydrocarbons in
for wet gas condensate (i.e., condensate contacted with water). The
water. The amount of water measured in the hydrocarbon gas-
results are presented in Table 5 for the water case. The first col-
condensate stream was approximately 0.38 lb/Mscf. This repre-
umn presents the wet-gas stream composition data obtained ex-
sents approximately 0.8 mol% water in the gas-condensate stream.
perimentally after contacting with water at 7,000 psia and 260°F.
This is the amount of water that has been mass transferred into the
The second column presents the wet-gas stream composition as
gas-condensate stream at reservoir conditions.
predicted by the EOS. The results are very close. The total GCR
Table 4 also shows the GWR of the aqueous phase, which was
compares favorably (9,947 scf/STB vs. 11,010 scf/STB), and the
approximately 12.6 scf/STB. This value is much lower than the 31
water content (amount of water in the gas-condensate phase) is in
scf/STB measured for the water case. The solubility of hydrocar-
excellent agreement. The gas-condensate densities are slightly off.
bons is suppressed by the presence of salts in water. The value
The third and fourth columns in the table compare the water-phase
compares very closely to the values reported in Ref. 6.
compositions. Only a small amount of gas was obtained, and the
results match very well with experimental data. The GWR pre-
EOS Correlation. The data presented above were correlated using
an EOS phase-behavior package; the program used in this study is

Fig. 9—Hydrocarbon liquid-dropout relative volumes of

gas condensate. Fig. 10—Total hydrocarbon relative volumes of gas condensate.

416 December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

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Fig. 11—Effect of brine on the dewpoint pressure of gas condensate.

Fig. 12—Effect of brine on the dewpoint volume of gas condensate.

dicted by the EOS is 38 scf/STB, compared to a value of 31

scf/STB. Overall, the matches are very good.
The predictions for the brine case are presented in Table 6. The Fig. 13—Hydrocarbon liquid-dropout relative volumes of
hydrocarbon-phase results compare very well with the experimen- gas condensate.
tal data. Our version of the package is not capable of predicting the
aqueous-phase (brine) composition.

Applications of Three-Phase Equilibrium Data. The three-

phase data presented in this paper have important implications for
the development of gas reservoirs and gas-gathering infrastructure
(pipelines, processing, etc). The following paragraphs discuss
some of these applications.
Reservoir Management. The three-phase data presented in this
report have implications in reservoir management strategies. The
retrograde liquid-dropout curves presented in Figs. 5 and 16 are
useful in estimating the amount of condensate that may drop out
either in the reservoir or in the wellbore as pressure drops during
production. The amount of liquid dropout passes through a maxi-
mum and does not return to zero, indicating that pressure-depletion
operations will leave some liquid hydrocarbons behind at aban-
donment pressure. These data are used to estimate the abandon-
ment pressure and the loss of hydrocarbons and their effect on the
development and operating policy of the reservoir. Fig. 14—Total hydrocarbon relative volumes of gas condensate.

December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 417


Pressure-liquid-dropout curves are also needed to estimate the
effect of pressure drawdown on well productivity and recovery.
Depending on reservoir permeability, there can be appreciable
pressure drawdown at the producing wells because the pressures
Fig. 15—Comparison of EOS results with experimental data:
phase envelope.
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near the wellbore can be much lower then in the main part of the
reservoir. This may increase the early condensation of liquids
around the wells considerably, thus decreasing the gas permeabil-
ity and affecting the phase behavior of the system near the wells.
This precipitation of liquids becomes very critical in low-
permeability reservoirs and when the margin between dewpoint
pressure and reservoir pressure is low.
Fig. 16—Comparison of EOS results with experimental data:
liquid-dropout curves (for dry condensate).
December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

The three-phase data presented above are also required if wa-
terdrive and water injection to maintain pressure in the gas reser-
voir are considered. This is not a likely reservoir management
strategy for the gas-condensate reservoirs in Saudi Aramco and
will not be discussed here.
Production Operations. The three-phase data have clearly
shown the mass transfer of water and hydrocarbons into the aque-
ous and hydrocarbon phases. The gas condensate will be saturated
with water at reservoir conditions. For the brine case, the natural
gas will contain 0.4 lb/Mscf or 400 lb of water per million scf of
gas produced. The natural gas at low temperature and pressure
contains much less water than at reservoir conditions. This implies
that part of this water will drop out in the pipes during gas pro-
duction and collect in the low points as free water. This free water,
and any entrained formation brine that may be produced with the
gas, are the most important sources of corrosion problems (dis-
cussed below). The condensing water and hydrocarbon liquids
may cause undue loading of pipes with liquids; these must be
considered for the proper design and operation of the pipes.
The formation of free water with pressure and/or temperature
reduction also may result in the formation of hydrates. This will
occur when the temperature falls below the hydrate-forming tem-
perature for the gas condensate. The hydrates will form only in the
presence of free water. A hydrate-forming curve (pressure and
December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
temperature conditions at which hydrates form) was calculated
using the PVTsim program and is plotted in Fig. 16. The results
show that in the presence of free water hydrates are likely to form
at 79°F (6,000 psia), 69°F (2,000 psia), and at lower temperatures
at reduced pressures. The hydrate-forming tendency is enhanced
with turbulence and cooling effects when gas expands from a high
pressure to a lower pressure (e.g., across a valve). If the tempera-
ture falls below 70°F, hydrate formation in the gas lines is a
distinct possibility.
The amount of free water that will condense, as pressure drops,
can be calculated from the data presented in this report and from
other correlations available in the literature.8 In addition to the
problem of hydrates, the formation of free water can add to the
horsepower requirements for pipelines because of increased pres-
sure drops caused when water (and hydrocarbon liquids) collects
in the low spots in the line and reduces the flow area of the gas.
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This condition is also conducive to corrosion in the pipes.
Corrosion Tendencies. One of the main objectives of this proj-
ect was to provide quantitative data that could be used to determine
the corrosion potential in wellbores and pipelines. It is clear that as
the pressure and temperatures are reduced in the wellbores and
surface facilities, some of the water dissolved in the hydrocarbon
phase will condense. The condensed water contains dissolved car-
bon dioxide (and hydrogen sulfide, if present in the gas) and is
acidic. If there is any entrained formation brine produced with the
gas, the aqueous phase will have dissolved solids in addition to
having a low pH. These conditions are ideal for corrosion to take
place. For example, carbonated brines can react with iron in the
pipelines and tubulars to form iron carbonate, which can deposit as
a scale or dissolve away depending on the pressure, temperature,
pH, brine composition, and flow rates. The partial pressure of
carbon dioxide plays an important role in the corrosion process. It
determines the concentration of carbon dioxide in the aqueous
phase, as well as the pH of the aqueous phase. By many esti-
mates,2,9 the pH of the brine will be approximately 3 to 5 in the
presence of carbon dioxide—definitely an acidic environment. The
salts in the brine also will affect the solubility of carbon dioxide
and its ionic equilibrium. The data presented in this paper give the
solubility of water in gas condensate as well as the solubility of
carbon dioxide and other hydrocarbons in water and in brine. The
presence of hydrogen sulfide in the gas complicates and aggravates
the corrosion problem because it can cause sulfide stress corrosion
and precipitate iron sulfide scales.
Scaling Tendencies. Scaling generally occurs by the precipita-
tion of inorganic salts from the aqueous phase. Examples of scales
include the carbonates, sulfates, and sulfides of calcium and mag-
nesium. The possibility of scales forming in gas-condensate lines
are low because of (a) the low water cuts from gas-condensate
wells and (b) the condensing of water from the hydrocarbon phase,
which dilutes the formation brine that may be produced with the
gas. The second effect reduces the scaling potential. However, if a
large amount of formation water is produced, its scaling potential
must be determined with temperature and pressure.
Conclusions
The effect of water/brine on the PVT properties of reservoir fluid
is small. The results confirm the independence of hydrocarbon and
aqueous phases that are in equilibrium in the reservoir. However,
the amount of water that can be dissolved in the hydrocarbon phase
at reservoir conditions, though small, can be significant for many
applications. The following specific conclusions are based on the
tests conducted.
Dry Condensate Equilibrium.
• The amount of liquid dropout (during CME) decreases with
increasing temperature. Therefore, more liquid should be expected
in the wellbores as the temperature drops during production.
Condensate/Water Equilibrium.
• Carbon dioxide and methane are the main gases dissolving in the
aqueous phases, and ethane is much less soluble.
419
• The GCR of the condensate decreases as a result of contact with
water.
• The dewpoint pressure decreases negligibly with increasing
WCRs.
Condensate/Brine Equilibrium.
• The dewpoint pressure decreases negligibly with increasing
BCRs.
• The GCR of the oil decreases as a result of contact with brine.
However, this decrease is smaller for brine than for the water
system.
EOS Correlation.
• The tuned EOS was able to match the dry gas-condensate data
satisfactorily.
• EOS predictions for three-phase systems containing water were
very close to the experimental values.
Applications
• During production, water and liquid hydrocarbons will drop out
(condense) in the wellbore and surface pipelines. This liquid
loading should be considered in the design and operation of
pipes and processing equipment.
• There is a distinct possibility that gas hydrates will form at
temperatures below 70°F. If temperatures are expected to fall
below this, appropriate gas-hydrate-inhibition schemes must
be considered.
• With free water, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide present in
the Khuff gas, corrosion will be a problem. Appropriate preven-
tive methods must be considered for mitigating corrosion.
• The possibility of scaling is generally low because of the low
water cuts expected from gas-condensate wells and the diluting
effect of the condensing water from the hydrocarbon phase. How-
ever, if a large amount of formation water is produced, its scaling
potential must be determined with temperature and pressure.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their appreciation to C.J. Alva-
rez for useful discussions and support.
References
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Weight of Hydrocarbon Components on the Multi-Phase Equilibria of
Hydrocarbon/Water Systems,” paper SPE 30788 presented at the 1995
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, 22–25 Oc-
tober.
2. Collins, A.G.: “Properties of Produced Waters,” Petroleum Engineer-
ing Handbook, H.B. Bradley et al. (eds.), SPE, Richardson, Texas
(1987) Chapter 24.
420
3. Kobayashi, R., Song, K.Y., and Sloan, E.D.: “Phase Behavior of Water/
Hydrocarbon Systems,” Petroleum Engineering Handbook, H.B.
Bradley et al. (eds.), SPE, Richardson, Texas (1987) Chapter 25.
4. Brondel, D. et al.: “Corrosion in the Oil Industry,” Oilfield Review
(April 1994) 6, No. 2, 4.
5. Kermani, M.B. and Harrop, D.: “The Impact of Corrosion on Oil and
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East Oil Show, Bahrain, 11–14 March.
6. McCain, W.D.: Properties of Petroleum Fluids, PennWell Publishing,
Tulsa (1989).
7. PVTsim User Manual, Calsep, Copenhagen, Denmark (1999).
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Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/REE/article-pdf/6/06/412/2580712/spe-87307-pa.pdf/1 by University of Engineering and Technology Lahore user on 18 January 2023
SI Metric Conversion Factors
atm × 1.013 250* E+05 ⳱ Pa
bbl × 1.589 873 E–01 ⳱ m3
ft3 × 2.831 685 E–02 ⳱ m3
°F (°F – 32)/1.8 ⳱ °C
in.3 × 1.638 706 E+01 ⳱ cm3
psi × 6.894 757 E+00 ⳱ kPa
*Conversion factor is exact.
Sunil Kokal is a PVT/reservoir fluid property specialist in the R&D
Center at Saudi Aramco in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. e-mail:
Sunil.Kokal@aramco.com. He is an expert in the areas of hy-
drocarbon phase behavior, crude-oil emulsions, and asphalt-
enes. He holds a BS degree from the Indian Inst. of Technology
(New Delhi) and a PhD degree from the U. of Calgary, both in
chemical engineering. Kokal has written more than 70 techni-
cal papers and has authored the chapters on Crude-Oil Emul-
sions and Reservoir Fluid Sampling for the forthcoming revised
edition of SPE’s Petroleum Engineering Handbook. He has
served on many SPE committees, both at the local and inter-
national levels, and is currently a Technical Editor for SPEREE.
Mohammad Al-Dokhi is a research technician in the R&D Cen-
ter at Saudi Aramco. He has worked on specialized, high-
pressure, and high-temperature PVT equipment for most of his
career, including black-oil and gas-condensate apparatus,
asphaltene precipitation, and a three-phase apparatus. Selim
Sayegh has acquired experience in enhanced-oil-recovery re-
search at the Petroleum Recovery Inst. in Calgary, at Saudi
Aramco’s Laboratory R&D Center, and now with the Saskatch-
ewan Research Council. Sayegh holds a PhD degree in phase-
behavior thermodynamics from the Dept. of Chemical Engi-
neering at McGill U.; he has published more than 20 refereed
technical papers and has presented more than 40 papers at
conferences and workshops worldwide.
December 2003 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering