ST.

THERESITA’S ACADEMY
165 RIZAL ST. SILAY CITY
Tel No. 034-4951441

LEARNING PACKET NO. 1

3rd Quarter

SUBJECT: GEN. CHEM. 2

TOPIC: KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
and Properties of Solids and Liquids

Grade 12
Prepared by:
Ms. Arlene May Sigaton

Name of Student: ___________________________

For your opening prayer, please

bow your head and pray the prayer below:
LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 1 of 17
Loving Father, I come to you this
 Please read the learning competency stated below and fill-up the chart that follows:
The learners shall be able to:
1. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids
2. Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces

Specific Learning Objective:

- Discuss the kinetic molecular theory of liquids and solids
- Discuss the types of intermolecular forces
Essential Understanding:
The properties of solids and liquids can be explained by the kinetic molecular model.
Essential Question:
Why do solids and liquids behave differently?

From the learning competency, write on the first column of the chart your personal learning targets.
Fill-up the second and the third column after finishing all the tasks.

At the end of this lesson, I CAN… I was able to achieve my I was not able to achieve
learning targets because my learning targets
because
Example: add functions ________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
1. _____________________________________________________ ________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
2. _____________________________________________________ ________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
3._____________________________________________________ ________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________

EXPLORE

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 2 of 17

Vocabulary that learners should know and will be used in the lesson:
Phase
A homogeneous part of a system is in contact with other parts of the system but separated from
these other parts by well-defined boundaries.
Condensed phases
Liquids and solids
Intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule.

Connect the lesson with prerequisite knowledge

A. Kinetic Molecular Theory:
1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
2. These particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature. Increased temperature means
greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between particles, in the freedom of motion
of particles, and in the extent to which the particles interact.
5. For an animation showing the motion of particles in a solid, liquid or gas, the lesson
below may be viewed. http://preparatorychemistry.com/KMT_flash.htm

The Condensed State:

Liquids and Solids
• In liquids, the molecules are so close together that there is very little empty space between
them. Liquids are much more difficult to compress and they are much denser at normal
conditions.
• Molecules in a liquid are held together by one or more types of attractive forces. However, the
molecules can move past one another freely. Liquids can flow, can be poured and assumes the
shape of its container.
• In a solid, molecules are held tightly in position with virtually no freedom of motion. There is
even less empty space in a solid than in a liquid.
• Solids are almost incompressible and possess definite shape and volume.

Activity 1: Motion of Particles

Compare the properties of gases, liquids, and solids in terms of distances and arrangement of their
molecules.
a. Compare the distances among molecules in the gas, liquid and solid and rank the phases in increasing
distance between particles.
b. Describe the characteristic movement of the particles of gas, liquid and solid.
c. How are the molecules of gas, liquid and solid arranged?
d. Arrange the three phases of matter in order of increasing volume of empty space between its molecules.

B. Molecular Geometry, Determining Polarity, Bond Dipole, Dipole Moment

 Review the difference between ionic and covalent compounds.
The two most basic types of bonds are characterized as either ionic or covalent.

In ionic bonding, atoms transfer electrons to each other. It involves the electrostatic attraction

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 3 of 17

between oppositely charged ions.

In contrast, atoms with the same electronegativity share electrons in covalent bonds, because
neither atom preferentially attracts or repels the shared electrons.

 The two factors that determine the polarity of molecules. These are:
1) The polarity of the bonds between atoms which can be studied based on
electronegativity, and
2) The geometrical shape of the molecule which can be predicted via the Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

 Properties of elements found in the periodic table such as boiling points, melting points,
oxidation numbers, etc. Point out that one of the properties found in the periodic table is
the electronegativity of elements.

Electronegativity (EN) - Measure of the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons

to itself when chemically combined with another atom. The higher the value of electronegativity,
the more it tends to attract electrons toward itself.

Polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are unequally shared. The difference in
electronegativity between atoms is significant.

The separation of charges makes the bond polar. It creates an electric dipole.
Dipole refers to “two poles,” meaning there is a positive and a negative pole within a molecule.

Non-polar covalent bonds occur when electron pairs are shared equally or the difference in
electronegativity between atoms is less than 0.5.

A Lewis Structure is a very simplified representation of the valence shell electrons in a

molecule. It is used to show how the electrons are arranged around individual atoms in a
molecule. Electrons are shown as "dots" or bonding electrons as a line between the two atoms.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/
Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Lewis_Structures

Cl2 NH3 CH3Br CH4

Polar or Nonpolar Polar or Nonpolar Polar or Nonpolar
Polar or Nonpolar

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 4 of 17

  A short video clip about Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OHFGXfWB_r4

Continuum of Chemical Bonds

 Ionic – Greater than 2.0
 Polar Covalent - Between 2.0 and 0.5
 Non-Polar Covalent - Less than 0.5

Activity 2: Lewis Structures

Ask the students to
1. Draw the Lewis structures of the following molecules with the correct shape around the central
atom.
2. Indicate each bond’s polarity by drawing an arrow to represent the bond dipole along each
bond.
3. Determine the molecule’s polarity and indicate this with an arrow to represent the dipole.
4. Circle their choice in each box to mark the molecule as polar or nonpolar

NO3 H2O HI F2
Polar or Nonpolar Polar or Nonpolar

Polar or Nonpolar Polar or Nonpolar

FIRM-UP

Molecular level comparison of gases, liquids, and solids.

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 5 of 17

The difference in distances of particles in solids and liquids as compared to gases…. solids and
liquids are called the condensed states. The ability of particles in the gaseous state to move away
from each other. On the other hand, the particles stay close together in the solid and liquid states.

For gases:
• An increase in temperature results in increased kinetic energies of gases dissolved in liquids. This
increased motion enables the dissolved gas to break intermolecular forces with the solvent and
escape the solution.
• Thus, a warm bottle of carbonated drink/ soft drink does not taste as good as a cold one, because
there is less CO2 dissolved in the warm bottle.

A short video clip about Factors Affecting Solubility can be used for demonstration:
https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=OpFW7V_GiUQ

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction between individual particles of a substance in the condensed

states.
a. Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that act between molecules or particles in the solid or
liquid states. Generally, these attractive forces are much weaker than bonding forces.
b. Melting points and boiling points of substances can be used as indicators of the strength of
intermolecular forces operating in given solids and liquids
When a solid melt, or a liquid boil, the particles move away from each other. As they do,
intermolecular forces of attraction are broken. The stronger the intermolecular forces to be broken,
the larger the amount of energy needed to break them, hence, the higher the melting point for solid-
to-liquid transformation, and boiling point for liquid-to-gas transformation.
c. Different types of intermolecular forces are the following:
Dispersion forces – these forces of attraction result from temporary dipole moments induced in
ordinarily nonpolar molecules. These forces are present between all types of molecules due to the
movement of electrons. As electrons move around the nucleus, an uneven distribution causes
momentary charge separations. Slightly positive sides of a molecule are attracted to the slightly
negative sides of the adjacent molecule.
F2, the lightest halogen, is a gas, Br 2 is a liquid, and the heavier I 2 is a solid at room conditions.
Further, the more atoms that make up the molecules, the stronger the dispersion forces. Methane,
CH4, is gaseous, but larger hydrocarbons like butane, C 4H10 liquid, and those with a larger number of
carbon atoms, like the waxes, are solids at room temperature.

An Illustration of London Dispersion Forces using Helium atoms (2 electrons)

• Consider atoms of helium. The average distribution of electrons around each nucleus is spherically
symmetrical. The atoms are nonpolar and possess no dipole moment.

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 6 of 17

Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules that possess dipole
moments). In polar molecules, the electrons are unevenly distributed because some elements are
more electronegative than others. The partial negative side of one molecule is attracted to the partial
positive side of another molecule.

This type of force is stronger than dispersion forces because polar molecules have a permanently
uneven distribution of electrons. The nature of attraction is electrostatic and can be understood in
terms of Coulomb’s law: The larger the dipole moment, the stronger the attraction.

Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a polar
bond, such as N‒H, O‒H, or F‒H, and an electronegative O, N, or F atom. Hydrogen bonds between
water molecules are particularly strong.
The interaction is written as
A ‒ H ••• B or A ‒ H ••• A and B represent O, N, or F; A ‒ H is one molecule or part of a
molecule and A or B is a part of another molecule; the dotted line represents the hydrogen bond.
Examples of hydrogen bonding in water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):

Hydrogen bonds in H2O, NH3 and HF

Activity 3:
Type of intermolecular forces

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 7 of 17

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 8 of 17
Activity 5: Lewis Structure
Click the link below for practice problems
https://www.chem.purdue.edu/vsepr/practice

Video Clip:
Intermolecular Forces and Properties of Liquids
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubLcR2un-Ao

• Surface tension is the measure of the elastic force on the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of
energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area. It is manifested as some
sort of skin on the surface of a liquid or in a drop of liquid.
Use the illustrations given below to show manifestations of surface tension.

Examples of how surface tension is manifested.

How intermolecular forces can influence the magnitude of surface tension.

Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces. Molecules at the surface
are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not upward away from the surface (shown in
the diagram below).
These intermolecular forces tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause the surface to tighten
like an elastic film or “skin”.

Intermolecular forces that act on molecules of a liquid.

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 9 of 17

Conclusion
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces also have high surface tension.
• Use water as an example of a liquid with high surface tension because of H-bonds, which are strong
intermolecular forces. Use illustrations, including those used in the activity at the start of this lesson to
show how the high surface tension is manifested in water.

Water strider walking on the surface of a quiet pond.

7 Science Tricks with Surface Tension
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsksFbFZeeU

Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small openings
such as those between grains of a rock. Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a result of
intermolecular attraction between liquid and solid materials.
• Describe or show illustrations of examples of capillary action
Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously in capillary tubes. A thin film of water adheres
to the wall of the glass tube as water molecules are attracted to atoms making up the glass (SiO2).
Surface tension causes the film of water to contract and pulls the water up the tube.

Colored water seen A doctor takes blood sample

from a patient’s finger using a Water mixed with food coloring
rising in glass tubes.
capillary tube. rises freshly cut stalks of celery.
Experiment on Capillary Action or Capillarity using Capillary Tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YoF7RuBZIpM

Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:

Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid molecules).
Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water and in the particles that
make up the glass tube).
These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical container (the meniscus!)

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 10 of 17

When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are greater than the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the walls of the container, the surface of the liquid is convex.
Example: Mercury in a container
When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are lesser than the adhesive forces between
the liquid and the walls of the container, the surface of the liquid is concave.
Example: water in a glass container
When both adhesive and cohesive forces are equal, the surface is horizontal.
Example: distilled water in a silver vessel.

Concave and Convex Meniscus

Question:
What are the factors that may influence the ease of flow of the contents?

Comparison of ease of flow of liquids

Expected answer:
Thick liquid does not flow easily.

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The greater the viscosity, the slower the liquid
flows.
Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The table below gives the viscosities of liquids of some
pure substances. Water has a viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20oC.
Substances with lower viscosities include carbon tetrachloride and benzene. Glycerol has a
resistance to the flow of more than a thousand times greater than water.
Poise or Stoke is a metric system unit. The SI unit is Pascal-second (Pa-s) or
Newton-second/meter2 (N-s/m2). 1 centipoise = 0.001 Pa-s

Viscosities of Liquids of selected substances

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 11 of 17

 Given molecular structures of water and
glycerol, can you tell why glycerol has a
higher viscosity than water?

Expected answer:
The larger number of –OH groups allow glycerol to form more H-bonds with other glycerol molecules, making
its intermolecular forces stronger than those of water, and its resistance to flow greater.

Conclusion:
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher viscosities than those that have weak
intermolecular forces.
What is the effect temperature would have on viscosity?
Viscosity decreases as temperature increases: hot molasses flows much faster than cold molasses.
The Sci Guys: Science at Home - SE2 - EP7: Viscosity of Liquids
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6spBkVeQ4w

VAPOR PRESSURE OF A LIQUID

• Describe what is happening to the water molecules in the two flasks shown in the picture.

Evaporation of water in open and in closed contain

Expected answer:
(a) The water molecules in the liquid evaporate and go into
the vapor phase. In the open flask, some of the water
molecules in the vapor phase find their way out of the flask
are lost to the atmosphere.
(b) When a liquid evaporates to a gas in a closed container,
the molecules cannot escape.

Gas molecules move in random directions, and collide with other gas particles and the walls of the
container. Some will strike the liquid surface and condense back into it. In the closed flask, none of
the gas particles can get out of the container, and eventually, the number of molecules that go into
the gaseous state would equal the number of molecules that condense back.
When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of evaporation of the liquid, the
gas in the container is said to be in equilibrium with the liquid.
liquid ⇋ vapor (gas)

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 12 of 17

Vapor pressure is independent of the amount of liquid as well as the surface area of the liquid in
contact with the gas.
• Relate vapor pressure to temperature
Present the following plot of the vapor pressure of water as it varies with temperature and ask the
learners to explain what the plot presents.

Vapor pressure of water vs.

temperature

Observation: As the temperature

increases, the vapor pressure of
water also increases.

When the temperature is high, more molecules have enough energy to escape from the liquid. At a lower
temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid.

For most liquids, the vapor pressure increases as temperature increases.

MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION AND BOILING POINT
The relationship between vapor pressure and the strength of intermolecular forces is consistent with
the trends in two other properties of liquids, the enthalpy or molar heat of vaporization, and the boiling
point of the liquid.
Demonstration of Vapor Pressure https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i0Frx_bPsT8
• Define the molar heat of vaporization.
The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a
given temperature. H is the symbol for enthalpy, which means heat content at a given standard
condition.

Measured at 1 atm. Molar heat of vaporization and boiling points of selected substances
• A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of vaporization is by rubbing acetone
on your hands.
Compare what is felt when water is used. Acetone has a lower ΔHvap than water so that heat from
our hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of these molecules and provide additional heat to
vaporize them. As a result of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.
• Boiling Point.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid converts into a gas. A more
complete definition includes the vapor pressure, and this is given below.
A liquid boil when its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. The
boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external
pressure.
The boiling point of a liquid depends on the external pressure. For example, at 1 atm, water boils at
100OC, but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils at only 82 OC.

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 13 of 17

The Unique Properties of Water
Water is a good solvent.

The role of water in plant nutrition

Issues of pollution:
Water has a high specific heat.
Relate this property to changing climate and the capacity of bodies of water to act as a
temperature buffer
Relate this property to questions on small water bodies drying up
Relate this property to the survival of aquatic organisms in temperate countries

Difference between CRYSTALLINE and AMORPHOUS solid very easy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbJy8Pap-_A
Amorphous and Crystalline Solids
https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-solid-state/amorphous-and-crystalline-solids/

A. What are the two general types of solids? What features can be used to distinguish a
crystalline solid from an amorphous solid?
The differences in properties of these two groups of solids arise from the presence or absence of
long-range order of arrangements of the particles in the solid.
1. Arrangement of particles
The components of a solid can be arranged in two general ways: they can form a regular repeating
three-dimensional structure called a crystal lattice, thus producing a crystalline solid, or they can
aggregate with no long-range order, and form an amorphous solid (from the Greek ámorphos,
meaning “shapeless”).
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices. Examples of crystalline solids
are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate (CuSO 4), diamond, graphite, and sugar
(C12H22O11). The ordered arrangement of their units maximizes the space they occupy and are
essentially incompressible.
Amorphous solids have random orientation of particles. Examples of amorphous solids are glass,
plastic, coal, and rubber. They are considered super-cooled liquids where molecules are arranged
randomly like the liquid state.
Amorphous solids (e.g., glass), like liquids, do not have long-range order but may have a limited,
localized order in their structures.

Crystalline and Amorphous quartz

Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are heated. They tend to melt over a wide range of
temperatures. This behavior is a result of the variation in the arrangement of particles in their
structures, causing some parts of the solid to melt ahead of other parts.
The Crystal Lattice
Crystalline solids are characterized by a regular repeating structure called the crystal lattice.
Watch a video clip on growing crystals. This will help visualize how some crystals are formed.

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 14 of 17

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdYS-3J85Pw

What are the four types of crystals? What form of unit particles makes up each type of crystal?
What forces bind the unit particles of each type of crystal? What are the properties of each type of
crystal?
1. Metallic crystals are made of atoms that readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations),
but no atoms in the crystal would readily gain electrons. The metal atoms give up their
electrons to the whole crystal, creating a structure made up of an orderly arrangement of
cations surrounded by delocalized electrons that move around the crystal. The interactions are
called metallic bonds. This model of metallic bonding is called the “sea of electrons” model.

Positive ions surrounded by

delocalized electrons

These crystals have a shiny appearance and include

copper, gold, aluminum, and iron, to name a few.

Ionic crystals are made of ions (cations and anions). These ions form strong electrostatic
interactions that hold the crystal lattice together.

Sodium ion, Na+ and

chloride ion, Cl- at
lattice points of NaCl
crystal

Shifting of ions cause

repulsions in ionic crystal

2. Molecular crystals are made of atoms, such as noble gases, or molecules, such as in sugar,
C12H22O11, iodine, I2, and naphthalene, C10H8. The atoms or molecules are held together by a
mix of hydrogen bonding/dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and these are the attractive
forces that are broken when the crystal melts. Hence, most molecular crystals have relatively
low melting points.

Arrangement of water
molecules in ice crystal

3. Covalent network crystals are made of atoms in which each atom is covalently bonded to its
nearest neighbors. The atoms can be made of one type of atom (e.g., C diamond and Cgraphite) or
can be made of different atoms (e.g., SiO2 and BN). In a network solid, there are no individual
molecules, and the entire crystal may be considered one very large molecule. Formulas for
network solids, like those for ionic compounds, are simple ratios of the component atoms
represented by a formula unit.

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 15 of 17

 Two allotropes of carbon: graphite
and diamond

SELF-REFLECTION

VALUE INTEGRATION
JANUARY – Leadership Through Service
We often associate leadership with power, but there is also a notion of Servant-Leadership, in which
one’s power is exercised in service, or acting for the common good. Acts of service take you outside
yourself and your own little sphere to new communities and people who can teach you much about
yourself, as well as about life as you do not know it.  And it is “within our power” to find or create
opportunities for this daily.
Servant Leadership is completely focused on the followers and building them up to reach their
potential.  The central focus of Servant Leadership is for the leader to put the followers first helping
them grow and succeed.
Jesus is the ultimate leader; He is God came in flesh. We can learn from His way of leading the
people, and though He is omniscient, He has chosen to teach and model certain ways of living. He
is the ultimate servant in the way He led and then He left that example for others to follow. He even
gives some very specific instructions about the path to great leadership that is paved with the road
to becoming a servant. He sets the example then for others to follow in His steps. These are that
will bring change, deep in the soul of the person who embraces these concepts of leading. This is
not the path for the weak willed or weak hearted, but it is a path to success on several levels.
The beauty of Servant Leadership is the ability for a leader to build community in a place through
service. The relationships that are built in a Servant Leadership model have an incredibly strong
foundation, which would help us survive the challenges along the way.

References
Intermolecular Forces. (2021, Jan 1). Retrieved from mikeblaber.org:
https://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Forces/Intermol/Forces02.htm

Lewis Structure. (2020, Aug 16). Retrieved from CHEMISTRY LibreTexts:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/
Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Lewis_Structures

Practice Problems. (2021, Jan. 2). Retrieved from Chem.Purdue.edu: https://www.chem.purdue.edu/vsepr/practice.html

Liquids, Solids and Intermolecular Forces. (2021, Jan. 12). Retrieved from sunny.moorparkcollege.edu:
http://sunny.moorparkcollege.edu/~dfranke/chemistry_12/12_liquids_solids.pdf

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 16 of 17

Materials: pen and paper, laptop, internet connection

LP1 Gen. Chem. 2 – 3rd Quarter Page 17 of 17