11 Lecture EM Waves I

PYL101 – Electromagnetism and Quantum Mechanics
Lecture#11
• Conductivity and Ohm’s law, electromotive force (emf), motional emf, Faraday’s law from motional emf (a changing
magnetic field induces electric field), self and mutual inductance, energy stored in magnetic and electric fields,
Poynting’s theorem, charge-current continuity equation (charge conservation), Ampere’s law before Maxwell, modified
Ampere’s law, Maxwell’s equations in matter, boundary conditions.
• Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Packets: notion of a wave, material dispersion, phase and group velocity, limitations
of group velocity, Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, solutions of the wave equation, plane waves and polarization.
Electromagnetic spectrum, refractive index, intensity energy in electromagnetic waves in vacuum, calculating time
averages, intensity, electromagnetic wave propagation in linear media.
• Reflection and Refraction of Waves: Snell’s law and the law of reflection, Fresnel’s equation for oblique and normal
incidence in lossless media, phase change on reflection, Brewster’s angle, total internal reflection.
All rights reserved: Department of Physics, IIT Delhi 1

Reference
Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griths (3rd ed.)
Chapter 9, 9.1 Waves in One Dimension
Chapter 9, 9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum
All rights reserved: Department of Physics, IIT Delhi

What is a wave?
Wave: A propagating disturbance that transfers energy through a medium (or

vacuum) without transfering any signicant amount of mass.
Examples:
Waves on a string/rope
Sound waves
Water waves
Sun light
Radio waves
Microwaves

Longitudinal vs Transverse waves

Longitudinal vs Transverse waves

Mathematical Representation
In the simplest case:



One Dimensional Wave Equation
One dimensional wave equation is written as a partial differential equation:
Here f represents the wave amplitude (e.g., transverse displacement in the

string) and v is the speed of the wave propagation.

Solution of the Wave Equation
As name suggests, wave equation admits traveling wave solutions having a
form
f (z, t) = g(z - vt)
As the wave equation involves square of v, functions of the form h(z + vt)
are also solutions of the wave equation and represent waves traveling in the
-z direction.

As the wave equation is a linear differential equation, its general solution will
be a linear combination of the possible solutions,
f (z, t) = A g(z - vt) + B h(z + vt)
Standing waves belong to one such class of solutions of the wave equation.
V



> Physical wave function is the real part of the above complex function.
> Complex notation just facilitates mathematical manipulations.

Sinusoidal Wave Form

Wave Packet
As the wave equation is linear, a linear superposition of two or more sinusoidal
solutions is also a solution of the wave equation.
Such a coexisting group of waves is called a wave packet.

Wave Packet
Imagine a case of two waves with same amplitudes but different wavelengths
and frequencies,

Wave Packet
Imagine a case of two waves with same amplitudes but different wavelengths
and frequencies,
The resultant wave packet is given by:

Phase velocity vs Group velocity
Any given wave packet consists of several sinusoidal waves of different
wavelengths and frequencies.
The speed of each constituent sinusoidal wave is known as its phase velocity and
is given by

Any given wave packet consists of several sinusoidal waves of different
wavelengths and frequencies.
The speed of each constituent sinusoidal wave is known as its phase velocity and
is given by
The speed with which the resultant wave packet moves is known as its group
velocity and is given by,

> Energy/information is transferred with group velocity and not with phase
velocity.
> Therefore group velocity of a wave packet can not be larger than the velocity
of light else it will violate causality.
> On the other hand, phase velocity of a sinusoidal wave can be larger than the
velocity of light without violating causality.

Dispersion of a Wave Packet
When the phase velocities of the constituent waves of a wave packet depend on
their respective wavelengths, the wave packet can not retain its shape as it
propagates through the medium.

Dispersion of a Wave Packet
When the phase velocities of the constituent waves of a wave packet depend on
their respective wavelengths, the wave packet can not retain its shape as it
propagates through the medium.
This usually happens due to wavelength dependent medium response

(refractive index etc).
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
>Initial contribution (1665-1850) to wave theory of light notably from Christiaan
Huygens, Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel among others, although based
on a hypothetical medium called aether.
>Around 1850, Faraday proposed that light is an electromagnetic vibration that

could propagate without a need of any medium (as the ether prosed by Huygens).
>James-Clerk Maxwell inspired by Faraday's work proposed the electromagnetic

theory of light around 1864.
>Heinrich Hertz conrmed Maxwell's theory by his laboratory experiments on Radio

waves around 1888.

Maxwell’s equations in a medium
𝜌
𝛁⋅𝐄= (1) 𝐃 = 𝜖0 𝐄 + 𝐏 = 𝜖0 (1 + 𝜒)𝐄
𝜖
𝜕𝐁
𝛁×𝐄=− (2) 𝐁 = 𝜇𝐇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐇
𝜕𝑡
𝛁⋅𝐁=0 (3)
Linear medium:
𝜕𝐄
𝛁 × 𝐁 = 𝜇𝐉 + 𝜇𝜖 (4) 𝐏 = 𝜖0 𝜒𝐄
𝜕𝑡 𝐃 = 𝜖𝐄 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 𝐄

Maxwell’s equations in vacuum
Wave equations for 𝐄 and 𝐁
𝛁⋅𝐄=0 (1) 2
2
𝜕 𝐄
𝛻 𝐄 = 𝜇0𝜖0 2
𝜕𝐁 𝜕𝑡
𝛁×𝐄=− (2)
𝜕𝑡 2𝐁
𝜕
𝛁⋅𝐁=0 (3) 𝛻 2 𝐁 = 𝜇0𝜖0 2
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐄
𝛁 × 𝐁 = 𝜇0𝜖0 (4) 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁) 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁)
𝜕𝑡 = 𝜇0𝜖0
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Propagating wave like solutions!
Take curl of Eq. (2), Take curl of Eq. (4),
𝜕𝐁 𝜕𝐄
𝛁× 𝛁×𝐄 =𝛁× − 𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝐁 = 𝛁 × 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2
𝜕 2
𝜕
𝛁 𝛁⋅𝐄 −𝛻 𝐄 =− 𝛁×𝐁 𝛁 𝛁 ⋅ 𝐁 − 𝛻 𝐁 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝛁×𝐄
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Use Eqs. (1) and (4) Use Eqs. (2) and (3)
𝜕 𝜕𝐄 𝜕 𝜕𝐁
−𝛻 2 𝐄 =− 𝜇0𝜖0 −𝛻 2 𝐁 = 𝜇 0 𝜖0 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2𝐄 𝜕 2𝐁
𝛻 2 𝐄 = 𝜇0𝜖0 2 𝛻 2 𝐁 = 𝜇0𝜖0 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2𝑓 1 𝜕2𝑓 Propagating wave like solutions!
=
𝜕𝑧All2 rights 𝑣reserved:
2 𝜕𝑡 2
Department of Physics, IIT Delhi 5
Velocity of the E or the B waves in vacuum
1
𝑣= = 3.0 × 108 m/sec (velocity of light in vacuum)
𝜇0 𝜖0
• The Maxwell’s equations possess propagating wave-like solutions

• They constitute electromagnetic waves travelling with speed of light
in vacuum
1 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁)
𝛻 2 (𝐄, 𝐁) = 2
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 2
Along z-direction 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁) 1 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁)

2
= 2 Propagating EM waves!
𝜕𝑧 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 2
Travelling EM waves in vacuum
ω መ
Monochromatic plane waves with angular frequency ω and wave vector 𝐤 =
c 𝐤
𝜕2𝐄 1 𝜕2𝐄 ෩ 0 = 𝐁0 𝑒 𝑖𝛿
= 2 𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐄෨ 0 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡 𝐁
𝜕𝑧 2 c 𝜕𝑡 2
2
𝜕 𝐁 1 𝜕 𝐁 2 𝐄෨ 𝟎 = 𝐄0 𝑒 𝑖𝛿
= 2 ෩ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐁
𝐁 ෩0𝑒𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑧 2 c 𝜕𝑡 2
𝐄෨ 0 , 𝐁
෩ 0 : Complex amplitudes
𝑘 : wave number
𝜔 ∶ the angular frequency

Constraints on the possible solutions
• Every solutions to Maxwell’s equations must obey the wave equation (for E and B)
(the converse is not necessarily true)
𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐄෨ 0 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡 ෩ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐁
𝐁 ෩0𝑒𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡
𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 0 Constraint 1 ෩ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 0
𝛁⋅𝐁
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐱ො + 𝐲ො + 𝐳ො 𝐱ො (𝐸෨0 )𝑥 + 𝐲ො (𝐸෨0 )𝑦 + 𝐳ො (𝐸෨0 )𝑧 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡
=0 𝐱ො + 𝐲ො + 𝐳ො {ො𝐱 (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 + 𝐲ො (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑦 + 𝐳ො (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑧} 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡
=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
⇒ 𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑧𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡 =0 ⇒ 𝑖𝑘(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑧𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡 =0
⇒ (𝐸෨0 )𝑧 = 0 ⇒ (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑧 = 0
Transverse plane EM waves in vacuum (free space)!

B

෩ (𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝐁
Constraint 2 𝛁 × 𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = −
𝜕𝑡
Also use, (𝐸෨0 )𝑧 = (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑧 = 0
𝐱ො 𝐲ො 𝐳ො
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝑖
𝛁 × 𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
= −ො𝐱(𝐸෨0 )𝑦 + 𝐲(
ො 𝐸෨0 )𝑥 𝑒 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
(𝐸෨0 )𝑥 (𝐸෨0 )𝑦 (𝐸෨0 )𝑧
= 𝑖𝑘 −ො𝐱(𝐸෨0 )𝑦 + 𝐲(
ො 𝐸෨0 )𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
෩ 𝑧, 𝑡
𝜕𝐁 𝜕 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
− = − 𝐱ො (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 + 𝐲ො (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑦 𝑒 = 𝑖𝜔 𝐱ො (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 + 𝐲ො (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⇒ −𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑦 = 𝑖 𝜔(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 and 𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑥 = 𝑖 𝜔(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑦

𝑘 1
−𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑦 = 𝑖 𝜔(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 (𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 = −(𝐸෨0 )𝑦 (𝐵0 )𝑥 = − (𝐸෨0 )𝑦
෨ Vacuum
𝜔 𝑐 OR
⇒ 𝑘 ⇒ 1
𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑥 = 𝑖 𝜔(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑦 (𝐵0 )𝑦 = (𝐸෨0 )𝑥
෨ (𝐵0 )𝑦 = (𝐸෨0 )𝑥
෨ Free space
𝜔 𝑐
𝑘 Fields E and B are mutually
⇒ ෩0 =
𝐁 𝐳ො × 𝐄෨ 0
𝜔 perpendicular to each other
𝑥
𝜔
𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 =𝑐
𝐸0 𝑘
X
oscillations
𝑦 𝑧
𝐸0 /𝑐
෩ 𝑧, 𝑡
𝐁
Electromagnetic Plane Waves in Vacuum
To summarize the charateristics of EM plane waves in vacuum
> They travel with the speed of light.

> They are transverse waves as E0z = B0z = 0 for a plane EM wave
propagating in z-direction.
> Electric and magnetic fields associated with an EM wave are perpendicular
to each other.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Polarization of EM waves
• Linear Polarization:
Electric fields oscillate in a single direction

(straight-line)
𝐄෨ 0 𝑖
𝐄෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐄෨ 0 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡
𝐱ො ; 𝐁 ෩ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡
𝐲ො
𝑐
In terms of real fields:
𝐸0
𝐄 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐱ො ; 𝐁 𝑧, 𝑡 = cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐲ො
𝑐
𝐸0
ො
𝐄 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐲; 𝐁 𝑧, 𝑡 = − cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐱ො
𝑐
𝐸0
ො
𝐄 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos(−𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐲; 𝐁 𝑧, 𝑡 = cos(−𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐱ො
𝑐

Polarization of EM waves
Right-handed circularly polarized wave
• Circular Polarization:
Electric fields rotate in a plane perpendicular to

the direction of propagation
Two plane polarized components oscillating with
relative phase of 𝜋/2 (different for elliptical)
𝐄 𝑧, 𝑡
𝜋 Left-handed circularly polarized wave
= 𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐱ො + 𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 − ) 𝐲ො
2
= 𝐸0 {cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐱ො + sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐲}
ො
𝐄 𝑧, 𝑡
𝜋
= 𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐱ො + 𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 + ) 𝐲ො
2
= 𝐸0 {cos 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 𝐱ො − sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐲}
ො

Monochromatic plane EM waves propagating in arbitrary direction
2
2
1 𝜕 (𝐄, 𝐁)
𝛻 (𝐄, 𝐁) = 2
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 2
𝐄෨ 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝐸෨0 𝑒 𝑖 𝐤⋅𝐫 −𝜔𝑡 ෝ

𝐧
1 1
𝐁 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝐸෨0 𝑒 𝑖
෩ 𝐤⋅𝐫 −𝜔𝑡 መ ×𝐧
𝐤 ෝ = መ × 𝐄෨
𝐤
𝑐 c
Actually, fields are real
ෝ⋅𝐤=0
𝐧
ෝ
𝐄 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos 𝐤 ⋅ 𝐫 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 𝐧
Polarization is always ⊥ direction of
1 መ ×𝐧 propagation (in vacuum or free space)
B 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos 𝐤 ⋅ 𝐫 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 𝐤 ෝ
𝑐
Exercise 1 (Problem sheet 6)
Write down the real electric and magnetic fields for a monochromatic plane wave having
amplitude E0, angular frequency ω, and phase angle zero, which is -
(a) traveling in the negative x-direction and polarized
in the z-direction.
(b) traveling in a direction from the origin to the point
(1,1,1), and its polarization parallel to the xz-plane.
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
𝐤 = − 𝐱ො ; 𝐧 ෝ = 𝐳ො; 𝐤. 𝐫 = − 𝐱ො . 𝑥 𝐱ො + 𝑦𝐲ො + 𝑧ො𝐳 = − 𝑥
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
ෝ
𝜔 𝜔
= 𝐸0 cos − 𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 𝐳ො = 𝐸0 cos 𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 𝐳ො
𝑐 𝑐
1 1 𝜔
𝐁 𝐫, 𝑡 = መ
𝐤 × 𝐄 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 𝐲ො
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝜔 𝐱ො +𝐲+ො
ො 𝐳 መ𝐤 = 𝐱ො+𝐲+ො
ො 𝐳
𝐤= ; ;
𝑐 3 3
መ 𝐄=0 𝐱ො −ො𝐳
From 𝐤. ⟹ 𝛼 = −𝛽 ⟹ ෝ=
𝐧
2
:
𝜔 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
𝐤. 𝐫 = ;
𝑐 3
ෝ
𝜔 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 𝐱ො −ො𝐳
= 𝐸0 cos − 𝑐𝑡
𝑐 3 2
1 1 𝜔 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 −ො𝐱 + 2𝐲ො − 𝐳ො

𝐁 𝐫, 𝑡 = መ × 𝐄 = 𝐸0 cos
𝐤 − 𝑐𝑡
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 3 6
Energy and momentum in EM waves
• Energy per unit volume contained in the EM fields
1 2
1 2
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑒 + 𝑢𝑚 = 𝜖0 𝐸 + 𝐵
2 𝜇0
1 1 𝐸 2
For monochromatic plane waves: 𝑢= 𝜖0 𝐸2 + = 𝜖0 𝐸 2
2 𝜇 0 𝑐2
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 ;
𝐸0 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝜖0 𝐸02 cos 2 (𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

𝐵 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐵෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = cos 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿
𝑐

• Pointing vector (in the direction of the wave-front propagation): it’s the energy flux
density (energy per unit area per unit time) carried by the EM wave
1
𝐒= 𝐄×𝐁
𝜇0
For monochromatic plane waves propagating in the z − direction)

1
𝐒= 𝐸 𝐵 𝐳ො = 𝑐𝜖0 𝐸02 cos 2 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 𝐳ො = 𝑐𝑢ො𝐳
𝜇0
• Momentum density contained in the EM fields

1 1
𝒈 = 2 𝐒 = 𝑢ො𝐳
𝑐 𝑐
• Average energy per unit volume contained in the EM fields

For monochromatic plane waves, 𝐸 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 ;
𝐸0
𝐵 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐵෨ 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐵0 cos 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 = cos 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿
𝑐
1
𝑢 = 𝜖0 𝐸02 cos 2 (𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) = 𝜖0 𝐸02 Time average has been taken
2 per unit cycle of the waves
• Average pointing vector in the direction of the wave-front propagation
1 1
𝐒 = 𝐄×𝐁 = 𝐸𝐵 𝐳ො = 𝑐𝜖0 𝐸02 cos2 (𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) 𝐳ො = 𝑐 𝑢 𝐳ො
𝜇0 𝜇0
1 1
• Average Momentum density contained in the EM fields 𝒈 = 2 𝐒 = 𝑢 𝐳ො
𝑐 𝑐

Intensity and radiation pressure
• Intensity is the average power (energy per unit time) 1
per unit area transported by the EM waves 𝐼 = 𝑆 = 𝑐 𝜖0 𝐸02
2
• Radiation pressure: When light falls on a perfect absorber, it delivers its momentum
to the surface. (On a perfect reflector, the pressure would be double of it because the
momentum switches sign).
cDt Average force per unit area OR change in momentum per unit
time per unit area
A
c
1 ∆𝑝 𝑔 𝐴𝑐∆𝑡 1 2
𝐼
𝑃= = = 𝜖0 𝐸0 =
𝐴 ∆𝑡 𝐴∆𝑡 2 𝑐
Energy carried
= 𝑢𝐴cDt

11 Lecture EM Waves I

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PYL101 – Electromagnetism and Quantum Mechanics

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Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griths (3rd ed.)

Chapter 9, 9.1 Waves in One Dimension

Chapter 9, 9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

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Wave: A propagating disturbance that transfers energy through a medium (or

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Here f represents the wave amplitude (e.g., transverse displacement in the

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f (z, t) = g(z - vt)

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f (z, t) = A g(z - vt) + B h(z + vt)

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> Complex notation just facilitates mathematical manipulations.

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Such a coexisting group of waves is called a wave packet.

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Such a coexisting group of waves is called a wave packet.

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Such a coexisting group of waves is called a wave packet.

The resultant wave packet is given by:

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This usually happens due to wavelength dependent medium response

>Around 1850, Faraday proposed that light is an electromagnetic vibration that

>James-Clerk Maxwell inspired by Faraday's work proposed the electromagnetic

>Heinrich Hertz conrmed Maxwell's theory by his laboratory experiments on Radio

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• The Maxwell’s equations possess propagating wave-like solutions

Along z-direction 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁) 1 𝜕 2 (𝐄, 𝐁)

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⇒ 𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑧𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡 =0 ⇒ 𝑖𝑘(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑧𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧 −𝜔𝑡 =0

Transverse plane EM waves in vacuum (free space)!

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⇒ −𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑦 = 𝑖 𝜔(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑥 and 𝑖𝑘(𝐸෨0 )𝑥 = 𝑖 𝜔(𝐵෨ 0 )𝑦

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> They travel with the speed of light.

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Electric fields oscillate in a single direction

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Electric fields rotate in a plane perpendicular to

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𝐄෨ 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝐸෨0 𝑒 𝑖 𝐤⋅𝐫 −𝜔𝑡 ෝ

Actually, fields are real

1 1 𝜔 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 −ො𝐱 + 2𝐲ො − 𝐳ො

𝐸0 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝜖0 𝐸02 cos 2 (𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

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For monochromatic plane waves propagating in the z − direction)

• Momentum density contained in the EM fields