PATHFIT 2: Exercise-Based Fitness

Muscles of the Core

Injuries to the spine tend to come from a combination of bending
forward, side to side or rotating excessively. Back injuries are not
usually linked to one specific incident (lifting something heavy),
but rather to a history or excessive load with bad mechanics. In
order to protect the back, ideally, we want to create 360 degrees
of stiffness around the spine as we move, run, jump, throw, lift
objects and transfer force throughout our body. We do this when
all of the muscles in our hips, torso and shoulders work together.
Having a stable core is important for preventing injuries and also
for enhancing performance in sports and other activities. Don’t
worry about training specific muscles - they are ALL important for
spinal stability. Think instead about how the body moves and how
to challenge the core from bending and twisting too much in any
direction. Having a neutral spine throughout the duration of the
exercises is critical to executing them correctly and safely.
The muscles of the core are built for endurance, not for maximum
strength, so it’s best to increase reps as strength improves.
Finally, working with a fitness professional to help ensure safety
and proper technique is recommended to help develop a core
stability program that will deliver positive results.

Anatomical Directional Terms

“All the muscles in your core work together to allow movement in

different directions, support your spine, and keep your organs in
place,” explains Danyele Wilson, CPT, trainer for the app Tone &
Sculpt. “When all these muscles are strong and working together,
your functional performance improves, along with your balance Anatomical Position: The standard body position is used to
and stability.” In fact, studies show that all types of athletes— describe anatomical directional terms, body planes and sections,
from hockey players to runners—perform better with core training. and anatomy definitions.
A strong core can potentially prevent injuries (particularly to your Finally, right and left refer to the patient’s right and left side as
back), too. Plus, if you're mending a current injury, consistent core indicated by the “R” and “L” below.
work (coupled with regular full-body strength training) is your best
bet at easing back pain, according to research published in In other words…
the Journal of Physical Therapy Science. If you were looking at the patient, then the right side would be on
your left and the left side would be on your right.
What Is the “Core?”
The anatomical position gives us a consistent, universal way of
There are many common misconceptions about the “core” even
discussing anatomy.
among fitness professionals. Most people probably think that the
core is simply the abdominals, aka “6-pack.” However, the core is
much more than that.
Medial vs Lateral
The core is the center of our body and it functions to stabilize the
trunk while the arms and legs move during functional movements. The first pair of directional terms is medial and lateral.
When we view it this way, we see that the core actually includes: To better understand medial and lateral, let’s divide the body into
 Muscles that stabilize the hips. right and left sections using a sagittal plane.
 The system of muscles that make up the torso (on the
front, the sides, and the back of the body).
 Muscles that stabilize the shoulders.
Why Is the Core so Important?
The core muscles have two main functions
1) to spare the spine from excessive load and
2) to transfer force from the lower body to the upper body and vice
versa. Having a strong, stable core helps us to prevent injuries and
allows us to perform at our best.
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Anatomical Directional Terms: A midsagittal plane through the

midline of the body will be used as our reference point for medial
and lateral.
Medial
If we move toward the midline of the body, then we are moving
medial.
Therefore, medial is defined as “the middle or toward the midline
or middle of the body”.
In other words, we are moving away from the sides and toward the
midline.
This is medial.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Example of medial and lateral using
Medial is easy to remember, simply use the letter “M” to think of the eyes and nose.
“Medial”, “Midline”, and “Middle”.
Examples of Medial and Lateral
Let’s say the woman had 2 freckles on her face as shown on the
image.
You could describe freckle 1 as being lateral to freckle 2.
Or you could say freckle 2 is medial to freckle 1.

Labeled diagram showing medial, defined as toward the midline

or middle of the body.
Lateral
If we move away from the midline of the body, then we are moving
lateral. Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of medial and lateral
using freckles on the face.
Therefore, lateral is defined as “the side or toward the side of the
body”. Examples of Medial and Lateral
In other words, we are moving away from the midline and toward If we go back to our original image, we can see the arms are lateral
the sides. to the torso and the torso is medial to the arms.
Lateral can be remembered by thinking of your “Lats”, which are
the back muscles that stretch to the sides.

Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of medial and lateral

using the torso and arms.
Examples of Medial and Lateral
Labeled diagram showing lateral, defined as toward the side of
the body. We can also use directional terms for internal structures.
Examples of Medial and Lateral For example, the lungs are lateral to the heart and the heart is
medial to the lungs.
Let’s start with some basic examples of medial and lateral.
We can say the nose is medial to the eyes, as the nose is more
toward the midline compared to the eyes.
Or we can say the eyes are lateral to the nose, as the eyes are
more toward the side of the body compared to the nose.
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Summary of Medial and Lateral

Hopefully medial and lateral make more sense now.
Remember medial is toward the midline, and “Medial”, “Midline”,
and “Middle” all start with the letter “M”.
Lateral is toward the side, and the “Lat” muscles stretch toward
the side of the back.

Superior vs Inferior
The next pair of directional terms is superior and inferior.
Rather than dividing the body into right and left sections like we
did above, we will now divide the body into upper and lower
portions using a transverse plane.
You might recall in the previous lecture on body planes that the
transverse plane runs horizontally, and it divides the body into
upper and lower sections.
The transverse line below will be our reference point when
describing superior and inferior.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing inferior,
defined as below or away from the head.
Superior (Cranial) and Inferior (Caudal)
Superior and inferior also go by different names.
Another name for superior is cranial, which makes sense because
we are moving toward the cranium or head.
Another name for inferior is caudal.
Caudal means tail, which makes sense because we are moving
toward the tail away from the head.

Anatomical Directional Terms: A transverse plane will be used as

our reference point for superior and inferior.
Superior
If we move toward the head, then we are moving superior.
Therefore, superior is defined as “above or toward the head”.
You can think of “Superior” and “Skull” which both start with the
letter “S” to help you remember superior is toward the head.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Another name for superior is
cranial, and another name for inferior is caudal.
Examples of Superior and Inferior
Let’s start with some basic examples of superior and inferior using
our same image.
We can say the eyes are superior to the nose, as the eyes are
above the nose.
We can also say the nose is superior to the mouth, as the nose is
above the mouth.
Or we can say the mouth is inferior to the nose, as the mouth is
below the nose.
We can also say the nose is inferior to the eyes, as the nose is
below the eyes.
View fullsize

Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing superior,

defined as above or toward the head.
Inferior
If we move away from the head, then we are moving inferior.
Therefore, inferior is defined as “below or away from the head”.
You can use the “F” in inferior to think of “Floor”, and this can help
you remember inferior is toward the floor.

Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of superior and inferior

using the eyes, nose, and mouth.
PATHFIT 2: Exercise-Based Fitness
Examples of Superior and Inferior
If we go back to our freckle example, we can see freckle 1 is
superior and lateral to freckle 2.
Or we can say freckle 2 is inferior and medial to freckle 1.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of superior and inferior
using freckles on the face.
Examples of Superior and Inferior
If we go back to our original image, we can see the head is superior
to the torso and the torso is inferior to the head.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of superior and inferior
using the head and torso.
Examples of Superior and Inferior
Finally, we can apply these terms to internal structures as well.
For example, the heart is superior to the liver and the liver is
inferior to the heart.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of superior (cranial) and
inferior (caudal) using the heart and liver
Summary of Superior and Inferior
Hopefully that clearly explains superior and inferior.
Remember “Superior” is toward the “Skull”, and they both start
with the letter “S”.
Inferior is toward the “Floor”, and you can use the “F” in inferior to
help you remember this.
Do not forget another name for superior is cranial, and another
name for inferior is caudal.
Summary of Superior, Inferior, Medial, and Lateral
Superior, inferior, medial, and lateral can also be used to describe
different sides of a structure.
Let’s look at the right lung as an example.
The outer border toward the side of the body will be the lateral
aspect of the right lung.
The inner border toward the midline of the body will be the medial
aspect.
The upper portion toward the head will be the superior aspect of
the lung.
Finally, the inferior aspect will be toward the floor away from the
head.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Example labeled diagram of
medial, lateral, superior, and inferior using the right lung.
Anterior vs Posterior
The next pair of directional terms is anterior and posterior.
Rather than dividing the body into right and left sections or upper
and lower sections, we will now divide the body into front and back
portions using a coronal plane.
Remember in the previous lecture on body planes that the coronal
or frontal plane runs vertically side to side, and it divides the body
into front and back sections.
The coronal line below will be our reference point when describing
anterior and posterior.
Anatomical Directional Terms: A coronal (frontal) plane will be
used as our reference point for anterior and posterior.
PATHFIT 2: Exercise-Based Fitness

If we move toward the front of the body, then we are moving

anterior.
Therefore, anterior is defined as “the front or toward the front of
the body”.
If we move toward the back of the body, then we are moving
posterior.
Therefore, posterior is defined as “the back or toward the back of
the body”.
“A” comes before “P” in the alphabet, and this can help you
remember anterior is in the front and posterior is in the back.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of anterior and posterior
using the frontal and occipital lobes of the brain.
Examples of Anterior and Posterior
You could also say the patella (kneecap) is located on the anterior
side of the leg, and the olecranon (elbow) is located on the
posterior side of the arm.

Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram of anterior (front;

toward the front of the body) and posterior (back; toward the back
of the body).
Anterior (Ventral) and Posterior (Dorsal)
Anterior and posterior also go by different names.
Another name for anterior is ventral, and another name for
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of anterior and posterior
posterior is dorsal.
using the patella (kneecap) and olecranon (elbow).
For ventral, you can think of a ventriloquist which literally
Summary of Anterior and Posterior
translates to “stomach talker”.
Hopefully that helped clarify anterior and posterior.
We learned in our medical prefix lecture that the prefix “ventri-”
refers to the stomach, abdomen, or front of the body. Remember “A” comes before “P” in the alphabet, and this can
help you recall anterior is toward the front and posterior is toward
This can help you remember ventral means anterior.
the back.
For dorsal, you can think of the dorsal fin on the back of a fish to
help you remember dorsal means posterior. Do not forget another name for anterior is ventral. Just think of
ventriloquist!
Another name for posterior is dorsal. Just think of a dorsal fin on
a fish!

Proximal vs Distal
The next pair of directional terms is proximal and distal.
Proximal and distal are most commonly used on the extremities
and tubular structures.
Proximal
If we move toward the trunk or point of attachment, then we are
Anatomical Directional Terms: Another name for anterior is moving proximal.
ventral, and another name for posterior is dorsal. Therefore, proximal is defined as “toward the trunk or near the
Examples of Anterior and Posterior point of attachment or origin”.

Let’s review examples of anterior and posterior by looking at a side For proximal, you can think of the word “proximity” which means
(sagittal) view of the brain. near or close.

We can see the frontal lobe is anterior to the occipital lobe, as the
frontal lobe is more toward the front of the body.
We can also see the occipital lobe is posterior to the frontal lobe,
as the occipital lobe is more toward the back of the body.
PATHFIT 2: Exercise-Based Fitness
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing proximal,
defined as toward the trunk or near the origin/point of
attachment.
Distal
If we move away from the trunk or point of attachment, then we
are moving distal.
Therefore, distal is defined as “away from the trunk or far from the
point of attachment or origin”.
For distal, you can think of the word “distant” which means far
away from.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram of distal, defined
as away from the trunk or far from the origin/point of attachment
Examples of Proximal and Distal
Let’s look at some examples of proximal and distal.
The wrist is proximal to the hand, as the wrist is closer to the trunk
than the hand.
The elbow is proximal to the wrist, as the elbow is closer to the
trunk than the wrist.
The shoulder is proximal to the elbow, as the shoulder is closer to
the trunk than the elbow.
Remember proximal means toward or closer to the trunk.
We can also say the elbow is distal to the shoulder, as the elbow
is farther away from the trunk than the shoulder.
The wrist is distal to the elbow, as the wrist is farther away from
the trunk than the elbow.
The hand is distal to the wrist, as the hand is farther away from
the trunk than the wrist.
Remember distal means away from or farther from the trunk.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of proximal and distal
using the arms.
Examples of Proximal and Distal
The same example can be applied to the legs.
The ankle is proximal to the foot, as the ankle is closer to the trunk
than the foot.
The knee is proximal to the ankle, as the knee is closer to the trunk
than the ankle.
The hip is proximal to the knee, as the hip is closer to the trunk
than the knee.
Again proximal means toward or closer to the trunk.
We can also say the knee is distal to the hip, as the knee is farther
away from the trunk than the hip.
The ankle is distal to the knee, as the ankle is farther away from
the trunk than the knee.
The foot is distal to the ankle, as the foot is farther away from the
trunk than the ankle.
Again distal means away from or farther from the trunk.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of proximal and distal
using the legs.
Examples of Proximal and Distal
We also said proximal and distal can be applied to structures.
Let’s use the colon as an example.
The first part of the colon after the cecum (connects the large and
small intestine) is the ascending colon.
The next part is the transverse colon, followed by the descending
colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum.
Therefore, the red star below (on the ascending colon) would be
the proximal end of the colon or large intestine, as it is located at
the point of origin or attachment of the structure.
More specifically, the red star is located at the proximal end of the
ascending colon.
The green star (on the descending colon) is located more distal on
the colon, as it is further away from the point of origin or
attachment of the colon.
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More specifically, the green star is located at the distal end of the
descending colon.

Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing deep,

defined as away from the surface of the body.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of proximal and distal
Examples of Superficial and Deep
using the colon.
Let’s look at examples of superficial and deep.
Summary of Proximal and Distal
The skin is superficial to the ribs, as the skin is closer to the
Hopefully proximal and distal are more clear now.
surface compared to the ribs.
Think of “proximal” and “proximity” to help you remember
The ribs are superficial to the lungs, as the ribs are closer to the
proximal is toward the trunk or point of origin/attachment.
surface of the body compared to the lungs.
Think of “distal” and “distant” to help you remember distal is away
Or you can say the lungs are deep to the ribs, as the lungs are
from the trunk or point of origin/attachment.
farther away from the surface compared to the ribs.
The ribs are deep to the skin, as the ribs are farther away from the
Superficial vs Deep surface of the body compared to the skin.

The next pair of directional terms is superficial and deep.

Superficial
If we move closer to the surface of the body, then we are moving
superficial.
Therefore, superficial is defined as “closer to the surface”.
“Superficial” and “Surface” both start with the letter “S” which
makes it easy to remember.

Anatomical Directional Terms: Examples of superficial and deep

Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing
superficial, defined as closer to the surface of the body.
Deep
If we move away from the surface of the body, then we are moving
deep.
Therefore, deep is defined as “away from the surface of the
body”.
The term is self-explanatory as we are moving deeper into the
body.
using the skin, ribs, and lungs.
Summary of Superficial and Deep
Hopefully superficial and deep are easy to remember.
Superficial means closer to the surface of the body, and
“Superficial” and “Surface” both start with the letter “S”.
Deep means away from the surface of the body, and you are
moving “deeper” into the body.
Unilateral vs Bilateral
Next we have unilateral and bilateral.
Unilateral
Unilateral involves one side of the body.
For example, a patient could have a rash involving the right arm
only as depicted by the star below.
The rash would be described as a unilateral rash involving the
right upper extremity.
You might recall from the medical prefix lecture that “uni-” means
one or single, which will help you remember unilateral involves
one side of the body.
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We know from above that lateral means “side or to the side”, so
unilateral literally translates to “one side”.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing
unilateral, defined as involving one side of the body.
Bilateral
Bilateral involves both sides of the body.
Now let’s say the patient has a rash involving both arms as
depicted by the 2 stars below.
The rash would be described as a rash involving the bilateral
upper extremities.
We learned in the medical prefix lecture that “bi-” means two or
double, which will help you remember bilateral involves both sides
of the body.
We know from above that lateral means “side or to the side”, so
bilateral literally translates to “two sides”.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing bilateral,
defined as involving both sides of the body.
Ipsilateral vs Contralateral
Finally, we have ipsilateral and contralateral.
Ipsilateral
Ipsilateral is defined as “on the same side of the body”.
For example, if a patient presents after a car accident with a
laceration and an abrasion on their right arm as depicted by the 2
stars below, then those injuries are ipsilateral to one another.
You might recall from the medical prefix lecture that “ipsi-” means
same, which will help you remember ipsilateral means the same
side of the body.
We know from above that lateral means “side or to the side”, so
ipsilateral literally translates to “same side”.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing
ipsilateral, defined as on the same side of the body.
Contralateral
Contralateral is defined as “on opposite sides of the body”.
For example, if a patient presents after a car accident with a
laceration on their right arm and an abrasion on their left arm,
then those injuries are contralateral to each other.
We learned in the medical prefix lecture that “contra-” means
opposite, which will help you remember contralateral means on
opposite sides of the body.
We know from above that lateral means “side or to the side”, so
contralateral literally translates to “opposite sides”.
Anatomical Directional Terms: Labeled diagram showing
contralateral, defined as on opposite sides of the body.
ody Planes and Sections
Now that we understand the anatomical position, let’s talk about
the different planes of the body.
The terms body planes and sections are often used
interchangeably, but they actually have different definitions.
Let’s review these terms.
What Are Body Planes?
Body planes are imaginary lines drawn through an upright body
that is in anatomical position.
The major planes or imaginary lines run vertically or horizontally.
(There are also oblique planes that can run at an angle - more on
this later).
The planes divide the body into different sections or portions.
For example, the planes might divide the body into right and left
sections, upper and lower sections, or front and back sections
depending on the direction of the cut.
The body planes provide different views or sections of the body,
which then allows us to describe the location or direction of
anatomical structures or features.
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What Are Body Sections?

Now that we know what body planes are, how about body
sections?
Well, we hinted to it above.
Sections are the portions or slices of the body created by the cut
through the plane.
So again that could be right and left sections, upper and lower
sections, or front and back sections depending on which plane the
cut was made.
Sections allow us to look at different views of the body depending
on the direction of the cut. EASY TRICK: Remember the 3 major body planes and sections
Simple Recap: The plane is the imaginary line, while the section is using the acronym or abbreviation “SCT” which stands for Sagittal,
the portion or slice of the body created by the cut down the plane. Coronal, and Transverse.

Definition of Body Planes and Sections: Planes are imaginary lines
that create sections or slices of the body when a cut is made down
that plane.
Types of Body Planes
There are 3 main body planes - sagittal, coronal, and transverse.
Oblique and longitudinal planes are minor planes discussed at the
end.
A simple trick to remember the 3 major body planes is to take the
word section, since we are discussing body planes and sections,
and abbreviate it “SCT”.
This will help you remember Sagittal, Coronal, and Transverse.
Section = “SCT”
1. S = Sagittal Plane (Vertical)
2. C = Coronal Plane (Vertical)
3. T = Transverse Plane (Horizontal)
The sagittal plane is the green line labeled “S” on the image below,
the coronal plane is the blue line labeled “C”, and the transverse
plane is the yellow line labeled “T”.
If we use the abbreviation SCT, you can also remember the first 2
planes are vertical (sagittal and coronal), and the last plane is
horizontal (transverse).
Let’s discuss each plane starting with the sagittal plane.
Sagittal Plane
As mentioned above, the sagittal plane is one of the vertical
planes.
The imaginary line runs from top to bottom, and front to back.
The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left sections.
The midsagittal plane is the specific sagittal plane that runs
exactly through the midline of the body, and it divides the body
into equal right and left portions.
The midsagittal plane is also referred to as the median plane.
Mid, median, and middle all start with the letter “M”.
This can help you remember the “Midsagittal” plane runs down
the “Middle” or “Midline” of the body.
A parasagittal plane is any of the sagittal planes off-center, and it
divides the body into unequal right and left portions.
Parasagittal planes run parallel or alongside the midsagittal plane
but are not in the midline.
Remember in our medical prefix lecture we said the prefix “para-
” means alongside, beside, or nearby.
So it makes sense that the parasagittal plane is a sagittal plane
that runs alongside the midsagittal plane.
Sagittal Plane: The sagittal plane runs vertically from top to bottom
and front to back, and divides the body into right and left sections.
An easy trick to remember which plane is the sagittal plane is to
think of “Sagittal” and “Side View”.
Both sagittal and side view start with the letter “S”.
When a cut is made through the sagittal plane, a side view of the
body is created.
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EASY TRICK: Remember “Sagittal” and “Side View” both start with
the letter “S”. A cut through the sagittal plane will create a side
view of the body.
Let’s look at examples to make sure we understand sagittal
planes.
If we make a cut through the midsagittal plane of the man below
and we spin the right and left sections that we just cut, then we
are left with a side view of the body.
In other words, we are left with sagittal sections created by cuts
along the sagittal plane.
You might also remember from our cranial bone and suture
lecture that there is a suture called the sagittal suture.
The sagittal suture gets its name because it runs from front to
back in the sagittal plane.
It is where the right and left parietal bones of the skull meet.
So this could help you remember the sagittal plane as well.
Sagittal Section: A sagittal section is created when a cut is made
down the sagittal plane, providing a side view of the body.
Coronal (Frontal) Plane
Next we have the coronal plane.
Remember the coronal plane was the “C” in our abbreviation
“SCT”, which helps us remember the 3 major planes of the body.
The coronal plane is also called the frontal plane.
As mentioned above, the coronal plane is a vertical plane as well.
The imaginary line runs from top to bottom, and right to left.
The coronal plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back
(posterior) sections.
An easy trick to remember the frontal plane is to again use the
name.
The “Frontal” plane will give you a “Front View” of the body as it
divides the body into front and back portions.
Remember the “Sagittal” plane will give you a “Side View” of the
Coronal Plane: A coronal plane runs vertically from top to bottom
and right to left, and divides the body into front (anterior) and back
(posterior) sections.
You might also remember from our lecture on cranial bones and
sutures that there is a suture called the coronal suture.
The coronal suture gets its name because it runs from right to left
in the coronal plane.
It is where the frontal and parietal bones of the skull meet.
So this could help you remember the coronal plane as well.
Coronal Section: Use the coronal suture to remember a coronal
section is created when a cut is made through the coronal plane,
providing a front/back view of the body.
Transverse (Axial/Horizontal) Plane
Finally, we have the transverse plane.
Remember the transverse plane was the “T” in our abbreviation
“SCT”, which helps us remember the 3 major planes of the body.
The transverse plane is also called the axial plane or horizontal
plane, which makes sense because it is a horizontal line.
The imaginary line runs from right to left, and front to back.
You can use the “X” in axial to help you remember the transverse
plane travels along the “X-axis”, which is the horizontal axis.
The transverse plane is the only horizontal plane, and it divides
the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) sections.
An easy trick to remember the transverse plane is to again use the
name.
The “Transverse” plane will give you a “Top View” of the body as it
divides the body into upper and lower portions.
And just to review, the “Frontal” plane will give you a “Front View”
of the body, and the “Sagittal” plane will give you a “Side View” of
the body.
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Transverse Plane: A transverse plane runs horizontally from right
to left and front to back, and divides the body into top (superior)
and bottom (inferior) sections.
Here are a few more tricks to remember the transverse plane.
If the body is divided into a top and bottom section using a
transverse plane, then you will be left with an upper body shaped
like a “T” and a lower body shaped like an upside down “V”.
The “T” and “V” can help you remember the word transverse.
We also learned in our medical prefix lecture that the prefix “trans-
” means across or through.
Finally, we said the transverse plane is also called the horizontal
plane.
You can think of the horizon with horizontal plane, and this can
help you remember it travels across.
Longitudinal Planes: Any plane perpendicular to the transverse
plane. Coronal and sagittal planes are examples of longitudinal
planes.
Oblique Planes
Finally, a plane can be oblique.
An oblique plane is any plane that is not horizontal or vertical.
In other words, an oblique plane is any plane that is not in any of
the sagittal, coronal, or transverse planes.
Oblique planes can run at any angle through the body as long as
they are not horizontal or vertical, as that would mean they are
one of the other major planes.
You can think of the oblique muscles that travel at an angle to
help you remember oblique planes.
Or you can think of “Oblique” and “Odd”, which both start with the
letter “O”, to help you remember oblique planes are odd and travel
at strange angles.

Transverse Section: A transverse section is created when a cut is

made down the transverse plane, providing a top/bottom view of
the body. Use the tricks above to remember the transverse plane.

Oblique Planes: Any plane that is not horizontal or vertical, i.e. not
Longitudinal Planes
in any of the sagittal, coronal, or transverse planes. Oblique
There are a couple other planes to discuss - longitudinal and planes run at angles.
oblique.
References:
A longitudinal plane is any plane that is perpendicular to the
https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/anatomical-position-and-
transverse plane.
directional-terms
We can see in our diagram below the sagittal and coronal planes
https://www.ezmedlearning.com/anatomical-position-body-
run perpendicular to the transverse plane.
planes-sections
Therefore, both the coronal and sagittal planes are examples of
longitudinal planes.
A simple trick to remember longitudinal planes is to think of the
globe’s longitudinal lines that run up and down.
This can help you remember the longitudinal planes run vertically
or perpendicular to the transverse plane.

Body Movements
PATHFIT 2: Exercise-Based Fitness

There are general anatomical terms that can be used to describe

most movements the body makes. Most terms have a clear
opposite, and so are treated in pairs. These pairs include:
 flexion - extension
 abduction - adduction
 circumduction (no opposite)
 elevation - depression
 internal/medial rotation - external/lateral rotation
 dorsiflexion - plantar flexion
 pronation - supination
 inversion - eversion
 protrusion/protraction - retrusion/retraction
 opposition - reposition
Flexion & Extension
Flexion and extension describe movements that affect the angle
between two parts of the body. Flexion describes a bending
movement that decreases the angle between a segment and its
proximal segment. Extension is the opposite of flexion, describing
a straightening movement that increases the angle between body
parts
Circumduction
Circumduction refers to a conical movement of a body part, such
as a ball and socket joint or the eye. Circumduction is a
combination of flexion, extension, adduction and abduction.
Circumduction can be best performed at ball and socket joints,
such as the hip and shoulder, but may also be performed by other
parts of the body such as fingers, hands, feet, and head.

Abduction & Adduction

Abduction is the motion of a structure away from the midline
while adduction refers to motion towards the center of the body.
The center of the body is defined as the midsagittal plane. These
terms come from Latin words with similar meanings, ab- being the
Latin prefix indicating "away," ad- indicating "toward," and ducere
meaning "to draw or pull" (cf. English words "duct," "conduct,"
"induction"). Abduction refers to a motion that pulls a structure or
part away from the midline of the body. In the case of fingers and
toes, it refers to spreading the digits apart, away from the
centerline of the hand or foot. Adduction refers to a motion that
pulls a structure or part toward the midline of the body, or towards
the midline of a limb.

Elevation & Depression

The terms elevation and depression refer to movement above
and below the horizontal. Elevation refers to movement in a
superior direction. Depression refers to movement in an inferior
direction, the opposite of elevation.
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Internal/Medial Rotation & External/Lateral Rotation
Rotation of body parts is referred to as internal or external,
referring to rotation towards or away from the center of the
body. Internal rotation (or medial rotation) refers to rotation
towards the axis of the body. External rotation (or lateral rotation)
refers to rotation away from the center of the body.
Dorsiflexion & Plantar Flexion
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion refer to extension or flexion of the
foot at the ankle. These terms refer to flexion in direction of the
"back" of the foot, dorsum pedi, which is the upper surface of the
foot when standing, and flexion in direction of the sole of the foot,
plantar pedi. These terms are used to resolve confusion, as
technically extension of the joint refers to dorsiflexion, which could
be considered counter-intuitive as the motion reduces the angle
between the foot and the leg. Dorsiflexion is where the toes are
brought closer to the shin. This decreases the angle between the
dorsum of the foot and the leg. Plantar flexion or plantarflexion is
the movement which decreases the angle between the sole of the
foot and the back of the leg.
Attributions
 "Anatomy and Physiology" by J. Gordon Betts et
al., OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
 "Anatomy and Physiology I Lab" by Victoria Vidal is
licensed under CC BY 4.0
Pronation & Supination
Pronation and supination refer most generally to
assuming prone or supine positions, but often they are used in a
specific sense referring to rotation of the forearm or foot so that
in the standard anatomical position the palm or sole is facing
anteriorly (supination) or posteriorly (pronation). Pronation at the
forearm is a rotational movement where the hand and upper arm
are turned inwards. Pronation of the foot refers to turning of the
sole outwards, so that weight is borne on the medial part of the
foot. Supination of the forearm occurs when the forearm or palm
are rotated outwards. Supination of the foot refers to turning of
the sole of the foot inwards, shifting weight to the lateral edge.
The Kinetic Chain & Human Movement
Human movement occurs directly in part to the “kinetic chain.”
Kinetic means force and the chain defined as a system linked
together. Throughout DWMA, when we indicate the kinetic chain,
we refer to a method of interconnected body segments that allow
the body to move in a mobility/stability pattern of human
movement.
The anatomical concept of the kinetic chain was developed in
1955 by Dr. Arthur Steindler who adapted the theory from Franz
Reuleaux, a nineteenth-century mechanical engineer signified as
the father of kinematics. Reuleaux offered that a series of
interlocking segments connected via a revolute joint (also called
pin joint or hinge joint) would create a linked kinematic system
PATHFIT 2: Exercise-Based Fitness
that allows movement of one joint to affect the action of another
joint. Similarly, Dr. Steindler regarded the human body as a kinetic
chain with overlapping segments connected by a series of joints.
Well-known physical therapist Gray Cook and strength coach Mike
Boyle took Dr. Steindler’s principles and enumerated The
Mobility/Stability Pattern of Human Movement which states an
alternating pattern of mobile joints and stable body segments
allow for efficient movement within the kinetic chain. If altered,
dysfunction in movement patterns occur, and compensations in
these movement patterns result. DWMA refined the
mobility/stability pattern to include the lower quarter leg (i.e., big
toe, foot, ankle), the cervical joints (i.e., upper and lower), and the
shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The figure below is a summary of the
DWMA kinetic chain and a joint-by-joint clarification.
Joint mobility gets defined as the optimal range of motion of a joint
within the body; therefore, the intended range of motion is
dependent upon the structure of the joint. For example, the hip is
considered a ball-and-socket joint. This type of joint has a broad
range of motion, meaning it can move in multiple planes of motion
with vast ranging degrees. On the other hand, the knee has one
plane of motion and can primarily flex and extend classifying it as
a hinge joint.
The ability of any system to remain constant or aligned in the
presence of outside forces is called stability. Regarding the kinetic
chain, we reference stability as segmental stability. Segmental
stability is the ability of the kinetic chain to maintain specified
postural positions and alignment during human movement.
Movements occurring within each body segment gets dictated by
two things: joint mobility and segmental stability.
Joint mobility gets influenced by both joint structure and flexibility.
As stated prior, the joint structure is dependent on the mobility
parameters of the joint. However, motions within the kinetic chain
get influenced by the flexibility of muscular and ligament
structures (i.e., soft tissues) surrounding the joint. Therefore,
flexibility means the optimal extensibility of all soft tissues
surrounding a joint.
Segmental stability is contingent upon muscular strength and
endurance; therefore, the muscular system should efficiently
execute and control movement patterns. For instance, let’s use a
golf swing as an example because it’s the single sports movement
that most, regardless if you play or not, recognize the level of
efficiency that must be achieved to hit the ball straight and with
accuracy. Therefore, a golf swing requires certain parts of the
kinetic chain to be moving while additional segments are
stationary. For the kinetic chain to perform this movement
patterns efficiently, you need sufficient levels of muscular
strength and endurance to maintain postural positions and
perform dynamic, athletic actions.
As a result, within the Mobility/Stability Pattern of Human
Movement, you can see how the foot can affect the ankle and
knees, how the position of the pelvis can affect the hip and low
back, or how the thoracic spine can affect the shoulder joint. This
kinetic chain model of training and assessment can assist with
enhancing performance, lessening the likeliness of injuries, and
how to organize it into coaching, training, and programming.
If anatomical limitations in the kinetic chain exist in terms of
mobility and segmental stability, then joints that aren’t mobile
enough force other segments of the kinetic chain to compensate
and make up for the inefficient movement patterning, which can
hinder performance and potentially result in injury.
In virtually every sport, the kinetic chain is a ground-based, so if
limitations exist in terms of mobility or segmental stability, the goal
is to improve these physical dysfunctions via the implementation
of corrective exercises. The corrective exercises consist of a series
of flexibility and joint mobility exercises to improve range of
motion. Also, a series of strength training exercises would be
implemented to address segmental stability weaknesses within
the kinetic chain. Over time the inclusion of these types of
exercises improves the kinetic chain’s mobility and stability
parameters, thus allowing for improvement in functional
movements to occur.
Overview
A healthy body is often described as a well-oiled machine. Like a
machine, it’s made up of otherwise fixed segments given mobility
by joints.
A kinetic chain is the notion that these joints and segments have
an effect on one another during movement. When one is in
motion, it creates a chain of events that affects the movement of
neighboring joints and segments.
Physical therapists, chiropractors, and personal trainers use
kinetic chain exercises to help with injury prevention and recovery,
body sculpting, and performance enhancement.
Open vs. closed kinetic chain exercises
There are two kinds of kinetic chain exercises: open and closed.
 In open kinetic chain exercises, the segment furthest
away from the body — known as the distal aspect, usually
the hand or foot — is free and not fixed to an object.
 In a closed chain exercise, it is fixed, or stationary.
Dr. Eric Hegedus, founding chair of the doctor of physical therapy
department at High Point University in North Carolina, explains the
easiest way to determine the distance: “In closed chain exercise,
the foot or hand is in contact with the surface on which you are
exercising. In open chain, they are not.”
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A squat, for example, where the foot presses against the floor to
raise the body, is a closed chain kinetic exercise. Using a leg curl
machine, where the lower leg swings freely, is an example of open
chain.
Both have advantages, according to Dr. Hegedus.
Benefits of kinetic chain exercises
“The biggest advantage of open chain exercises is that they are
far better at isolating a muscle,” says Hegedus. This can be useful
when rehabilitating a specific muscle or when training for a sport
that requires the use of open chain activities. An example is
throwing a ball.
But closed chain exercises are more functional, “or closely
approximate to movements that you would use in daily life or
sports.” This includes squatting to pick up furniture or bending to
pick up a child. Because the load is shared with other nearby
muscles, closed chain exercises may be preferred in some injury
recovery.
Though some physical therapists and other professionals prefer
using one type of kinetic chain exercise over the other, research
indicates that both have uses in pain management, injuryTrusted
Source, post-surgical careTrusted Source, and athletic training.
Dr. Hegedus says there are both open and closed chain exercises
available for most muscle groups. Here are some open and closed
kinetic chain exercises for the chest and calf muscles.

References:
https://criticalreload.com/topic/the-kinetic-chain-human-
movement-2/
https://www.healthline.com/health/4-kinetic-chain-
exercises#bottom-line