Biological Approach (Ethics, Research Methods)

Genes and behaviour

Evaluate one or more studies on the role of genes on behaviour.
Discuss one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.
Discuss how genetic similarities help psychologists in the study of genes and
behaviour.
hormones, pheromones and behaviour
Discuss the role of hormones on behaviour, using one or more examples.
Discuss the role of pheromones in human behaviour, using one or more examples.
the brain and behaviour
Discuss one or more techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
Discuss one or more studies of localization of function.
Discuss one or more studies of neuroplasticity.
Discuss one or more studies of the role of neurotransmission on behaviour.

Discuss the use of one or more research methods...

Discuss ethical considerations .....

Discuss one or more techniques used to study the brain in relation to behavior.
Two techniques used to study the brain are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). MRIs use magnetic fields and radio waves to
map the activity of hydrogen protons. Water molecules contain hydrogen protons and are
present in the brain tissue. MRIs create composite pictures of brain structures. The images
can be viewed from any angle as a slice of the brain, or they can be used to create a
three-dimensional image of the brain. Two possible ways to analyse MRIs are voxel-based
morphometry (VBM) and pixel counting. VBM can be used to measure the density of grey
matter and pixel counting can be used to calculate the area of certain brain structures. Unlike
MRIs, which look purely at brain structure, fMRIs show actual brain activity and indicate
which areas of the brain are active when engaged in a behaviour or cognitive process. fMRIs
measure changes in blood flow as a measurement of brain activity. If a specific part of the
brain is active, it requires more oxygen and thus blood flow to that part of the brain
increases. fMRIs produce a film that demonstrates the changes in blood flow in the brain
(and therefore also neural activity) during the period of the scan.

MRIs were used in a study by Maguire (2000) which aimed to examine whether structural
changes were seen in the brain of London taxi drivers due to the amount of time they had
been driving the streets of London. An MRI was used to scan and reveal the brain structures
of 16 healthy right-handed male cab drivers in London. The results were compared to those
of 50 right-handed non-cab driving males which were the same age on average. By using the
VBM, when compared to the control group, they discovered that the drivers had increased
grey matter in the hippocampal area, suggesting that the hippocampus was involved in
spatial navigation. Also, from the MRI database, taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi
than the control group. This indicates long-term potentiation occurring in the taxi drivers’
posterior hippocampi. As taxi drivers frequently employ their spatial navigation skills, their
recent activity in the posterior hippocampus strengthens the neural networks in that region,
increasing the neural density, which is shown in their greater posterior hippocampus volume.
Furthermore, a positive correlation between the number of years driving and the size of the
posterior hippocampus was discovered, creating a direct link between increased use of
spatial navigation skills and the volume of that region.

By using MRIs, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the brain and find a
correlation between environmental enrichment on neuroplasticity, a physiological process
occurring in the brain, particularly around the hippocampi region which then affects behavior
in terms of memory. However, there was no clear causation established as the MRIs only
show structure, they don’t actually map what is happening in the brain. Also, there was
minimal risk of the taxi drivers experiencing undue stress or harm due to the non-invasive
nature of MRIs. Having said that, participants may possibly find MRI scans to be stressful or
anxiety-provoking, due to the loud noises the machines make. Despite this, the
high-resolution images produced by MRI scans can provide researchers with valuable
information about the brain.

A study carried out by Harris & Fiske (2006) has made use of fMRI scans to examine
the role of the limbic system in reacting to out-groups such as homeless people and addicts.
22 university students were divided into two groups. One group acted as a control group and
was shown pictures of objects while the other group was shown pictures of people. Their
aim was to find the biological correlates of stereotypes ad prejudice. Students’ brains were
being scanned while they went through the process. Six sets of photographs were being
shown with a range of people, from rich business people and Olympic athletes to people
with disabilities and homeless people. According to the results, the medial prefrontal cortex
was active when participants looked at humans but not when they looked at objects.
However, it was not active when they looked at extreme outgroups such as homeless and
addicts, in addition to the activation of the amygdala, the insula gyrus which is associated
with ‘disgust’, was activated. In conclusion, this study indicated a dehumanization of the
outgroups as these people were apparently viewed as ‘disgusting objects’ instead of people.

For Harris & Fiske’s study, the use of fMRIs is very expensive, causing the sample size
to be small. In other words, the results may not be generalizable. One of the strengths of the
use of fMRIs in Harris & Fiske’s study is that fMRIs don’t allow for demand characteristics, as
people are not able to control their involuntary brain activity that occurs as a response to an
image. However, brain areas do activate for various reasons and we cannot be certain that a
person is experiencing disgust when certain parts of the brain light up. The focus is mostly on
localized functioning in the rain and doesn’t take into account of the distributed nature of
processing neural networks. The results are correlational so it isn’t possible to establish
cause-effect relationships. Like MRIs, fMRIs are also very loud and many people may feel
claustrophobic when they are in the machine. The participant’s reactions to the noise or the
claustrophobia may influence the brain activity seen on an fMRI scan. Despite this, fMRIs
create high-resolution images that show brain activity over a period of time, which allowed
Harris and Fiske to investigate the reactions of people. This would not have been possible
with an MRI because no change in brain structure occurred.

Both MRIs and fMRIs are useful techniques for studying the brain. They both are
non-invasive and produce excellent-resolution images or film, however, it is important not to
over-interpret the information they provide. In addition to lowering the ecological validity, it
can also be anxiety-inducing for a participant which could leave them undue stress or harm.
Cost limit sample sizes, making the reliability of much of the research questionable. A last
limitation is that brain areas can activate for different reasons, which eliminates the
possibility of establishing a cause-effect relationship between the variables of an experiment
and the activity shown on the scans.

Discuss the role of hormones on behaviour, using one or more examples.

Hormones are chemicals that have an impact on human behavior. Hormones are
secreted by glands in the endocrine system and are released into the bloodstream, taking
them longer to produce changes in human behavior than neurotransmitters. Hormones can
only produce reactions in certain target cells, that have appropriate receptor sites for these
specific hormones. The hormone adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal gland and is
responsible for arousal and the ‘flight or fight’ response, it increases the heart rate, blood
pressure and respiration. Cortisol is also secreted by the adrenal gland and is responsible for
controlling blood sugar levels, metabolic regulation and its level raise during periods of
stress. McGaugh and Cahill (1995) and Newcomer et al (199) investigated the roles of
adrenaline and cortisol on human memory.
Adrenaline plays a vital role in the creation of emotional memories which can be seen
in the study of Cahill and McGaugh. Participants were divided into two groups and were
given different a different story. The participants in group 1 heard a boring story whereas the
group 2 heard a traumatic story. Two weeks later, participants were asked to come back to
test their memory for specific details about the stories. Researchers found that participants
who had heard the more emotionally arousing story demonstrated better recall of specific
details of the story. Then, they did a follow-up study and the above procedure was repeated.
However, this time, the participants in the “traumatic story” condition were injected with a
beta-blocker called propranolol. This drug will interfere with the release of adrenaline in the
body so that it will prevent activation of the amygdala to prevent the formation of emotional
memories. In the follow-up study, those that had received the beta-blocker did no better
than the group that had heard the “mundane” story.
 From the following results, we can see in the original version of the experiment, the
Group 2 can recall the details more accurately than group 1. It can be explained that blocking
adrenaline in an experimental design gives rise to a cause-and-effect relationship between
adrenaline and activation of the amygdala to create the emotional significance of the story.
In the follow-up study, their performance was worse when they received the beta-blocker.
Subsequently, the amygdala wasn’t activated because the propanil has prevented the release
of adrenaline. In short, they concluded that the amygdala plays a significant role in the
creation of memories linked to emotional arousal and the inactivation of adrenaline results
in the inability to recal the emotional story.
Since lab experiment is highly controlled, researchers could establish a cause-effect
relationship between adrenaline’s interaction within the amygdala and the formation of
emotional memories. Lab experiments also carried out highly standardized procedures which
allow other researchers to replicate easily. Similar results can be replicated which means the
study has higher levels of reliability. However, lab experiment had low levels of ecological
validity as it took place in a lab setting. Instead of experiencing the event themselves, they
were told a story accompanied by 12 images in a lab environment. In addition, participants
self-reported their emotional state, there was no objective measure.
In another experiment conducted by Newcomer et al (1999), the research aim to
investigate whether high levels of the stress hormone cortisol interfere with verbal
declarative memory. The researchers carried out a double-blind laboratory experiment in
which the participants were matched for age and gender to one of three conditions:
In the first condition - high level of cortisol: participants were given a 160 mg tablet of
cortisol daily during the four-day experiment. This dose of cortisol produces blood levels
similar to those seen in people experiencing a major stress event. The second condition - low
level of cortisol: participants take a tablet containing 40 mg of cortisol per day in which this
dose is similar to the amount of cortisol circulating in the bloodstream of people undergoing
a low-stress event. Participants in condition 3 take placebo tablets - this was the control
group. Each participant had to listen to a prose paragraph and then recall it over a period of
four days. This was done in order to test their verbal declarative memory.
The results indicated that high cortisol levels impaired performance in the memory
task since the participants who received the highest level of cortisol also showed the worst
performance in verbal declarative memory. On the other hand, the low levels of cortisol
condition showed better recall than the placebo group. These findings suggest that low levels
of cortisol actually may enhance verbal declarative memory. It appears that high levels of
cortisol interfered with the recall of the prose passage.
Since this study was experimental, the researchers could establish a clear cause-effect
relationship between the IV and DV. Particularly, the effect of cortisol levels on one’s verbal
declarative memory. The researchers carried out a baseline in order to eliminate the possible
confounding variable of individual differences between groups. However, participants
weren’t in the lab the whole time, so the researchers didn’t have full control over extraneous
variables, for example, individual stressors in the lives of the participants. In spite of this,
there was a clear relationship between the amount of cortisol ingested and the performance
on the memory tests. This experiment was highly standardised, therefore easily replicable.
Replicaility suggests high reliability of the experiment’s findings. This was a double-blind
laboratory experiment so this eliminated demand characteristics such as expectantly effect.
Memorizing a piece of prose is perhaps not the most authentic memory experience.
Although it may explain student exam stress, the ability to generalize the results to other
situations may be limited. There are ethical considerations in the study. The participants
ingested cortisol which affected their memory negatively. However, the participants had
signed an informed consent form and the damage was not permanent.
Both Cahill & McGaugh’s, as well as Newcomer et al’s research, provides a strong
evidence of the relationship presented between the release of hormones and the
consolidation and recall of memory.

Discuss one or more studies of localization of function.

Localization of function is the theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible
for certain behaviors or cognitive processes. Psychologists are particularly interested in
whether memory is localized in the brain - or distributed throughout the brain. Two studies
on the localization of function are Maguire (200) and Sharot et al (2007).
Maguire aimed to examine whether structural changes were seen in the brain of
London taxi drivers due to the amount of time they had been driving the streets of London.
This was a quasi-experiment, as the independent variable was not manipulated by
researcher. An MRI was used to scan and reveal the brain structures of 16 healthy
right-handed male cab drivers in London. The results were compared to those of 50
right-handed non-cab driving males which were the same age on average. When compared
to the control group, they discovered that the drivers had increased grey matter in the
hippocampal area, suggesting that the hippocampus was involved in spatial navigation. Also,
taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi than the control group. This indicates long-term
potentiation occurring in the taxi drivers’ posterior hippocampi. As taxi drivers frequently
employ their spatial navigation skills, their recent activity in the posterior hippocampus
strengthens the neural networks in that region, increasing the neural density, which is shown
in their greater posterior hippocampus volume. Furthermore, a positive correlation between
the number of years driving and the size of the posterior hippocampus was discovered,
creating a direct link between increased use of spatial navigation skills and the volume of
that region.
The study was a quasi-experiment, so no cause-and-effect relationship can be
established. The researchers were unable to manipulate the independent variable; it was
naturally occurring. The brain scans were coded so that analysis could be done blindly - that
is, the researchers did not know which brain scan belonged to which participant in order to
avoid researcher bias. Some might argue that those with larger hippocampi might be more
spatially talented and thus chose to be taxi drivers; however, this is disproven by the
correlation between the size of the hippocampus and the number of years driving. You
cannot argue that the MRI has low ecological validity because the participants were not
asked to do anything while in the scanner. They simply had their brain anatomy measured.
Although the study appears to have sampling bias, it is a reality that the vast majority of
London cabbies are male. However, it still does make it difficult to generalize the findings.
The study is ethically sound as the MRI does not pose any health risks to the participants and
all gave consent. Another strength of the study is its high ecological validity: The participants
of the study were not asked to do anything while being inside the scanner, only having their
brain anatomy measured. The researchers were able to see through the indirect measure of
neuroplasticity, how memory functions may be localized. The study also appears to show
how different aspects of memory - that is, storage and retrieval - may be distributed to
different parts of the brain.
A different study on the localization of function is the study done by Sharot et al
(2007). The aim of the study was to determine the role of biological factors in flashbulb
memories. This was a quasi-experiment. The sample consisted o 24 participants who were in
New York on the day of 9/11 terrorist attacts. The particiapnts were put into an fMRI
machine and were shown a series of 60 word cues on the screen. In addition, the word
"Summer" or "September" was projected along with this word in order to have the
participant link the word to either summer holidays or to the events of 9-11. Participants’
brain activity was observed while they recalled the event. The memories of personal events
from the summer served as a baseline of brain activity for evaluating the nature of 9/11
memories. After the brain scanning session, participants were asked to rate their memories
for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy and arousal. Participants were also asked to
write a description of their personal memories. Only half of the participants actually
reported having what would be called "flashbulb memories" of the event - that is, a greater
sense of detail and a strong confidence in the accuracy of the memory. Those that did report
having flashbulb memories also reported that they were closer to the World Trade Centre on
the day of the terrorist attack. Participants closer to the World Trade Centre also included
more specific details in their written memories. The results showed that the activation of the
amygdala for these participants was higher when they recalled the events of the attack than
when they recalled the events of the previous summer vacation. However, the levels of
amygdala response in people who were further away from the site of the attack were equal
when recalling both events.
The study reveals that the strength of amygdala activation correlates with flashbulb
memories, which also may indicate flashbulb memories being localized to the amygdala. One
limitation of the study is its low ecological validity, as responding to words flashed on a
screen in an fMRI machine’s environment is highly artificial. The fMRI could also cause
anxiety which could also activate the amygdala - leading to an artefact, or confounding
variable. Another limitation is that the study is correlational and does not determine cause
and effect. The sample size is small and culturally biased. Research indicates that
individualistic cultures are more likely to have flashbulb memories than collectivistic cultures.
This makes the findings difficult to generalize. A strength of the study is that there is little to
no possibility of there being demand characteristics in the experiment as there was no way
for them to alter their own brain activity to meet the goals of the study. It appears from the
study that at this aspect of memory - emotionally based episodic memories - may be
localized.
The two studies on the localization of function, done by Sharot et al (2007) and
Maguire (2000) and described above, both have their limitations and strengths. Both studies
have limitations that make it difficult to determine the exact role of the brain in memory, but
other research and replications of their research will help to make the roles more clear.

Discuss one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.

The evolutionary theory of sexual selection suggests that attraction is an evolved
response, and therefore the behaviours that govern mate choice are innate as it is genetically
based. It argues that as the survival of the species is reproductively based, both men and
women have the desire to pass on their genes. Evolution, as proposed by Charles Darwin, is
the change in heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations. The
theory of evolution states that by natural selection, organisms that adapt the best are more
likely to survive, reproduce, and thus pass on their genes. Sexual selection, a particular
aspect of natural selection, states that healthy genes are necessary for survival of the species
so that any offspring do not have maladaptive traits (eg dormities). The evolutionary
arguments suggest that the way humans find mating partners must e beneficial to human
survival and reproduction, and thus an adaptive behavior. Three studies that looked at the
human mating behavior were Ronay and von Hipper, Wedekind and Buss.

Ronay and von Hippel (2010) aimed to determine if males would taker greater risks in
the presence of an attractive female. The sample was made up of 96 young adult Australaian
male skateboarders with a mean age of 21.58. 43 were assigned to the male-researcher
condition and 53 were assigned to the female-researcher condition. Participants were asked
to do one ‘easy trick’ and one difficult trick which they could successfully complete
approximately 50% of the time. They were asked to do each trick 10 times. Each attempt at
the trick was marked as a success, anaorted attempt or a crash landing. Saliva samples were
collected to measure testosterone. The researchers found that when the participants did
their tricks in front of the female researcher, they took greater ríks on the difficult tricks.
They aborted tricks less and their testosterone levels were higher. From this study, it can be
seen that testosterone may cause men to take greater physical risks when in the presence of
a woman. This study may support evolutionary theory as risk-taking is used as a sign for
potential mates to show that the male is healthy and strong. In other words, he is ale to
produce and protect his offspring. A limitation of the study would be the ethical issue of
deception, as the participants didn’t know they were being tested for their human mating
behavior. It is possible that if they had known this was the case, they would be embarrassed.

● The design was a repeated measures design. Order effects - such as fatigue -
could have influenced the findings. It was also an independent samples design in
that some had a female in the second set and some had a male researcher.
● The tricks that were tried in both groups cannot be standardized for "difficulty."
This questions the validity of the measure of "aborted tries" as I sign of
risk-taking.
● Although this could potentially be an example of intrasexual selection, it is
difficult to establish that reproduction is actually the goal of the behaviour.
Another study that looks at the evolutionary argument for the human mating ehavior
is by Wedekind (1995). The aim of the study was to determine whether one's MHC (major
histocompatibility complex) would affect mate choice. The MHC is a group of proteins that
let the immune system recognize different pathogens. It is argued that when the MHC genes
of parents are diverse, the offspring will have a stronger immune system and that the way we
smell is a sign of our MHC. The sample was made up of 49 female and 44 male students.
Each participant was “typed” for their MHC, and a wide variance of MHC was included in the
sample. The men were asked to wear a T-shirt for two nights and to keep the T-shirt in an
open plastic bag during the day. They were given perfume-free detergent to wash clothes
and bedclothes and perfume-free soap for showering. After the two days, the women in the
study were asked to rank the smell of 7 t-shirts, three of which contained t-shirts from men
with similar MHC as the woman, three that were different, and one that was unworn. They
ranked the smell for intensity, and ‘sexiness’ (on a scale of 0-10). The researchers found that
the women scored the t-shirt of a male with a different MHC than their own higher than
when the MHC was similar. The study shows that MHC may influence human mate choice,
which can support the argument of sexual selection as we are looking to produce the most
healthy offspring. A strength of this study is that the variable of MHC was isolated
completely. There were extensive measures taken to ensure that the only the only variable
tested was the smell of the MHC on the t-shirt. This means that the study has high internal
validity. A limitation would be that while the variable was isolated, it is not a good
representation of how a mate is found - women do not go around smelling shirts in boxes.

The study has been successfully replicated by Jacob et al (2002). Yamazaki et al. (1976)
showed this to be the case for male mice, which show a preference for females of different
MHC.

Research shows that couples who suffer from repeated miscarriages often share a higher
proportion of their MHC than control couples in many different populations (Beer et al.
1985). Also, newborn babies of such couples often have a reduced birth mass
(Reznikoff-Etievant et al. 1991). So the ability to detect MHC could play a key role in a
woman’s search for the “best mate.” Of course, such a “decision” is not a conscious one.

In spite of all the evidence, there are some that argue that the theory is too reductionist –
that is, it over-simplifies the behaviour of human mate selection by bringing it down to the
MHC – ignoring cognitive and socio-cultural factors.

The design of the study was a double-blind experiment. This means that neither the
researchers nor the participants were aware of which t-shirt they were being exposed to at
any point in the study. This was done in order to minimize demand characteristics.

The study also met ethical standards as consent was obtained from all participants and they
were debriefed. The sample, however, may not be considered representative as the
participants were similar in age and culture.

The aim of Buss (1989) was to support the idea that men look for fertile women, and
women look for men that can support their offspring. The study used 37 samples taken from
33 countries with more than 10 000 participants with a mean age of 23.05. Researchers gave
them a questionnaire to complete. They found that men thought youth was highly important
in a mate, and for women, maturity and higher social status was important. This can show
that men want to maximize the potential for fertilization, which can come from younger
women. And women want to ensure the likelihood of reproduction and having a healthy
offspring through financial help and resources that can come from a higher social status. The
results of this study explain the human mating behaviour as looking for the most optimal
mating partner to reproduce a healthy offspring, which can be argued to be sexual selection.
A strength of this study is the huge sample size of 10,000, this can ensure more reliability in
the findings. In addition, the study was cross-cultural. A limitation would be that it was in the
form of a questionnaire, meaning that the participants could have displayed demand
characteristics in order to look better in front of the researchers.

The argument of sexual selection for the human mating behaviour can be supported
through the studies by Ronay and von Hipper, Wedekind, and Buss. This evolutionary
argument, however, does have its limitations. The evolutionary theory of sexual selection is
based on the assumption that behaviours are genetically inherited. In actuality, it is not yet
know to what extent human behaviours are actually inherited. In addition, it is hard to test
human mating behaviour as there may be cultural influences or different ways humans have
learned to find mates. The sexual selection theory assumes that a sexual partner is found for
the sole reason of reproducing. Research in this theory also lacks ecological validity. As
mentioned before with the study by Wedekind, it is highly unlikely a woman will find a mate
through the act of smelling shirts and rating their smell. Also, the study by Buss can be seen
as lacking ecological validity as the participants were given questionnaires which may be
more what the person "thinks" they would do, rather than their actual behaviour.
Experiments in this theory also may cause researchers to be susceptible to confirmation bias,
as they see what they expect to see. An example of this would be in the study by Buss as it’s
original aim was to support an already developed claim. A strength of this theory, however,
would be its generalizability. Through these studies, it is clear that the sexual selection
evolution argument can explain human mating behaviour, as humans look for mates that will
allow for reproduction and healthy offsprings.
 Ethics considerations in the role of genetics
At the biological level of analysis of psychology, it is assumed that research into
genetics show that genetics can potentially influence behaviour and can eventually reveal
the causes of psychological disorders such as depression or other negative behaviours.
Therefore, all the genetics research that has been conducted did provide us with insight on
how genetics can cause depression. However, with all the genetic research must meet ethical
standards. Ethics must be considered to ensure participants are not harmed and that the
research conducted is ethically valid.

There are several ethical considerations such as informed consent and protect from
harm and confidentiality. Informed consent is where before the research begins, participants
must be told about the nature of the study and agree to participate. They need to know that
they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Participants must understand
what the research is about and any potential issues that may arise. Protect from harm is then
where researchers must ensure participants should be protected from harm, either
physical/psychological. Finally, confidentiality is where the participants and data gained from
the experiment should be kept anonymous. No one from outside the experiment should be
able to identify any participants from the result.

In the study that was conducted by Caspi was trying to find out the role of the 5-HTT
gene and whether it's linked to a higher or lower risk of developing depression in an
individual from the response to stressful life events.
Caspi used an opportunity sample from a cohort of 847 New Zealand participants that are
26-year-olds. This experiment is a longitudinal study, all the participants then were split into
three groups using genetic mapping based on their 5-HTT alleles. Group 1 participants had
both short alleles of 5-HTT (s/s). Group 2 has one short and one long allele (s/l). Group 3 had
both long alleles (l/l). The participants were then asked to fill in a stressful life events
questionnaire, which asked them about the frequency of 14 different events, including
employment, health and relationship. The results show that the participants who had one or
two short alleles of 5-HTT (s/l or s/s) tend to react to stressful life events with more
depressive symptoms than other two groups. Participants with two long alleles reported
fewer depression symptoms.

In conclusion, the study shows that the 5-HTT gene is responsible for modulating an
individual’s depression. However, the participants who participated in this study may have
feared after they were given the results, which may onset the development of depression. As
they have not been informed consent, participants have not fully understood the aim of the
experiment. They may also have self-fulfilling prophecies and experience the symptoms they
expect to experience. If this occurs, this will result in mental harm and potentially physical
harm because of the side effects of depression. Showing the participant has not been protect
from harm. Furthermore, the result is also not being confidential, as other people may not
wish to be around individuals with a genetic predisposition for a disorder or disease. As
participants may be stigmatized due to their genetic predisposition for major depression.

In another study that is carried out by Nurnberger and Gershon also aims to show
there is a correlation between genes and depression. The study was a meta-analysis of 7
studies that compared the concordance rates for depression in MZ twins (share 100% of
their genes) and DZ twins (share 50% of their genes). By combining the results of the 7
studies, the overall finding shows that the concordance rate of depression for MZ twins was
65%, while it was only 14% for DZ twins. Therefore, we can conclude that identical (MZ)
twins have a higher chance of developing depression compared to fraternal (DZ) twins.

However, the study did not deliver a clear understanding of the true aim and purpose of the
experiment. They should be given informed consent to show that they have a clear
understanding of the true aims and nature of the study they are participating in, and the
implications, including potential harm. Furthermore, If one MZT has depression, their twin
may express the self-fulfilling prophecy and demonstrate symptoms of depression as well.
This can then develop psychological harm.

In conclusion, although genetic research is helping us to better understand the origins of

behaviour, researchers should always address ethical considerations. As they have the right
to understand the aim of the experiment and potential risks. Failure to do so will make
people less likely to participate in research as there may be a potential risk of being harmed.

Discuss the role of Pheromones in human behavior

Pheromones are chemical messengers that are produced and secreted outside of the
body into the environment which could change the behavior of another human or animal.
Which can be used to communicate information from one member of a species to another.
There are mainly two types of pheromones, primer pheromones cause a slow or long-term
psychological change to other animals. Signally pheromones will cause a rapid behavioral
change in other animals, such as mating. In human, the main pheromones that has been
study is the sex pheromones, which play a role in detecting gender and signaling mate
attraction. Remarkably, the two studies of Zhou and Wedekind on the role of pheromones
Androstadienone (AND) and MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) on human mating
behavior.

Wedekind’s experiment aims to investigate to what extent MHC alleles – co-dominant

gene inherited from both of our parents that is responsible for our immune system play a
role in mating behavior. He hypothesizes that to maximize the immune system of her child,
women would pick a mating partner that has a different “smell” from theirs. The “smell” is
argued to be based on our MHC. The participants are students. The men are asked to wear a
t-shirt to sleep and avoid activities that would change their natural smell. The women are
asked to smell the shirts and rated based on their “pleasantness. The result shows that
women rated shirts worn by men with different MHC from theirs higher meaning more
pleasant. The researchers concluded that MHC influences sexual attraction.

The study does support the role of pheromone in human mating behavior. The study
is also successfully replicated by Jacob et al (2002) which increases its reliability. Result’s
validity is also increased as the confounding variables are well-controlled. Male participants
wore the T-shirts without using perfume and avoiding activities that would change their
natural smell such as smoking or alcohol. However, it can be said that the theory is too
reductionist as human mating behavior is simplified to be influenced by MHC, ignoring the
effect of other cognitive and socio-cultural factors. Measuring “pleasantness” of the smell
does not directly link to mating behavior of initiating sexual behavior, as would be expected
with pheromones. Data collected is also qualitative and self-reported which lowers study’s
validity as there may be bias.

In a lab experiment that was conducted by Zhou wants to find out the impact of
androstadienone and estratetraenol on heterosexual and homosexual men and women.
Androstadienone（AND）is a chemical component of sweat and derivative of testosterone.
Estratetraenol (EST) is the female equivalent of this pheromone. In this experiment, there are
4 groups of health, non-somker participant: heterosexual men and women, homosexual men
and women. The participants were asked to view a walking human shape known as the
“point light marker”. The gender of the human shape is unknown, it did not show if it's male
or female clearly. The participants are then asked to identify the gender of human shape. The
participants were asked to perform the task on three consecutive days, each time the
participants are being continuously exposed to either androstadienone, estratetraenol or the
control solution.

The study does support the role of pheromone in human mating behavior. As Zhou’s
study is a lab experiment, the IV was manipulated allowing the cause-effect relationship to
be established. Thus, AND and EST does have an effect on human mating behavior. The study
is also counter-balanced to control order effects as data is collected from different groups
based on gender and sexuality. This increases the study’s validity. However, Hare et al failed
to replicated the study with results showing exposure to such pheromone has no significant
effect on sexual attraction. This reduces the study’s reliability. Another limitation is that the
study is artificial and therefore has low ecological validity. The dose of AND used is much
higher than what is seen in human males. This means that although Zhou's study determined
a significant effect, it is unlikely that this represents actual human behavior.
 Discuss how Genetic similarities help psychologists in the study of genes and
behavior

Human mating behavior is influenced by cognitive and socio-cultural factors such as

learned experience or social norms. Hence, the theory that sexual attraction relies solely on
pheromone is rather reductionist. Humans do not appear to have a functional VNO which
other animals use to detect pheromones. The human process of scent detection is very
complex and difficult to study. The human scent is complex and made up of many different
molecules. Thus, it is further a reductionist theory to examine pheromone’s role using smell.
Psychologists will likely continue to debate the presence of human pheromones, but if there
are human pheromones, it is highly likely that their effects are far less significant comparing
to animal pheromones.Genetic similarities refer to the relatedness of PPs (the percent of
genetic similarity between people). Researchers often use genetic similarities as a way of
researching heritability (the percent of the trait for which genetics is responsible for) of a
certain trait. This is done through studies such as family studies - looking at entire families
and their similar/different behaviors and twin studies - analyzing similar/different behaviors
of monozygotic (MZ) twins (twins from the same fertilized egg that was split, sharing 100% of
their genes), and dizygotic (DZ) twins ( twins from 2 different eggs fertilized at the same time
and share 50% of their DNA like regular siblings). Scientists use the fact that these PPS have
genetic similarities as a way to see how heritible a trait is: if more genetically similar
participants (ie. MZ twins or siblings) are more likely to share the same characteristics than
less genetically similar participants (ie. DZ twins or cousins), researchers can infer that
genetics are highly responsible for those characteristics. This introduces a concordance rate
of behaviors: the probability that both PPs will have the same trait. However, as most of
these studies are conducted through families, it is often difficult to understand if higher
concordance rates are occuring due to similarity in genes, or similarity in environment,
making it more difficult to establish definitive quantitative measures of heritability of a trait.
An example of this situation would be the heritability of depression. Researchers have
been trying to pinpoint just how important genes are in increasing/decreasing risk of
depression. This is because according to the Diathesis Stress Model, both environmental and
genetic factors play a role in it and it is hard to understand if two people are depressed
because they have similar genes/similar stressful environments.
Kendler et al. uses a twin study to assess this phenomenon, as both DZ and MZ twins
usually share the same environments, but have different degrees of relatedness. Hence, if
MZ twins share a higher degree of concordance rates, researchers could assume that there is
a high degree of heritability in depression. To do this they used over 42000 same-sex twins
born in the same 32 year gap, and sent them an 18 item shortened Eysneck Personality
inventory questionnaire. The study then conducted phone interviews called Composite
International Diagnostic Interviews (CIDI) which determined the depression of these twins.
This interview also included an opt out option for PPs on the “are you sad” question that are
on antidepressants, by making the assumption that they had a history of depression and
were now feeling better due to medication. Additionally, the interview included asking twins
how long they lived together and how often did they meet. The zygosity of the twins was
also self-reported. The results showed that MZ twins had 44% concordance rate in females
and a little less in males, while DZ twins had a 16% concordance rate and a little less in
males. It was also shown that the amount of time twins lived/resided together was
insignificant to the result. This allowed researchers to conclude that the heritability of
depression (behavior) according to the twin model (genetic similarity) was 28%. Meaning the
study concluded that genes could give a vulnerability to depression, however due to the fact
that the MZ twin concordance rate was below 100%, environmental stimuli also played a role
in this behavior.
Although this study compares genetic similarities to depression very clearly, and even
assesses if living together with twins (sharing the same environment) played a role, there are
many flaws to this study that could question its conclusions. Firstly, although the years of
living together was labelled as insignificant, statistically speaking, with such a large sample it
is difficult to establish the degree of importance, hence this judgement may be inaccurate.
Next, researchers must also consider that MZ twins still have a higher degree of similarity in
the environment than DZ twins due to similarities in looks - MZ twins are still usually treated
more similarly and may have similar insecurities than DZ twins which would naturally give
them a higher concordance rate regardless of the genetic similarity. Lastly, it is hard to
account for environmental similarities between 2 people only, and usually larger numbers of
people are required for better understanding of this phenomenon, which is why family
studies are often important to observe too. Family studies in addition may solve the problem
of twin studies’ heritability rates being biased upward, due to the fact that twins in general
share extremely similar environments.
A study that uses family studies is Fernandez et al. This study utilized over 20000
people from primary care practitioner registries. To avoid ascertainment bias (having a
sample population of only people the researcher was expecting), the researchers did not
actively look for PPs with depression nor did they ask PPs to choose relatives with depression
when they were asked to choose at least 1 first degree relative. In fact, PPs were told that the
research was made on the general health of the Scottish population. PPs along with their
family members were given extensive testing using pre-clinic questionnaires and face to face
assessments that assess the emotional state and physiological state of the patient in terms of
depression. 12% of the sample population was diagnosed with depression. Additionally, in a
way to understand environmental similarities between people, the Scottish Index of
Multitude Deprivation (SIMD) was used to evaluate the socioeconomic factors of PPs such as
employment, education, health, etc. The results showed that the heritability of depression is
35% and after acknowledging the environmental similarities from the SIMD test, the percent
was brought down to 28%. This allowed researchers to conclude that there is a possible
genetic vulnerability to depression, however environmental stimuli is very significant even
more so that the twin studies showed.
Although this study attempted to account for some possible environmental
similarities in families such as socioeconomic status, there are still several flows that
question the accuracy of the received % heritability. The SIMD test did not account for all
environmental similarities, as for instance people with depressed relatives could be going to
psychologists more often, or spending time with them more often, and facing stressfuls
situations with their relatives, which researchers did not account for. This could give an
inflated heritability score. Otherwise, this was a highly controlled study that limited many
confounding variables such as expectancy bias and ascertainment bias.
In essence, different levels/types of genetic similarities bring forward different
approaches to understanding heritability of traits like depression. However, the process of
calculating a definitive % heritability is complicated due to the fact that it's hard to
understand the contribution of environmental factors in addition. Hence, the exact level of
heritability of traits is often inconclusive.

Discuss one or more studies of the role of neurotransmission on behaviour.

Neurotransmission is the chemical communication between neurons, passing on impulses.
This is done with the involvement of neurotransmitters – chemical messengers made by the
body, sent between neurons transmitting electrical signals throughout the body. An example
of a neurotransmitter is acetylcholine – an agonist neurotransmitter. Agonist or excitatory
neurotransmitter increases the likelihood of the next neurotransmitter firing whereas
antagonist or inhibitory, in contrast, decrease the likelihood of the next neurotransmitter
firing. Neurotransmission is responsible for correct muscle functioning and also involves in
memory, learning, concentration and attention. Acetylcholine plays a role in consolidating
memory in the hippocampus. Consolidation is the mental process in which short-term
memory (STM) is transferred into long-term memory (LTM). Here, memory is revised and
rehearsed strengthening the neuron connetion due to more electrical signals fired to the
neuron. By recalling the memory over and over again, the same neuron will be able to repeat
easily in the future forming LTM. Two studies examining the role of acetylcholine is Antonova
and Troster.

Antonova aims to determine the role of acetylcholine in formation of spatial memory. The
participants are 20 healthy males, being randomly allocated to one of the two conditions:
injected with either scopolamine blocking the acetylcholine receptors site thus inhibiting
responses or a placebo. The participants are asked to play the “arena task” while brain
activities being scanned using a fMRI. The goal of the game is to navigate around the area
and touch a pole. After they have learned the location of the pole, the screen goes blank to
let the participants actively rehearse the location of the pole. The participants are asked to
use spatial memory get to the pole after being moved to their new starting point. They redo
the experiments after 3-4 weeks. The result shows that when injected with scopolamine,
activation of the hippocampus sharply reduces comparing to when they receive a placebo.

The study supports that acetylcholine can play a key role in the encoding of spatial memory
in human. The study was a repeated measures design which eliminates the effect of
participant variability. Moreover, the study was counter-balanced which means some of the
participants did the scopolamine condition first, and others did the placebo condition first.
This controlled for practice effect. Researcher bias is also controlled as the study is carried
out blindly. The above factors increase the Antonova’s internal validity. A limitation is that
the sample size (20) is small, which then requires the study to be replicated to increases its
reliability.

Troster’s study shows the role of acetylcholine in encoding of memories, but not the retrieval
of LTM. The participants are 13 men being randomly allocated to three conditions: injected
with either a saline solution, a .5 or a .8 mg solution of scopolamine blocking acetylcholine
neurotransmission pathway. They are asked to complete three testes. In the first test, they
are to recall a list of 14 words immediately after reading the list and then after 45 minutes.
The high scopolamine group recalled the least in both conditions. In the second test, a map
of a fake state is given and they are asked to memorize the location of the cities. After one
minute, they are to list the cities and place them in a blank map. Once again, the high
scopolamine group did poorly. Finally, participants are given a test of memories of famous
people and events which result shows no significant difference between the three
conditions. Troster concludes acetylcholine may play a role in the encoding of memory, but
not memory retrieval.
The use of placebo to avoid confounding variables increases the study’s internal validity.
However, since dopamine has side effects, the participants are still aware of which condition
they are in which may create social desirability bias. As the study is a lab experiment where
IV is manipulated, it can establish cause-effect relationship. The tasks has low mundane
realism meaning it is artificial and may not reflect memory encoding on a daily basis in an
uncontrolled environment.

The studies use a reductionist approach to better understand the role of a single
neurotransmitter in memory. This is important because it could actually lead to treatment
for those with dementia or Alzheimer's disease. The effectiveness of such treatment
developed from the studies of neurotransmission is an application of the theory.
Neurotransmission cannot be directly observed in the brain, so researchers use indirect
measures such as fMRIs showing brain activity or the use of antagonists. This means that the
research is based on assumptions that may prove in the future not to be accurate.

Evaluate one or more studies of the neuroplasticity

Brain plasticity also known as neuroplasticity, refers to the brain’s ability to alter or
rearrange the connections between its neurons and provide a path for signals and
information, received by sensory organs to travel for reaching their desired location. The
more often certain paths are used, the more developed the neural network becomes. Result
the change in shape and grow grey matter according to its environmental needs as well as
practice. This has shown the brain's tendency to change and adapt as a result of experience,
trauma or new learning. With the high levels of stimulation and numerous learning
opportunities, it can lead to an increase in the density of neural connections, which then
change the structure of the brain. This can be demonstrated in the study of Maguire et al
(2000) and Draganski et al (2004).

The study of Dranganski et al it is aim to study to see whether learning a new skill
(juggling) would affect the brains of participants, by using random sampling design in a
laboratory experiment. There were 24 volunteers, 21 females and 3 males. All the
participants were non-jugglers at the start of the study and they had an MRI scan at the start
to see the grey matter and brain structure. The participants were allocated into two
conditions, the jugglers and non-jugglers. Participants in the juggler condition have
subsequently spent three months learning a classic juggling routine with three balls and
waiting until they have mastered it. They had a second MRI scan, after the second scan they
had been told to stop juggling and have the third scan after three months. The result has
shown for the first scan has no difference in brain structure for both groups. However, in the
second scan the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter. The third scan
after three months showed the amount of grey matter had decreased.

The result of the study has able to demonstrate the structure of the brain can be
changed through new learning experiences to carry out the essential skills, showing the
relationship between new skills and grey matter. As the experiment is carried out in a lab
environment, it can establish relationship between the IV & DV, due to the precise control of
extraneous and independent variables. This allows cause-and-effect relationships to be
established and eliminate unwanted effects. The research can also be easily replicable,
increasing its reliability.

However, the experiment comes with the limitation that it has very low external
validity due to there being only 21 females and 3 males. A small sample size and the usage of
only 3 males cannot represent the whole general population, as it has outweighed by
females. Reducing its generalized by only showing the feminine view of neuroplasticity.

The study aims to investigate where fully licensed London taxi driver has a difference
structure in hippocampus compared to non-taxi drivers. The study is a natural experiment
using an independent measure with match pairs design. Where the participants consisted of
16 right-handed male London taxi drivers who has at least had their license for 1.5 years.
Who has all passed the knowledge, which is the extensive learning that is required to
become a qualified taxi driver, being able to form a mental map in their brain. They are then
compared to 50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis, which is the control group. In
both groups, their brain has been scanned by MRI where allow to compare the structure of
the brain. The dependent variable was the volume of participant's hippocampi. The result
shows that the posterior hippocampus of London taxi driver was significantly larger
compared to the control group and the anterior hippocampi were significantly smaller.
Moreover, the volume of London taxi driver's right posterior hippocampi shows a correlation
between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. The longer the time they have spent
being a taxi driver, the larger the volume.

The result provides evidence for structural differences between taxi driver
hippocampi and non-drivers. This then suggests that regular and extensive navigation via
spatial memory affects the hippocampus. Which indicated the structure of the brain changes
in response to environmental demand to improve performance.

The strength of the experiment is that it is operated under high controlled

environment by using scanning procedures such as MRI, carefully selected sample, mean age
and the gender of the two groups were the same which removed extraneous variables.
Moreover, it has high ecological validity as researcher simply observes a natural situation
developing as it would naturally develop and is not intervening in any way.
 A major weakness of this study however, is that the participants that were obtained
were only males. This has low external validity, as to be able to generalise the finding of this
study, an equal amount of Males and Females are needed to represent the population of
London. As all males are used, the results would not be of accurate representation of female
taxi drivers, as females have different neurological brain structures to men. If these results
the used, it would be of assumption that brain structure of Male and Females are the same,
which realistically is not. This is a major drawback of this study. A major weakness of this
study however, is that the participants that were obtained were only males. This has low
external validity, as to be able to generalise the finding of this study, an equal amount
ofMales and Females are needed to represent the population of London. As all males are
used, the results would not be of accurate representation of female taxi drivers, as females
have different neurological brain structures to men. If these results the used, it would be of
assumption
that brain structure of Males and Females are the same, which realistically is not. This is a
major drawback for this study
However, the limitation of the experiment is that the participants that were obtained
were only males.This then has led to low external validity, unable to generalise the finding of
this study, as there is an unequalamount of males and females needed to represent the
population of London. Which reduces its accurate representation.

In conclusion, these two studies represent the neuroplastic ability that the brain has
to change its structure based on the environment or stimulus that the person is in. In both
cases, it shows how the brain can change and adapt to its surroundings, and learn new
material – of which is Neuroplasticity.

Discuss one or more studies on the role of genes on behavior

Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent and are
responsible for the development of behavioural characteristic. Many genes will require a set
or number of environmental factors to switch certain genes on or off. One biological theory
of depression is genetic inheritance. Genetic inheritance is the theory that abnormal
behaviour, in this case, depression, can be passed down through genes, hence, partly explain
the behaviour of depression. Psychologists believe that if an individual has a specific
combination of genes, they are more vulnerable to depression. This can be seen in the study
of Caspi et al and Kendler (2005) et al.

In the study of Caspi et al was trying to find out the role of the 5-HTT gene and whether it's
linked to a higher or lower risk of developing depression in an individual from the response
to stressful life events. 5-HTT is a gene that plays a role in the serotonin pathways, which are
involved in controlling mood, emotions, aggression and sleep. Caspi hypothesized that
people who inherit two short versions of the 5-HTT gene are more likely to develop
depression after a stressful life event.

Caspi used an opportunity sample from a cohort of 847 New Zealand participants
that are 26-year-olds. This experiment is a longitudinal study, all the participants then were
split into three groups using genetic mapping based on their 5-HTT alleles. Group 1
participants had both short alleles of 5-HTT (s/s). Group 2 has one short and one long allele
(s/l). Group 3 had both long alleles (l/l). The participants were then asked to fill in a stressful
life events questionnaire, which asked them about the frequency of 14 different events,
including employment, health and relationship. The results show that the participants who
had one or two short alleles of 5-HTT (s/l or s/s) tend to react to stressful life events with
more depressive symptoms than the other two groups. Participants with two long alleles
reported fewer depression symptoms.

Therefore, we can conclude that the case study shows that the 5-HTT gene is
responsible for modulating an individual’s depression. Participants with short alleles will be
more likely to suffer from depression however the long alleles seem to protect against
suffering from depression as a result of stress. This then supports the idea that there is an
interaction between genetics and depression.

The strength of the study is that it has a very large cohort of males and females, and
the age was controlled in order to isolate the variable of a number of stressful life events
between the ages of 21 and 26, which removed extraneous variables and increase its
generalizability of population and accuracy. Moreover, it was a natural experiment, with the
naturally occurring IV being the length of the alleles, leading to high reliabilityand high
ecologically.

However, the large same also acts as a limitation as such the large part of the
population carries the mutated 5-HTT gene, it is hard to conclude that the gene is a
significant factor in depression. This study only establishes a correlation between the short
5-HTT allele and depression, but not the cause-and-effect relationship. Moreover, the
symptoms of depression were self-reported, the result then may not be entirely reliable.
Furthermore, there’s no evidence against that it could be the stressful events that made
people depressed. Affecting the reliability of the result.

A twin study done by Kendler aims to investigate the heritability of depression in

identical (MZ) twins thatshare 100% of their genes and fraternal (DZ) twins that share 50% of
their DNA by using quasi-experiment and twin studies. There were 42000 twins from Sweden
and participants were interviewed to determine the level of heritability of depression
through the diagnosis of DSM-IV. A personal computer-assisted phone interview was
conducted with all participants and efforts were made to reach both members of a pair
within one month. The results showed that MZ twins had 44% concordance rate in females
and a little less in males, while DZ twins had a 16% concordance rate and a little less in
males.

The result allowed Kendler to conclude that the heritability of depression (behavior)
according to the twin model (genetic similarity) was 38%. This means the study concluded
that depression is somewhat heritable, however since the MZ twin concordance rate was
below 100%, which shows that genetics don’t play as large of a role in depression, however
environmental stimuli and stress also played a role in this behavior.

The study is carried out in a very large sample size taken from a single population
which helps to strengthen the reliability of the findings. Furthermore, it also adherence to
the ethical guidelines.

The study is correlational, therefore, there’s no cause-and-effect relationship can be

determined. As there’s no particular genes were isolated and tested in the study. Information
about life-events and depressive symptoms was self-reported, which again can affect the
reliability of the result as problems could arise if men are less reliable in their reporting of
lifetime major depression than women.

In conclusion, both studies have demonstrated how genetic can influence the
behavior of developing depression. Caspi has concluded that participants with short alleles
will be more likely to develop depression which affect their behaviors. Where Kendler has
concluded that the heritability of depression can be developed between twins due to their
genetic similarity.

Discuss the role of on eor more studies of the role of neurotransmission on

behavior

Neurotransmission is the chemical communication between neurons, passing on

impulses. This is done with the involvement of neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
made by the body, sent between neurons transmitting electrical signals throughout the body.
An example of a neurotransmitter is acetylcholine – an agonist neurotransmitter. Agonist or
excitatory neurotransmitter increases the likelihood of the next neurotransmitter firing
whereas antagonist or inhibitory, in contrast, decrease the likelihood of the next
neurotransmitter firing. Neurotransmission is responsible for correct muscle functioning and
also involves in memory, learning, concentration and attention. Acetylcholine plays a role in
consolidating memory in the hippocampus. Consolidation is the mental process in which
short-term memory (STM) is transferred into long-term memory (LTM). Here, memory is
revised and rehearsed strengthening the neuron connetion due to more electrical signals
fired to the neuron. By recalling the memory over and over again, the same neuron will be
able to repeat easily in the future forming LTM. Two studies examining the role of
acetylcholine is Antonova and Troster.

Antonova aims to determine the role of acetylcholine in formation of spatial memory.

The participants are 20 healthy males, being randomly allocated to one of the two
conditions: injected with either scopolamine blocking the acetylcholine receptors site thus
inhibiting responses or a placebo. The participants are asked to play the “arena task” while
brain activities being scanned using a fMRI. The goal of the game is to navigate around the
area and touch a pole. After they have learned the location of the pole, the screen goes
blank to let the participants actively rehearse the location of the pole. The participants are
asked to use spatial memory get to the pole after being moved to their new starting point.
They redo the experiments after 3-4 weeks. The result shows that when injected with
scopolamine, activation of the hippocampus sharply reduces comparing to when they
receive a placebo.

The study supports that acetylcholine can play a key role in the encoding of spatial
memory in human. The study was a repeated measures design which eliminates the effect of
participant variability. Moreover, the study was counter-balanced which means some of the
participants did the scopolamine condition first, and others did the placebo condition first.
This controlled for practice effect. Researcher bias is also controlled as the study is carried
out blindly. The above factors increase the Antonova’s internal validity. A limitation is that
the sample size (20) is small, which then requires the study to be replicated to increases its
reliability.

Troster’s study shows the role of acetylcholine in encoding of memories, but not the
retrieval of LTM. The participants are 13 men being randomly allocated to three conditions:
injected with either a saline solution, a .5 or a .8 mg solution of scopolamine blocking
acetylcholine neurotransmission pathway. They are asked to complete three testes. In the
first test, they are to recall a list of 14 words immediately after reading the list and then after
45 minutes. The high scopolamine group recalled the least in both conditions. In the second
test, a map of a fake state is given and they are asked to memorize the location of the cities.
After one minute, they are to list the cities and place them in a blank map. Once again, the
high scopolamine group did poorly. Finally, participants are given a test of memories of
famous people and events which result shows no significant difference between the three
conditions. Troster concludes acetylcholine may play a role in the encoding of memory, but
not memory retrieval.
The use of placebo to avoid confounding variables increases the study’s internal validity.
However, since dopamine has side effects, the participants are still aware of which condition
they are in which may create social desirability bias. As the study is a lab experiment where
IV is manipulated, it can establish cause-effect relationship. The tasks has low mundane
realism meaning it is artificial and may not reflect memory encoding on a daily basis in an
uncontrolled environment.

The studies use a reductionist approach to better understand the role of a single
neurotransmitter in memory. This is important because it could actually lead to treatment
for those with dementia or Alzheimer's disease. The effectiveness of such treatment
developed from the studies of neurotransmission is an application of the theory.
Neurotransmission cannot be directly observed in the brain, so researchers use indirect
measures such as fMRIs showing brain activity or the use of antagonists. This means that the
research is based on assumptions that may prove in the future not to be accurate.

Discuss the use of one or more research methods

In biological approach, psychologists intend to investigate certain biological correlates
of behavior. Various methods are then conducted by researchers for collecting and
analysising data, allowing them to discover the cause-and-effect relationship within
biological approach. This essay will discuss Caspi et al (2003) as a natural experiment and
Antonova et al (2011) as a lab experiment.
Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e real-life) environment of the
participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the Independent variable as it
occurs naturally in real life.
One study investigating whether a functional change in the 5-HTTT gene is linked to a
higher or lower risk of depression in an individual was conducted by Caspi et al (2003). 5-HTT
is a serotonin transporter gene, which involved in the reuptake of serotonin and influences
the level of serotonin. The researchers carried out an opportunity sample from a cohort of
participants who were part of another longitudinal study in which they were repeatedly
examined to detect any changes over a period of time. There were 847 participants 26 years
old and they were separated into three different groups using genetic mapping based on
their 5-HTT alleles. The first group consisted of people with 2 short alleles whereas the
second group was those with one short and one long allele. The third group was people with
2 long alleles. People were assessed for depression by completing a questionnaire about
“Stressful life events”. Also, they were asked for an interview to assess symptoms of
depression. After all, the study reported that those who had one or two short alleles of
5-HTT reacted to stressful events with more depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation.
Participants with 2 long alleles were found to have fewer depression symptoms. Therefore,
the 5-HTT gene regulates an individual’s vulnerability to stress but the gene interaction with
stressful events raises a person's risk of developing depression.
 This was a natural experiment, with the naturally occurring IV being the length of the
alleles that cannot be manipulated. One of its strengths is that the real-life issues were
simply observed by the researchers. Having natural settings where such experiments take
place means that results will have ecological validity as it reflects real-life behavior.
Moreover, the participants’ behavior can be generalized. For this method, demand
characteristics are often not a problem since participants might be unaware of being studied.
These experiments even enable the researchers to investigate variables that would not be
practical or ethical to manipulate. However, due to the lack of control over the extraneous
variables (being unable to randomly allocate participation to conditions so sample bias may
be an issue), there are certain limitations. The cause-and-effect relationship between the
independent and dependent variables would be difficult to establish since the researcher is
not manipulating the IV, they will be less certain of the cause of changes in the DV. Also,
ethical issues such as lack of informed consent commonly arise and natural experiment is
expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, the experiment is hardly replicated, as the
controls and standardization are hard to implement, leading its reliability to be lower.

Lab experiment is another research method that is commonly utilized in the

biological approach. A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly
controlled conditions, where accurate measurements are possible. The researcher decides
where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, and in what
circumstances, using a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.

The study by Antonova et al (2011) was an example of using a lab experiment to

discover one effect of one neurotransmitter on a behavior. Antonova wanted to examine the
role of acetylcholine on memory, specifically memory formation so researchers decided to
carry out this experiment. 20 healthy male adults were taking part in a double-blind study in
which they were allocated randomly to one of two conditions: either injected with
scopolamine (a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptor sites) or a placebo. Then, participants
were asked to play a virtual reality game while they were scanned in the fMRI so that their
brain activity could be observed. The goal was to navigate around an “arena” with the aim of
reaching the pole. According to the results, the researchers criticized that those who were
injected with scopolamine, demonstrated a significant reduction in activation of the
hippocampus as they took longer to find the “pole” compared to when they received a
placebo.
Lab experiment is a research method that has tighter control of variables since the
causation can be easily established between the IV & DV, allowing comments on the
cause-and-effect relationship to be made easier. Compared to natural experiments, this
method is relatively easier to replicate as standardized procedure is used, leading to higher
levels of reliability. Although lab experiment is often cheaper, and less time-consumer which
enables the use of complex equipment, it may produce unnatural behavior that does not
reflect real life due to the lab setting, minimizing the factor of ecological validity. Therefore,
the results from lab experiments cannot be used to make generalizations about human
behavior. Lastly, demand characteristics or experimenter effects may produce bias, making
the results become confounding variables.
Conclusively, this essay has discussed research approaches such as lab experiment
and natural experiment by look at research studies of Antonova (2011) and Caspi et al
(2003). Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. While natural experiment can
reflect real-life situations which increase ecological validity levels, researchers have No
control over confounding variables and a Lack of objectivity when measuring abstract terms
can occur. On the lab experiment side, it may have lower ecological validity but replication is
more possible. Thus, it is a combination of these methods applied to various fields of
biological approach that has provided us with most insights of all.