PYL101 – Electromagnetism and Quantum Mechanics

Lecture#9

• Conductivity and Ohm’s law, electromotive force (emf), motional emf, Faraday’s law from motional emf (a changing
magnetic field induces electric field), self and mutual inductance, energy stored in magnetic and electric fields,
Poynting’s theorem, charge-current continuity equation (charge conservation), Ampere’s law before Maxwell, modified
Ampere’s law, Maxwell’s equations in matter, boundary conditions. 
• Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Packets: notion of a wave, material dispersion, phase and group velocity, limitations
of group velocity, Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, solutions of the wave equation, plane waves and polarization.
Electromagnetic spectrum, refractive index, intensity energy in electromagnetic waves in vacuum, calculating time
averages, intensity, electromagnetic wave propagation in linear media.
• Reflection and Refraction of Waves: Snell’s law and the law of reflection, Fresnel’s equation for oblique and normal
incidence in lossless media, phase change on reflection, Brewster’s angle, reflection/refraction from conducting media,
total internal reflection and evanescent waves, optical fibers/waveguides.
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 Current flowing through the conductor:
1
I∝V OR I= V
R
More useful form of Ohm’s law
R is resistance: 1 Volt
1Ohm=
1 Ampere
L 1 L
𝑅=ρ =
A σ A
Battery (V) Joules heating law:
Energy loss per unit time, P= I V =I 2 R
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Conductivity and Ohm’s law
Current density in materials depends on force per unit charge
J = σ f (A/m2) = σ (N/C) σ: not to be confused with surface charge density

Conductivity σ : (Ohm.m)-1 OR mho.m-1 or Siemens. m-1

1
It’s inverse is resistivity : r = σ (Ohm.m) Note: If σ is tensor, then its
component wise inverse

Perfect insulators: σ ~ 0 Glass: r~ 1010 Ohm.m

Perfect conductors: σ ~ ∞ Metals: ρAg~ 10-8 Ohm.m
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 𝐟 =𝐄 + ( 𝐯 × 𝐁 ) J =σ [ 𝐄+ ( 𝐯 ×𝐁 ) ]

In all ordinary cases, v is small.

J =σ E Ohm’s law

Electrostatics: Inside conductors, E=0, as for stationary charges, J = 0 .

For a perfect conductor, E = J/σ = 0 even if J is finite.
For very good conductors like metals, required E is negligible.
Some external force (such as from a battery) needs to be applied to move
the charges, even inside a perfect conductor.

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 1
𝐉= 𝜎 𝐄 ⇒ 𝐄= 𝐉
𝜎
For steady currents and uniform conductivity.

∇ ⋅ E=∇ ⋅
1
σ( ) 1
J = ∇ ⋅ J =0
σ

The charge density is zero (like in electrostatics) and any unbalanced

charge instantly moves to the surface.

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Current in every segment of a closed loop is the same

The electrostatic push is what is maintaining it.

It helps in avoiding charge accumulating at any
point at any instant.
This also means then that the same charge is not
making the journey throughout the loop

Think of the situation of a switch and a bulb at kms away in a closed loop
and time in between pressing the switch and lightening up of the bulb.
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Electromotive force
A wire connected to a battery: Two kinds of
forces per unit charge;
f = fs + E
Inside or near the source In the external circuit

The net effect is determined by the line ϵ =∮ f ⋅ 𝑑 l=∮ f 𝑠 . 𝑑 l

integral around the circuit
Electromotive force (emf) of the circuit is the line integral of force per unit
charge. In this case, it is by the battery.
The emf for an ideal battery (internal resistance, rS~0 ) is same as the
potential difference b/w its terminals OR the work done by the battery on a
unit charge. All rights reserved: Department of Physics, IIT Delhi 8
The emf can be produced by many other means too.
Example: Motional emf
• Current loop that is moving across a region of uniform magnetic field
• Charges in segment ab
experience a vertical force.
B
• Electrical energy is
×
generated in the circuit
ϵ =∮ f 𝑠 ⋅𝑑 l=𝑣𝐵h

Electrostatic force ensures that same flow is maintained throughout the

current loop
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Although, the magnetic force is responsible for
establishing the emf, it is not doing the work. B
×
External agency is supplying energy in pulling the
circuit through the field.

Assume that the charges in ab are moving with

velocity u
The magnetic field B is going to act on them in a
way that the force this time is towards left ( ← )
So, the external agency needs to work against the
magnetic force ( ← )
Work done is exactly equal to the emf.
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Faraday’s law (1831) (One part of the story with Electromagnetic Induction)
It explained that the changing magnetic field induces electric field.
(a) Pull the circuit through a constant field region
(b) Move the magnetic field region relative to the circuit
(c) Keep the region of B and the circuit fixed but change the strength of the magnetic field.

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 In all three cases, the current in the circuit comes out to be the same.

𝑑Φ
(Motional emf) 𝜀=− (rate of change of magnetic flux through the
𝑑𝑡 part of the circuit passing through B-region)

This emf is doing the job in pushing the charges around the circuit
𝑑Φ
∮ 𝐄.𝑑 𝐥=− 𝑑𝑡 Faraday’s law
𝑑
Using
Stokes theorem
∫ ( 𝛁×𝐄 ) . 𝑑𝐚=− 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝐁 .𝑑𝐚 ⇒ 𝛁 ×𝐄=−
𝑑𝐁
𝑑𝑡
A changing magnetic field produces electric field
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By analogy, it can be thought that a changing electric field can induce
magnetic field.
That was indeed true when Maxwell used this fact to correct the Ampere’s
law.
(Another part of the story with Electromagnetic Induction)

The implications of the dynamical field (changing E and B) were unparallel

(at that time) because, later, light could be interpreted as electromagnetic
wave, a solution of coupled differential wave equation for E and B field
derived from the Maxwell’s equations.

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Mutual and self-inductance
Let’s look at another example, where, either motion or change in fields can be
seen in terms of an induced field effect.
Case of two conducting loops at rest but carrying steady currents:

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As per Biot-Savart law

⇒ Φ 2=∫ 𝐁 𝟏 . 𝑑 𝐚 2

⇒ Φ 2=𝑀 21 𝐼 1 M21: Mutual inductance

By analogy (you can do the calculation!):

Φ 1=𝑀 12 𝐼 2

It just depends on the shape, size and relative distance between the loops !
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Therefore, for two steady current (I) carrying loops

ϕ 1= M I=ϕ 2

Whatever the shapes and positions of the two loops are, the flux
through “2” when we run a current “I” around loop “1”, is identical to
the flux through “1” when we send the same current “I” around “2”.

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If the current (I) is varied:
Vary current in “1”. Then, according to the
Faraday’s law, the change in the flux through
the other loop would induce an “emf” in it.
For changing current I1 𝑑 Φ2 𝑑 𝐼1
in loop “1”, the induced 𝜀2 =− =− 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
emf in loop “2” -
This does work on the charges in loop “2” to oppose the change of flux
through this loop.

Concurrently, the work induces an opposing current in this loop “2”. ∮ 𝐄2 . 𝑑 𝐥2

Ampere’s law
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If the current (I) is varied:
Vary current in “1”. Now, look at the loop “1” itself.
According to Faraday’s law, the change in the flux
through the loop “1” itself would induce an emf in it.
𝑑 Φ1 𝑑 𝐼1
𝜀 1 =−
𝑑𝑡
=− 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 ∮ 𝐄1 . 𝑑 𝐥1 Ampere’s law

Φ=𝐿𝐼 L: self inductance

𝑑Φ 1Volt . second
𝑀 , 𝐿∝ 1 Henry ( H ) =
𝑑𝐼 1 Ampere
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So, a varying current in the loop, produces a new current in it, which
opposes the change being made in the original current.

I ( t ) →− ϕ ( t ) → ϵ → I '

In other words: the self-induced emf in the loop is in such a direction as

to oppose any change in the original current.
For this reason, it is called the back emf also.
Therefore, whenever, we try to alter the current in a wire or loop, we
need to work against the back emf.

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Energy stored in the magnetic fields
Recall that the energy density stored in electric In a region containing E
filed is and B fields, the total
1 2
𝑊𝑒= ϵ0 𝐸 electromagnetic energy
2
contained in them is
Similarly, the energy density stored in B fields is ∫ ( 𝑊 e +𝑊 m ) 𝑑 𝜏
1 2
𝑊 𝑚= 𝐵
2 𝜇0

It takes energy to get currents going in a circuit by working against the

back emf.
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Energy stored in the magnetic fields
If the back emf is ε , the work done on a unit charge against the back emf
in one trip around the circuit is -ε
Negative sign means that work must be done by the external agency against the back emf

Since the amount of charge flowing per unit time is the current (I), the
total work done per unit time would be

𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑡
=− 𝜀 𝐼 =− −
𝑑Φ
𝑑𝑡 (
𝐼=− − 𝐿
𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝐼 ) ( )
1 2
𝑊= 𝐿𝐼
2
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Energy stored in the magnetic fields
Φ=𝐿𝐼 =∫ 𝐁 . 𝑑 𝐚=∫ ( 𝛁 × 𝐀 ) . 𝑑 𝐚 =∮ 𝐀 . 𝑑 𝐥
1 2 1 1 1
𝑊 = 𝐿 𝐼 = 𝐼 ( 𝐿𝐼 )= 𝐼 ∮ 𝐀 . 𝑑𝐥= ∮ ( 𝐀 .𝐈 ) 𝑑𝑙 (I is along dl )
2 2 2 2
By generalization
1 1
𝑊 = ∫ ( 𝐀 . 𝐉 ) 𝑑𝜏= ∫ 𝐀 . ( 𝛁× 𝐁) 𝑑𝜏 (using Ampere’s law)
2 2𝜇0
Since 𝛁 . ( 𝐀 × 𝐁 ) =𝐁. ( 𝛁 × 𝐀 ) − 𝐀 . ( 𝛁 ×𝐁 )
⇒ 𝐀 . ( 𝛁 × 𝐁) =𝐁. ( 𝛁 × 𝐀 ) − 𝛁 . ( 𝐀 ×𝐁 )=𝐁. 𝐁− 𝛁 . ( 𝐀 ×𝐁 )
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 1 1
⇒ 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑 𝜏− ∫ 𝛁 . ( 𝐀 × 𝐁 ) 𝑑𝜏
2
2𝜇0 2𝜇 0
1 1
.= ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝜏 − ∮ . ( 𝐀 × 𝐁) .𝑑𝐚
2
0 for the entire space
2𝜇 0 2𝜇 0 because both A and B
For the entire 1 reduce to 0 at large
𝑊= ∫𝐵 𝑑𝜏
2
space (large) distances from the loop
around the loop: 2𝜇0
Similarity between the two formulas
1 1 1 ( ) 𝜖0
𝑊 𝑚 = ∫ ( 𝐀 . 𝐉 ) 𝑑𝜏= ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝜏 𝑊 𝑒 = ∫ 𝑉 𝜌 𝑑𝜏= ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝜏
2 2
2 2𝜇0 2 2
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Changing electric field produces magnetic field

Ampere’s law 𝛁 ×𝐁=𝜇 0 𝐉 holds for only steady currents.

Beyond magnetostatics: for changing electric fields (non steady currents),

Ampere’s law is not valid
𝛁 . ( 𝛁 ×𝐁 ) =𝜇0 𝛁 . 𝐉

0 0
From the continuity equation, 𝛁 . 𝐉=−
𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝑡
=−𝜖 0
𝜕
𝜕𝑡
( 𝛁 . 𝐄 )=−𝛁 . 𝜖 0
𝜕𝐄
𝜕𝑡 ( )
(Gauss law)
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 (
𝛁 . 𝐉+𝜖 0
𝜕𝐄
𝜕𝑡
=0) Its more appropriate!

⇒ (
𝛁 . ( 𝛁 ×𝐁 ) =𝜇0 𝛁 . 𝐉+𝜖 0
𝜕𝐄
𝜕𝑡
=0 )
𝜕𝐄 Modified Ampere’s law
⇒ 𝛁 ×𝐁=𝜇 0 𝐉+ 𝜇0 𝜖 0
𝜕𝑡 (Maxwell’s modification to Ampere’s law)
Displacement current density

A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.

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