A.

1 Neural development

Filler words

1. Outline how the neural tube of embryonic chordates is formed by infolding of

ectoderm followed by elongation of the tube.

The development of the human central nervous system begins in the embryo during the first
12 weeks after conception. A similar pattern of development can be observed in all chordates
(vertebrates and other animals that possess a supporting dorsal rod called a notochord). In
the embryonic ectoderm, an area of cells called the neural plate develops and becomes a
region known as the neural groove.

It is these cells that eventually become the brain and spinal cord. The cells of the neural plate
gradually change and develop into folds, which extend up from it and eventually meet and
close over to begin the formation of a tube. In this way, as the growth of the folds continues,
the neural groove develops into the neural tube. The tube elongates and its outer cells form
the foundation of the nervous system – cells at the anterior (front) end become the brain and
those in the posterior (back) region become the spinal cord.
 2. Explain how neurons are initially produced by differentiation in the neural tube.

There are billions of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), most of them in the brain.
The origins of these neurons can be traced back to the early stages of embryonic
development when part of the ectoderm develops into neuroectodermal cells in the neural
plate. Although not yet neurons, the developmental fate of these cells is now determined and
it is from them that the nervous system is formed.

The neural plate develops into the neural tube, with the continued proliferation of cells by
mitosis and differentiation along the pathways leading to the cells becoming functioning
neurons. The mature CNS has far more neurons than what is initially present in the embryonic
neural tube, so cell proliferation continues in both the developing spinal cord and brain.
Although cell division ceases before birth in most parts of the nervous system, there are many
parts of the brain where new neurons are produced during adulthood.

3. Describe how immature neurons migrate to a final location.

Within the developing brain, neurons migrate to different areas and begin to connect with
other neurons to make up neural networks. As the embryo and then the fetus develops,
neurons that are produced in the developing brain migrate to different positions. Some move
by a method known as somal migration in which a neuron moves by extending a long
process from its cell body to the outer region of the brain. This region will later become the
cortex. The long process attaches itself to the outer surface of the brain and the cell nucleus
then travels, through its cytoplasm to take up a new position. Once young neurons have
reached their target region, they must become part of a network in order to be able to
process information.
Neurons need to develop the axons and dendrites (extensions of their cell bodies) that
enable them to communicate with other neurons. Axons send signals away from the neuron
cell body, while dendrites receive signals from other neurons. Each cell develops a network of
many dendrites close to the cell body and a single axon that can extend for some distance
away from the cell. Every axon extends from an area known as a ‘growth cone’ at the
extreme end of the axon.

The growth cone responds to and is guided by molecules of certain chemical substances,
which direct it to the correct area. Some of these chemical stimuli are attractive while others
repel the growing axon. Axons develop within the areas that will become the brain but also
extend beyond the neural tube to reach other parts of the body. When an axon has reached
its target area, it begins to develop many synapses with other cells. Every developing neuron
forms multiple synapses and these synapses allow for communication between the cells of
the nervous system via neurotransmitters.

4. Outline how an axon grows from each immature neuron in response to chemical
stimuli
An immature neuron consists of a cell body with cytoplasm and a nucleus. An axon is a long
narrow outgrowth from the cell body that carries signals to other neurons. Only one axon
develops on each neuron, but it may be highly branched.

Many smaller dendrites that bring impulses from other neurons to the cell body may also
develop. Chemical stimuli determine neuron differentiation when the axon grows out from the
cell body and also the direction in which it grows in the developing embryo.

Axons grow at their tips. In some cases, they are relatively short and make connections
between neurons within the central nervous system, but other neurons develop very long
axons which can reach any part of the body. Despite only being outgrowths of a single cell,
axons can be more than a metre long in humans and many metres long in larger mammals
such as blue whales.
Axons carry impulses to other neurons or to cells that act as effectors – either muscle or gland
cells. As long as the cell body of its neuron remains intact, its axon may be able to regrow if
severed or damaged in other ways outside the central nervous system.

Regrowth rates can be as rapid as ve millimetres per day so sensation or control of muscles
can sometimes return over time after damage. Of course, this recovery depends on the
correct connections being re-established between an axon and the cells with which it should
be communicating.

5. State that developing neuron forms multiple synapses.

The growth of an axon or dendrite is directed so that it reaches a cell with which it interacts. A
synapse is then developed between the neuron and the other cell. The axons of motor
neurons develop synapses with striated muscle fibres or gland cells for example. Synapse
development involves special structures being assembled in the membranes on either side of
the synapse and in the synaptic cleft between them.
The smallest number of synapses that a neuron could theoretically have is two – one to bring
impulses from another cell and another to pass them on. In practice, most neurons develop
multiple synapses and some neurons in the brain develop hundreds, allowing complex
patterns of communication.

Many synapses are formed at an early stage of development, but new synapses can be
formed at any stage of life. Synapses often disappear if they are not used. When transmission
occurs at a synapse, chemical markers are left that cause the synapse to be strengthened.
Synapses that are inactive do not have these markers so become weaker and are eventually
eliminated. The maxim “use it or lose it” therefore describes synapses very well.

6. Explain the process of neural pruning

During human development, there is an enormous amount of cell growth, but the death of
neurons is also important. Natural death of cells (apoptosis) removes about half of the
neurons in certain regions of the brain and, in addition, the second type of cell modification
known as ‘neural pruning’ removes up to half the synapses that have developed between
neurons.

These two types of cell death are essential to remove unused neurons and thereby help to
establish and streamline the complex nerve networks in the brain. The timing of the two types
of cell death is different: most cell death (apoptosis) occurs before a baby is born but most
neural pruning and synaptic modification occur after birth.
 7. Explain how the plasticity of the nervous system allows it to change with
experience
Brain plasticity is the ability of the nervous system to change in both structure and function
over a person’s life, as they react to the changes in their environment. As a person acquires
new knowledge, learns new skills or has new experiences, the brain can establish new neural
pathways. Through practice and revision, communication between synapses is enhanced and
signals travel more efficiently.

Later, if the same neural pathway is used again, the connections between the neurons are
re-established and each new attempt means that memory and cognition are made faster. This
synaptic plasticity is established in a similar way to the way a walker might learn a pathway
through a field of corn. If the path is used every day, a clear path will soon become
established and the walker will be able to cross the field more quickly and efficiently.

Most of you guys reading this can experience synaptic plasticity as you revise for your exams.
On the other hand, if synaptic connections are not used, pathways maybe lost and unused
neurons can be removed during neural pruning.

Synaptic plasticity enhances connections between neurons, but a second example of the
changes that can occur in the nervous system is neurogenesis, the birth and proliferation of
new neurons in the brain. For many years it was believed that when neurons died they were
never replaced, but stem cells have been found in certain areas of the brain (the
hippocampus and the dentate gyrus) that are able to reproduce and migrate to other areas of
the brain where they are needed. This may occur after a traumatic event such a stroke, which
kills many brain cells. Neurogenesis allows the brain to replace cells that have died and
restore functions that have been lost. Alternatively, in some cases, undamaged nerves in
different areas of the brain are able to take over the roles of cells that have died and restore
some of the functions lost when a person has a stroke.
Ted Talk about neuroplasicity

8. Determine the causes of spina bifida.

Spina bifida is a congenital disorder caused when the neural tube fails to close properly
during embryonic development. Some vertebrae do not form completely and remain unfused
and open, so that a portion of the spinal cord may pass through the opening in the bones.
This occurs most often in the lower back in the lumbar or sacral vertebrae. Spina bifida can be
treated by surgery soon after a baby is born.

The surgeon places the spinal cord back into the body and closes up the gap between the
vertebrae, but the affected part of the spinal cord will not be able to function normally. Spina
bifida is one of the most common birth defects and occurs in approximately 1 in 1000 births
worldwide. Folic acid, taken as a dietary supplement during the first three months of
pregnancy, has been found to greatly reduce the risk of spina bifida and other neural tube
defects.
 9. Outline the promotion of the reorganization of brain function.

An ischemic stroke is a disruption of the supply of blood to a part of the brain. Most strokes
are caused by a blood clot blocking one of the small vessels in the brain, but bleeding from a
blood vessel is another cause. During a stroke part of the brain is deprived of sufficient
oxygen and glucose. If cell respiration ceases in neurons, they become irreparably damaged
and die. Strokes vary greatly in severity.

Many are so minor that the patient hardly notices. About one-third of sufferers from major
strokes make a full recovery and another third survive but are left with a disability. In many
cases, recovery from strokes involves parts of the brain taking on new functions to
supplement the damaged areas. Most recovery happens over the first six months after a
major stroke and may involve relearning aspects of speech and writing, regaining spatial
awareness and the ability to carry out skilled physical activities such as dressing or preparing
food.
 10. Annotate a diagram of embryonic tissues in Xenopus, used as an animal model,
during neurulation.

Xenopus are a genus of frog that robust embryos that can tolerate extensive manipulation.
This makes them suitable animal models for investigating the developmental stages of
embryogenesis. During neurulation, the following embryonic tissues should be easily
identifiable:

1. Three germ layers (outer = ectoderm ; middle = mesoderm ; inner = endoderm)

2. A hollow cavity called the archenteron (will develop into the digestive tract)
3. Notochord (the flexible rod that stimulates neurulation)
4. Neural tube (developed from the unfolding of the neural plate)
A.2 The human brain

1. Explain how the anterior part of the neural tube expands to form the brain.

During the development of vertebrate embryos a neural tube forms along the whole of the
dorsal side, above the gut, near the surface. Most of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord,
but the anterior end expands and develops into the brain as part of a process called
cephalization, the development of a head.

The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons. The brain acts as the central
control centre for the whole body, both directly from cranial nerves and indirectly via the
spinal cord and numerous signal molecules carried by the blood. The advantage of having a
brain is that communication between the billions of neurons involved can be more rapid than
if control centres were more dispersed. The major sensory organs are located at the anterior
end of vertebrates: the eyes, ears, nose and tongue.
 2. Describe the different parts of the brain and their specific roles.

The brain has regions that are distinguishable by their shape, colour or by a microscopic
structure. These regions have different roles, identified by physiological research in humans
and other mammals. Εach part of the brain has a particular function, some regulating
automatic processes, such as heartbeat and balance, while others control our physical
coordination, speech and ability to reason.

1. The cerebral hemispheres are the largest part of the brain and form the coordinating
centre for learning, memory, language and reasoning.These regions receive
information from the sense organs and coordinate and organise motor functions.
2. The hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system. It coordinates the
endocrine and nervous systems by regulating the secretions of the pituitary gland.
3. The cerebellum coordinates movement, posture and balance.
4. The medulla oblongata (brain stem) controls automatic and homeostatic activities
such as breathing, swallowing, digestion and heart rate.
5. The pituitary gland has two parts – the posterior lobe stores release the hormones
oxytocin and ADH from the hypothalamus, while the anterior lobe produces and
secretes seven hormones, including FSH and growth hormone, which regulate many
of the body’s functions
3. Identify parts of the brain in a photograph, diagram or scan of the brain, including
the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and cerebral
hemispheres.
 4. Explain how the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes in the
body

The peripheral nervous system comprises all of the nerves outside the central nervous
system. It is divided into two parts: the voluntary and the autonomic nervous systems.
Involuntary processes are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, using centres in the
medulla oblongata.

The autonomic nervous system has two parts: sympathetic and parasympathetic. These often
have contrary effects on an involuntary process. For example, parasympathetic nerves cause
an increase in blood ow to the gut wall during digestion and absorption of food. Sympathetic
nerves cause a decrease in blood ow during fasting or when blood is needed elsewhere.
 5. Outline how cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain.

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres. Although it is only two to
four millimetres thick, up to six distinctively different layers of neurons can be identified in
sections studied under a microscope. It is has a highly complex architecture of neurons and
processes the most complex tasks in the brain.

Only mammals have a cerebral cortex. Birds and reptiles have regions of the brain that
perform a similar range of functions but they are structurally different, with cells arranged in
clusters rather than layers. Among the mammals, the cerebral cortex varies in size
considerably. In humans, it forms a larger proportion of the brain than in any other mammal.
 6. The human cerebral cortex has become enlarged principally by an increase in total
area with extensive folding to accommodate it within the cranium.

The cerebral cortex has become greatly enlarged during human evolution, and now contains
more neurons than that of any other animal. There has been a modest increase in thickness,
but the cortex is still only a few millimetres thick. The increase is due principally to an increase
in total area and that necessitates the cortex becoming extensively folded during
development.

This is so large that the brain can only be accommodated inside a greatly enlarged cranium,
forming the distinctive shape of the human skull. Most of the surface area of the cerebral
cortex is in the folds rather than on the outer surface. In contrast, mice and rats have an
unfolded smooth cortex, but in cats, there are some folds and elephants and dolphins have
more. Among the primates, monkeys and apes show a range of cortex size and degree of
folding, with larger sizes in primates that are more closely related to humans
 7. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher-order functions.

The cerebral hemispheres carry out the most complex of the brain’s tasks. These are known
as higher-order functions and include learning, memory, speech and emotions. These
higher-order functions involve association of stimuli from different sources including the eye
and ear and also from memories.

They rely on very complex networks of neurons that are still only partially understood by
neurobiologists. The most sophisticated thought processes such as reasoning,
decision-making and planning occur in the frontal and prefrontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Using these parts of the brain we can organize our actions in a logical sequence, predict their
outcomes, develop a sense of right and wrong and be aware of our own existence.
 8. The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from sensory receptors in the
right side of the body and the right side of the visual field in both eyes and vice
versa for the right hemisphere.

The cerebral hemispheres receive sensory inputs from all the sense organs of the body. For
example, signals from the ear pass to the auditory area in the temporal lobe. Signals from the
left ear pass to the left hemisphere and from the right ear to the right hemisphere. Inputs from
the skin, muscles and other internal organs pass via the spinal cord to the somatosensory
area of the parietal lobe.

Perhaps surprisingly, the impulses from each side cross in the base of the brain so that the left
hemisphere receives impulses from the right side of the body and vice versa. Inputs from the
eye pass to the visual area in the occipital lobe, known as the visual cortex. Impulses from the
right side of the eld of vision in each eye are passed to the visual cortex in the left
hemisphere, while impulses from the left side of the eld of vision in each eye pass to the right
hemisphere. This integration of inputs enables the brain to judge distance and perspective.

Regions in each of the cerebral hemispheres control striated (“voluntary”) muscles. The main
region is in the posterior part of the frontal lobe and is called the primary motor cortex. In this
region, there is a series of overlapping areas that control muscles throughout the body, from
the mouth at one end of the primary motor cortex to the toes at the other end. The primary
motor cortex in the left hemisphere controls muscles in the right side of the body and that in
the right side controls muscles in the left side of the body. So a stroke (or other brain damage)
in the left side of the brain can cause paralysis in the right side of the body and vice versa.
 9. Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs.

The energy released by cell respiration is needed to maintain the resting potential in neurons
and to re-establish it after an action potential, as well as for the synthesis of neurotransmitters
and other signal molecules.

The brain contains a huge number of neurons so it needs much oxygen and glucose to
generate this energy by aerobic cell respiration. In most vertebrates, the brain uses less than
10% of the energy consumed by basal metabolism but in the adult human brain, it is over 20%
and an even higher proportion in infants and small children.

10. Outline the visual cortex, Broca’s area, nucleus accumbens as areas of the brain
with specific functions.

Each of the two cerebral hemispheres has a visual cortex in which neural signals originating
from the light-sensitive rod and cone cells in the retina of the eyes are processed. Although
there is an initial stage in which a map of visual information is projected in a region called V1,
the information is then analysed by multiple pathways in regions V2 to V5 of the visual cortex.
This analysis includes pattern recognition and judging the speed and direction of moving
objects.
Broca’s area is a part of the left cerebral hemisphere that controls the production of speech. If
there is damage to this area an individual knows what they want to say and can produce
sounds, but they cannot articulate meaningful words and sentences. For example, if we see a
horse-like animal with black and white stripes, Broca’s area allows us to say “zebra”, but a
person with a damaged Broca’s area knows that it is a zebra but cannot say the word.

There is a nucleus accumbens in each of the cerebral hemispheres. It is the pleasure or

reward centre of the brain. A variety of stimuli including food and sex cause the release of the
neurotransmitter dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, which causes feelings of well-being,
pleasure and satisfaction. Cocaine, heroin and nicotine are addictive because they artificially
cause the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens

11. Describe swallowing, breathing and heart rate as examples of activities

coordinated by the medulla

The first phase of swallowing, in which food is passed from the mouth cavity to the pharynx, is
voluntary and so is controlled by the cerebral cortex. The remaining phases in which the food
passes from the pharynx to the stomach via the oesophagus, are involuntary and are
coordinated by the swallowing centre of the medulla oblongata.

Two centres in the medulla control breathing. One controls the timing of inspiration while the
other controls the force of inspiration and also active, voluntary expiration. There are
chemoreceptors in the medulla that monitor blood pH. The carbon dioxide concentration in
the blood is very important in controlling the breathing rate, even more than oxygen
concentration. If blood pH falls, indicating an increase in carbon dioxide concentration,
breathing becomes deeper and/or more frequent.

The cardiovascular centre of the medulla regulates the rate at which the heart beats. Blood
pH and pressure are monitored by receptor cells in blood vessels and in the medulla. In
response to this information, the cardiovascular centre can increase or decrease the heart
rate by sending signals to the heart’s pacemaker. Signals carried from the sympathetic system
speed up the heart rate; signals carried by the parasympathetic system in the vagus nerve
slow the rate down.
 12. Explain how pupil reflex can be used to evaluate brain damage.

Muscles in the iris control the size of the pupil of the eye. Impulses carried to radial muscle
fibres by neurons of the sympathetic system cause them to contract and dilate the pupil;
impulses carried to circular muscle fibres by neurons of the parasympathetic system cause
the pupil to constrict.

The pupil reflex occurs when a bright light suddenly shines into the eye. Photoreceptive
ganglion cells in the retina perceive the bright light, sending signals through the optic nerve
to the mid-brain, immediately activating the parasympathetic system that stimulates circular
muscle in the iris, constricting the pupil and reducing the amount of light entering the eye,
protecting the delicate retina from damage.

Doctors sometimes use the pupil reflex to test a patient’s brain function. A light is shone into
each eye. If the pupils do not constrict at once, the medulla oblongata is probably damaged. If
this and other tests of brain stem function repeatedly fail, the patient is said to have suffered
brain death. It may be possible to sustain other parts of the patient’s body on a life support
machine, but full recovery is extremely unlikely.
A.3 Perception of stimuli

1. Explain how receptors detect changes in the environment, including

mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors and photoreceptors.

Sense organs supply our brain with the information it needs to keep us in touch with the world
around us. Information about changes in our surroundings is detected by sensory receptors,
which are able to absorb the energy of different types from the environment and transform it
into nerve impulses.

We have thermoreceptors in our skin that respond to temperature, photoreceptors in the

retina of each eye that respond to light, and chemoreceptors in our blood vessels that detect
the pH or carbon dioxide concentration of our blood and help to regulate our breathing.

Chemoreceptors in our noses and on our tongues respond to chemical substances in the
environment. Our sense of smell is mediated by olfactory chemoreceptors in the nasal
passages. These receptors are activated by the presence of small odour molecules (all with a
molecular mass less than 350) and send nerve impulses to the brain. It is estimated that
mammals have up to 1000 different receptors, and each receptor can be activated by several
similar odour molecules. It is the combination of stimulation of different receptors that build up
our sense of smell, and the number of possible combinations is enormous so we are able to
distinguish an almost infinite number of odours.

Mechanoreceptors are another group of receptors, stimulated by pressure or forces. Some

respond to changes in blood pressure, others to the movement of fluid in the inner ear.
Whenever we move any part of our body (for example, a leg to kick a ball, or an arm and
fingers to pick up a pen) we need to know exactly where that part of the body is. We receive
this information from mechanoreceptors known as stretch receptors, found in muscles.
Stretch receptors respond to stretching of the muscles and allow the brain to work out the
positions of all parts of the body.
 2. Determine that rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina

Light entering the eye is focused by the cornea and the lens onto the retina, the thin layer of
light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. Figure 5 shows the cell types in the retina. Two
main types of the photoreceptor are present in the human retina, rods and cones. Many
nocturnal mammals have only rods and cannot distinguish colours. Rods and cones are
stimulated by light and so together detect the image focused on the retina and convert it into
neural signals.

Rods are very sensitive to light, so work well in dim light. In very bright light the pigment in
them is temporarily bleached so for a few seconds they do not work. Rod cells absorb a wide
range of visible wavelengths of light but cannot respond selectively to different colours, so
they give us black and white vision. There are three types of cone, which absorb different
ranges of wavelengths of light. They are named according to the colour that they absorb most
strongly: red, blue or green. When light reaches the retina, the red, blue and green cones are
selectively stimulated. By analysing the relative stimulation of each of the three cone types,
the colour of light can be very precisely determined, though experiments show that people’s
perception of colour differs quite a lot. Cones are only stimulated by bright light and therefore
colour vision fades in dim light.
3. Label a diagram of the structure of the human eye, including the sclera, cornea,
conjunctiva, eyelid, choroid, aqueous humour, pupil, lens, iris, vitreous humour,
retina, fovea, optic nerve and blind spot.

4. Annotate a diagram of the retina to show the cell types and the direction in which
light moves, including rod and cone cells, bipolar neurons and ganglion cells.
 5. Outline the function of Ganglion cells

Retinal ganglion cells have cell bodies in the retina with dendrites that form synapses with
bipolar cells. Ganglion cells also have long axons along which impulses pass to the brain.
Impulses are passed at a low frequency when the ganglion cell is not being stimulated and at
an increased rate in response to stimuli from bipolar cells. The axons of ganglion cells pass
across the front of the retina to form a central bundle at the “blind spot”, so called because
their presence makes a gap in the layer of rods and cones. The axons of the ganglion cells
pass via the optic nerve to the optic chiasma in the brain.

6. Explain that bipolar cells send the impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells.

Rod and cone cells synapse with neurons called bipolar cells in the retina. If rod or cone cells
are not stimulated by the light they depolarize and release an inhibitory neurotransmitter onto
a bipolar cell, causing it to become hyperpolarized and not transmit impulses to its associated
retinal ganglion cell.

When light is absorbed by a rod or cone cell it becomes hyperpolarized and stops sending
inhibitory neurotransmitter to the bipolar cell. The bipolar cell can, therefore, depolarize,
activating the adjacent ganglion cell. Groups of rod cells send signals to the brain via a single
bipolar cell, so the brain cannot distinguish which rod absorbed the light. The images
transmitted to the brain by rods alone are lower resolution, like a grainy photograph, whereas
those based on the cones are sharper because each cone cell sends signals to the brain via
its own bipolar cell.

7. Explain how information from the right field of vision from both eyes is sent to the
left part of the visual cortex and vice versa

Simple experiments comparing vision with one eye or with both eyes show the distance and
relative size of objects can be judged most precisely when observed by two eyes
simultaneously. Stimuli from both eyes are integrated by the axons of some retinal ganglion
cells crossing from one side to the other between eye and brain while other axons stay on the
same side. The crossing over of axons between left and right sides happens in the optic
chiasma. As a result, the visual cortex in the right cerebral hemisphere processes visual
stimuli from the left side of the visual field of both eyes, and vice versa for stimuli from the
right side of the eld of vision.
 8. Describe how structures in the middle ear transmit and amplify sound.

The middle ear is an air-filled chamber between the outer ear and the inner ear. A thin, taut
sheet of exible tissue called the eardrum separates the middle ear from the outer ear. Two
other thin sheets of tissue called the oval and round windows separate the middle ear from
the inner ear. Three tiny bones are in the middle ear, the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and
stapes (stirrup), which articulate with each other to form a connection between the eardrum
and the oval window. These bones, also called ossicles, transmit vibrations from the eardrum
to the oval window, amplifying sound twentyfold because the oval window has a smaller area
than the eardrum. During very loud sounds, the delicate sound-reception components of the
ear are protected by contraction of the muscles attached to the bones in the middle ear,
which weakens the connections between the ossicles and so damps the vibrations
 9. Label a diagram of the structure of the human ear, including the pinna, eardrum,
bones of the middle ear, oval window, round window, semicircular canals, auditory
nerve and cochlea

10. Outline how Sensory hairs of the cochlea detect sounds of a specific frequency.

The cochlea is the part of the inner ear where vibrations are transduced into neural signals. It
is a tubular, coiled, fluid-filled structure. Within the cochlea are layers of tissue (membranes) to
which sensory cells are attached. Each of these cells has a bundle of hairs, stretching from
one membrane to another. When vibrations are transmitted from the oval window into the
cochlea, they resonate with the hair bundles of particular hair cells, stimulating these cells.
Selective activation of different hair cells enables us to distinguish between sounds of
different pitch.
The round window is another thin sheet of flexible tissue, located between the middle and
inner ear. If it was stiff and undeformable, the oval window would not be able to vibrate,
because the incompressible fluid in the cochlea would prevent it from moving. When
vibrations of the oval window push the fluid in the cochlea inwards, the round window moves
outwards, and when the oval window moves outwards, the round window moves inwards,
enabling the oval window to transmit vibrations through the fluid in the cochlea.

When a hair cell in the cochlea is depolarized by the vibrations that constitute sounds, it
releases neurotransmitter across a synapse, stimulating an adjacent sensory neuron. This
triggers an action potential in the sensory neuron which propagates to the brain along the
auditory nerve. The auditory nerve is one of the cranial nerves that serve the brain.
 11. Explain how hair cells in the semicircular canals detect movement of the head.

There are three fluid-filled semicircular canals in the inner ear. Each has a swelling at one end
in which there is a group of sensory hair cells, with their hairs embedded in the gel to form a
structure called the cupula. When the head moves in the plane of one of the semicircular
canals, the stiff wall of the canal moves with the head, but due to inertia, the fluid inside the
canal lags behind.

There is, therefore, a flow of fluid past the cupula. This is detected by the hair cells, which
send impulses to the brain. The three semicircular canals are at right angles to each other, so
each is in a different plane. They can detect movements of the head in any direction. The
brain can deduce the direction of movement by the relative amount of stimulation of the hair
cells in each of the semicircular canals.