GROUP 3 – PRECIPITATION

Precipitation - It is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth.

Forms of Precipitation

• Drizzle

• Rain

• Snow

• Hail

• Glaze

• Sleet

• Snow Flake

Drizzle

• Drop size < 0.5 mm in dia. and intensity is usually < 1 mm/hr.

• Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops very close together. Drizzle appears to
float while following air currents, but unlike fog droplets, it falls to the ground. Quite often fog and
drizzle occur together.

Rain

• Drop size is between 0.5 to 6 mm in dia. Drops bigger than 6 mm tend to break up as they fell.

• Drops of liquid water fall from the clouds when water vapor condenses around dust particles in the
clouds, forming tiny droplets that eventually get too big for the cloud to hold so they fall, growing
larger as they collect more water on their way down.

Snow

• Snow falls when all the air between the cloud and Earth's surface is below freezing.

• A snowflake forms when water vapor sublimates, or turns directly from a gas into its solid form, ice.

Hail

• Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or frozen together in
irregular lumps. Associated with thunderstorms, individual hail stones are ¼ inch (5 mm) or greater in
diameter. Hail sizes of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more are indicative of severe thunderstorm

Glaze

• It is the ice coating formed when drizzle or rain freezes as it comes in contact with cold objects on the
ground.

Sleet

• Also known as Ice Pellets

• Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which are round or irregular hard grains of ice
consisting of frozen raindrops, or largely melted then refrozen snowflakes.
Graupel

• Graupel is a frosty kind of snow. It forms in below-freezing temperatures when snow crystals in the
cloud collide with very cold water droplets. The water droplets freeze loosely onto the snow, giving
graupel a slushy texture.

Types of Precipitation

• Cyclonic

• Convective

• Orographic

Cyclonic Precipitation

It is caused by lifting associated with the horizontal convergence of inflowing atmosphere into an area of low pressure.

There are two kinds of cyclonic precipitation. Non-frontal precipitation involves only this convergence and lifting.
Frontal precipitation results when one air mass is lifted over another.

A front is defined as the boundary between two air masses of different temperatures and densities.

A warm front is the result of a warm air mass overriding a cold air mass, causing extensive areas of cloudiness and
precipitation. As the warm front approaches a given area, the precipitation becomes more continuous and intense.
Warm fronts move at a speed of 15-50 km/h (10-30 mph).

A cold front results from a strong push of a cold air mass against and beneath a warm air mass. At the front towering
clouds develop together with intense short duration precipitation. Cold fronts move at a speed of 30-80 km/h (20-50
mph).

An occluded front occurs when a cold front overtakes a warm front. The precipitation pattern is a combination of both
warm and cold frontal distribution. Occluded fronts move at a speed of from 8-50 km/h (5-30 mph).
Convective Precipitation

It results when air that is warmer than its surrounding rises and cools. The precipitation is of a shower type, varying
from light showers to cloudbursts. The typical thunderstorms resulting from heating of the atmosphere in the
afternoon hours is the best example of convective rainfall. Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, especially in
the summer. They are the characteristic form of rain in the tropics, wherever cyclonic circulation does not operate.

Orographic Precipitation

It is caused when air masses are lifted as they move over mountain barriers. Such orographic barriers tend to increase
both cyclonic and orographic precipitation due to the increased lifting involved. Precipitation is generally heavier on
the windward slope than on the leeward slope.

Measurement of precipitation

Precipitation is measured as the amount of water that reaches horizontal ground or the horizontal ground projection
plane of the earth’s surface, and is expressed as a vertical depth of water or the water equivalent of solid
precipitation.
Two categories of Rain Gauge

Non-recording rain gauge

Symon’s gauge

Recording rain gauges

• Tipping bucket rain gauge

• Weighing bucket rain gauge

• Siphon rain gauge.

Symon’s gauge

Symon's gauge is a non-recording gauge used by the meteorological department of India. In the Symon's rain gauge,
rain water is collected in a cylindrical bottle which is measured manually on daily basis.

Cylindrical Rain Gauges and Ordinary Rain Gauges

These instruments work according to a simple principle of measurement, and also have a straightforward structure.
They offer the advantage of having a low rate of problem occurrence.

Tipping bucket rain gauge

This type of rain gauge generates an electric signal (i.e., a pulse) for each unit of precipitation collected, and allows
automatic or remote observation with a recorder or a counter.

Weighing bucket rain gauge

This gauge has a system by which the rain that falls into a bucket set on a platform is weighed by a weighing device
suitably attached to the platform.

Siphon rain gauge

This gauge is also called float type rain gauge as this gauge has a chamber that contains a light and hollow float.

Importance of Accurate Precipitation Measurement

Precise and accurate precipitation measurement is essential for several reasons:

a. It is crucial to predict the amount of precipitation in a given area. This information is vital for everything, from
agricultural planning to flood control.

b. Accurate precipitation measurement is necessary for understanding the water cycle and precipitation’s impact on
the environment. Precise data helps scientists track trends and make predictions of the planet’s climate.

c. Accurate precipitation measurement is needed for public safety. Storm warnings come from precipitation data, and
accurate information can help people decide whether or not to evacuate an area.
d. Inaccurate precipitation measurement can have serious consequences. For example, if a rain gauge underestimates
the amount of rainfall in an area, it could lead to agricultural drought. On the other hand, overestimating rainfall could
lead to unnecessary evacuations and property damage.

Artificially Induced Precipitation

Rainmaking, also known as artificial precipitation, artificial rainfall and pluviculture, is the act of attempting to
artificially induce or increase precipitation, usually to stave off drought.

Interpretation of Precipitation
GROUP 4 – STREAMFLOW

What is Streamflow?

Streamflow, or discharge, is the volume of water that moves over a designated point over a fixed period. It is often
expressed as cubic feet per second (ft3/sec).

The flow of a stream is directly related to the amount of water moving off the watershed into the stream channel. It is
affected by weather, increasing during rainstorms and decreasing during dry periods. It also changes during different
seasons of the year, decreasing during the summer months when evaporation rates are high and shoreline vegetation is
actively growing and removing water from the ground

Flow is a function of water volume and velocity. It is important because of its impact on water quality and the living
organisms and habitats in the stream. Large, swiftly flowing rivers can receive pollution discharges and be little affected,
whereas small streams have less capacity to dilute and degrade wastes.

In general, river discharge is computed by multiplying the area of water in a channel cross-section by the average velocity
of the water in that cross-section:

discharge = area x velocity

Physical descriptions of catchment form

CATCHMENT

A catchment is an area with a natural boundary (for example ridges, hills or mountains) where all surface water drains to
a common channel to form rivers or creeks. Larger catchments are made up of smaller areas, sometimes called
subcatchments.

The hydrological processes of a catchment or subcatchment are influenced by the physical characteristics of the
catchment as well as by the broader region and subregion.

Subcatchments are also separated by a raised ridge or natural boundary within a catchment. In general, surface water
does not flow from one sub catchment to another

Climate

The climate at the regional and subregional scales determines the overall water in the system. Rainfall, and other forms
of precipitation, provide the source of surface water flows such as waterways and other, non-channelised overland flow,
as well as groundwater. The processes of evaporation and transpiration (collectively ‘evapotranspiration’) cause the loss
of water from the land to the atmosphere at a more local scale. Solar radiation, temperature, wind and vegetation cover
influence these processes
Physical characteristics

Geology

The underlying geology of catchments in a region strongly influences the hydrology. Some rocks (such as some fine-
grained sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock and igneous rock) and some unconsolidated sediments (such as clay
deposits) have low/limited permeability and water falling on these surfaces can generate surface water run-off.
Permeable rocks, such as basalts and unconsolidated sediments such sands and loams, can contain one or more aquifers,
where groundwater is stored and transmitted through intergranular pore space, fractures, vesicles and/or weathered
zone of the rock.

Topography

The topography (shape of an area) has a direct impact on the hydrology. Topographic features such as slope and
curvature can serve as indirect measures of many hydrological processes. Topography varies over several orders of
magnitude, from centimetres (roughness) to hundreds of kilometres (mountain ranges).

Soils

Soil texture affects the movement and retention of water. The ease with which water can move through the soil profile
depends on the porosity of the soils or in other words the amount of “free spaces” (voids) through which water can flow.
The rate of this movement is expressed as its hydraulic conductivity. The porosity is larger in coarse-textured soils (sands)
than in fine-textured soils (clays). As a result, water (and dissolved nutrients) can move faster through coarsetextured
soils than fine-textured soils, conversely fine textured soils will tend to generate more surface runoff. Soil porosity affects
the movement and retention of water through the soil profile.

Vegetation (landcover)

Vegetation affects water runoff in a number of ways. Some of the water that reaches the ground infiltrates into the soil
and may be taken up by plant roots. Rain that is intercepted by, or held on, the vegetation canopy often evaporates to
the atmosphere[3]. The roughness of the landscape also influences the speed of water movement across it. Complex
habitats such as forested wetlands, with high density of trees and a developed understorey will significantly reduce flow
speed. Simple habitats such as bare ground, or open forests with cleared understorey will provide little resistance to
flows.

Modifications

Buildings and infrastructure such as roads, railways and creek crossings create impermeable surfaces that stop the
ingress of water into soils and can create barriers that redirect water through single points or culverts, leading to
channeling of water. This increases the rate of flow and the potential for erosion. Modifications to channels, such as
straightening and diversions, can also increase flow rates. Increases in the volume and speed of runoff can increase gully
and streambank erosion in the landscape and the stream channels, resulting in sediment being transported downstream
and adversely affecting water quality. Weirs, dams and rural water storages (farm dams) also modify natural water flow
patterns, by holding water that would otherwise flow straight into the stream network.
Hydrological processes

Water can move through the landscape in many ways, including through surface water runoff and groundwater
(groundwater recharge) and can transfer between the two systems[1]. The hydrological response of catchments to
rainfall depends on the intensity and duration of rainfall and the amount of infiltration and runoff. Where the rainfall
exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil, the excess rainfall will generate the surface runoff that provides a stream’s
flow. Water infiltrating into the soil may not go to the stream or is often delayed in its passage to the stream channel.

However, in catchments where infiltration rates are high enough to be only very rarely exceeded by storm rainfall
intensities (e.g. sand islands), stream flows may either be generated almost entirely by subsurface flows or by surface
flows when the soil is saturated. Water abstraction for agricultural and urban uses, and supplementation such as
irrigation, also influence the movement of water

OVERVIEW

Hydrology is important for understanding the landscape and the ecosystems within it. Hydrology influences landscapes
and ecosystems and is itself influenced by the ecosystems. Variable water flows, water levels and connections (known as
water regime) affect the biological and chemical processes in an ecosystem. Hydrology is different from hydraulics. How
water moves in the landscape is influenced by a range of factors including: climate – rainfall (and other precipitation),
temperature, evaporation. physical characteristics – geology, soils, topography, catchment size and shape, modifications
(such as dams, weirs or levees). biological features - vegetation cover, transpiration. prior conditions – soil moisture and
groundwater levels

Scale

Hydrology is impacted in a different manner by the landscape and ecosystems at different scales. In order to properly
manage a catchment or particular part of the landscape (land unit) it is vital to understand how water moves in the
broader landscape/ catchment. Various methods are available to assist in understanding the hydrology of a catchment or
subcatchment. These include hydrological modelling and the ‘walking the landscape’ process.

Descriptors of catchment relief

Description of a catchment's response to precipitation input is vital for short–term forecasting, long–term water balance
simulations and estimation of design floods. In ungauged catchments, where data are not available for calibrating a
model or estimating flood frequency parameters, hydrological characteristics must be estimated from variables available
from maps or other sources. An extensively mapped, easily obtainable and hydrologically relevant property of a basin is
its topography, increasingly available as digital elevation models (DEMs).

Relief is the elevation difference between two reference points. The maximum catchment relief is the elevation
difference between the highest point on the catchment divide and the catchment outlet.

The relief ratio is the ratio of the maximum catchment’s longest horizontal straight distance measured in the direction
parallel to the main watercourse.

The relief ratio is a measure of the catchment slope and, therefore, affects soil erosion.

The principal watercourse is usually the largest watercourse, and the one conveying the flow to the outlet. Catchment
relief is quantitatively described with a hypsometric curve.
FLOODPLAINS

A flood plain is an area of flat land alongside a river. This area gets covered in water when the river floods. Flood plains
are naturally very fertile due to the river sediment which is deposited there. This sediment is good for growing plants on
the flood plain. But floodplains can also be very dangerous places. Even though they regularly flood, houses are often
built on them.

A floodplain consists of two parts;

1. Floodway - The first is the main channel of the river itself, called the floodway. Floodways can sometimes be seasonal,
meaning the channel is dry for part of the year. The floodway of the Todd River in Australia’s Northern Territory, for
instance, is an ephemeral stream, meaning its channel can be dry for months at a time.

2. Flood Fringe - The flood fringe extends from the outer banks of the floodway to the bluff lines of a river valley. Bluff
lines, also called valley walls, mark the area where the valley floor begins to rise into bluffs.

The Barotse floodplain is a vast wetland stretching thousands of kilometers through Angola, Zambia, and Botswana. The
Barotse floodplain includes the sandy Kalahari basin, which is waterlogged during the rainy season and an extension of
the nearby Kalahari Desert during the dry season

Sediment measurement

Water in nature is never really totally clear, especially in surface water, such as rivers and lakes. Water has color and
some extent of dissolved and suspended material, usually dirt particles (suspended sediment). Suspended sediment is an
important factor in determining the quality of water. Streamflow is measured by making a discharge measurement.
Suspended sediment, the kind of sediment that is moved in the water itself, is measured by collecting bottles of water
and sending them to a lab to determine the concentration

Sediments are an integral part of all river systems, linked to both the physical and chemical attributes of a catchment.

Contribution of sediments

- the form and physical characteristics of river channels and aquatic habitats
- essential for the transport and storage of nutrients.
- They also reflect the energy and timing of a river’s flow regime.

Sediment supply to floodplains, deltas, lakes, and oceans is closely related to the amount of sediment transported by the
rivers.

Sediment redistribution within a river system has long been recognized as one of the critical factors for the development
of river basins