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FIELD REPORT KHEWRA GORGE, NAMMAL GORGE & HAZARA AREA

Technical Report · January 2013

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 EXPLORING THE
EARTH

STUDY OF
SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES

KHEWRA GORGE,
NAMMAL GORGE,
HAZARA AREA

2013 7 DAYS FIELD TRIP

FIELD REPORT
COLLECTIONS OF
KHEWRA GORGE, NAMMAL GORGE &
SAMPLES
HAZARA AREA

INSTRUCTOR AND COORDINATOR

Sir Kashif, Sir Saeed;
SYED DAWAR
ABBAS
Reg. No. BGLF11M039
4th semester, Earth Science
department, UOS
2013
Field Report

Asst. prof. Sir Kashif Yaqoob (UOS)

CO-SUPERVISOR
Sir Saeed Hassan

TEAM MEMBERS
Dawar Abbas, S. Qamar Abbas, Samiullah, Adrees Raza
BGLF11MO39,

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Field Report

Submitted By:

DAWAR ABBAS……BGLF11M039

Submitted To:

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Field Report

In the name of Allah the extremely merciful, the entirely merciful the very first creator of the
worlds. Foremost I thank to my creator who gave me the chance to explore and watch the
beauty of nature. I would like to say thank to the people who have helped and supported me
throughout my field tour. I am grateful to my teacher for his continuous support, from initial
advice and contacts in the early stages of conceptual inception and through ongoing advice and
encouragement to this day then I want to say thanks to my Head of Department Dr. Khalid
Mahmud and respected teachers Sir Kashif Yaqoob, Sir Saeed Hassan.
A special thank of mine goes to my colleagues who helped me in completing the field report
and they exchanged their interesting ideas, thoughts and made this report easy and accurate.

Contents
.................................................................................. 2
.............................................................................................................................. 3
Contents ..................................................................................................................................... 3
SYNOPSIS.................................................................................................................................. 7
.................................................................................................................................................. 8

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Field Report

1.1 Previous Work .............................................................................................................................. 8

1.2 Objective ....................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Significance................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Accessibility.................................................................................................................................. 9
1.4.1 Khewra Gorge ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.4.2 Nammal Gorge ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.3 Hazara Range ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Population ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Population of Khewra .................................................................................................................. 9
Population of Khewra: ................................................................................................................ 9
Population of Mianwali ............................................................................................................. 10
Population of Hazara range ...................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Khewra Salt Mine ....................................................................................................................... 10
1.7 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 10
1.8 Relief ........................................................................................................................................... 11
1.8.1 Khewra Gorge ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.8.2 Nammal Gorge ..................................................................................................................... 11
1.9 Vegetation ................................................................................................................................... 11
1.10 Rainfall and Temperature.......................................................................................................... 11
1.10.1 Salt Range .......................................................................................................................... 11
1.10.2 Mianwali ............................................................................................................................ 12
1.10.3 Abbottabad ......................................................................................................................... 12
2 ................................................................................................................................................ 13
2.1 DAY 1 KHEWRA GORGE 23 MARCH 2013 .......................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Salt Range Formation........................................................................................................... 13
2.1.2 Khewra Sandstone................................................................................................................ 15
2.1.3 Kussak Formation ................................................................................................................ 17
2.1.4 Salt Mine Khewra ................................................................................................................ 18
2.1.5 CHOA SAIDEN SHAH ROAD SECTION ......................................................................... 19
2.1.5.1 Baghanwala Formation ..................................................................................................... 19
2.1.5.2 Sakesar Limestone ............................................................................................................ 20
2.1.5.3 Patala Formation ............................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Day 2 Nammal gorge 31 march 2013 ......................................................................................... 21
2.2.1 Wargal Limestone ................................................................................................................ 21
2.2.2 Chhidru Formation ............................................................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Mianwali Formation............................................................................................................. 23

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Field Report

2.2.4 Tredian Formation................................................................................................................ 24

2.2.5 Kingriali Formation.............................................................................................................. 25
2.2.6 Datta Formation ................................................................................................................... 26
2.2.7 Samana Suk Formation ........................................................................................................ 26
2.2.8 Hangu Formation ................................................................................................................. 27
2.2.10 Dhak pass section ............................................................................................................... 28
2.2.10.1 Sakesar Limestone .......................................................................................................... 28
2.2.10.2 Nammal Formation ......................................................................................................... 29
2.3 Day 1 of Hazara range 27 June 2013 .......................................................................................... 30
2.3.1 Nikalson monument ............................................................................................................. 30
2.3.1.1 Lumshiwal Formation ....................................................................................................... 30
2.3.1.2 Samana Suk Formation ..................................................................................................... 30
2.3.1.3 Hangu Formation .............................................................................................................. 31
2.3.1.4 Lockhart Limestone .......................................................................................................... 31
2.3.1.5 Chichali Formation ........................................................................................................... 32
2.4 Day 2 OF Hazara range 28 JUNE 2013 ...................................................................................... 33
2.4.1 Abbottabad Formation ......................................................................................................... 33
2.4.2 MAQSOOD ROAD SECTION ........................................................................................... 34
2.4.2.1 Hazara Formation.............................................................................................................. 34
2.4.2.2 Chorgali Formation ........................................................................................................... 36
2.4.2.3 Lumshiwal Formation ....................................................................................................... 36
2.4.2.4 Kawagarh Formation......................................................................................................... 37
2.4.2.5 Chichali Formation ........................................................................................................... 37
2.4.2.6 Samana Suk Formation ..................................................................................................... 38
2.4.8 Jabri Syncline ....................................................................................................................... 38
2.4.9 Lockhart Limestone ............................................................................................................. 39
2.4.10 Patala Formation ................................................................................................................ 39
2.4.11 Samana Suk Formation ...................................................................................................... 39
2.5 Day 3 of hazara 29 june 2013 ..................................................................................................... 41
2.5.1 Tanawal Formation .............................................................................................................. 41
2.5.2 Mansehra Granite ................................................................................................................. 42
2.5.3 Tanawal Mica Schist ............................................................................................................ 44
2.5.4 Murree Formation ................................................................................................................ 45
2.6 Day 4 of hazara 30 june 2013 ..................................................................................................... 46
2.6.1 Samana Suk Formation ........................................................................................................ 46
2.6.2 Lockhart Limestone ............................................................................................................. 46

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2.6.3 Kawagarh Formation............................................................................................................ 47

2.6.4 Margala Hill Limestone ....................................................................................................... 47
2.6.5 Samana Suk Formation ........................................................................................................ 48
2.6.6 Chichali Formation .............................................................................................................. 49
2.7 Day 5 of hazara 31 june 2013 ..................................................................................................... 50
2.7.1 Chlorite Mica Schist............................................................................................................. 50
2.7.2 Garnet Mica Schist ............................................................................................................... 50
2.7.2 Granite Gneiss ...................................................................................................................... 51
3 ................................................................................................................................................ 52
3.1Tectonic Framework of Pakistan ......................................................................................... 52
4 ................................................................................................................................................ 55
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE of STUDY AREA ............................................................................ 55
4.1.1 Calcite/ Limestone ............................................................................................................... 55
4.1.2 Dolomite .............................................................................................................................. 55
4.1.3 Gypsum ................................................................................................................................ 55
4.1.4 Halite .................................................................................................................................... 55
4.1.5 Silica .................................................................................................................................... 55
4.1.6 Quartz................................................................................................................................... 55
4.1.7 Sulphur ................................................................................................................................. 56
4.1.8 Sandstone ............................................................................................................................. 56
4.1.9 Coal ...................................................................................................................................... 56
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 57
Web References ................................................................................................................................ 60

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Field Report

SYNOPSIS
Purpose of this field work was to enhance knowledge and made ideas clear in geological field
work. Main points to achieve from this field work to get know-how about different rocks and
minerals, how to distinguish between same minerals collected from different formations,
concepts of fold and faults, what is tectonic action? Study of igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks,
sedimentary rocks, sedimentary structures, geomorphic structures, having a look on bedding
planes and contacts of formations.
Foremost to get an idea about unconformities and fossils distribution. One basic point was to
study of different formations in detail and environment of deposition of different formations
with some extra information about physical properties of minerals.

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Field Report

1.1 Previous Work

In the past, salt range has been studied by mostly foreigner scholars rather than local scholars,
as salt range is called the museum of geology, this was the main thing to attract geologists to
come here from America and London to study faults folds and other geomorphic structures
along with unconformities. E.R. Gee (1935, 1945), who spent almost his entire geological
career to the study of the Salt Range. His initial work was related to solving the controversy
regarding the age of the "Saline Series”. Davies and Pinfold (1937) completed their research
study of Lower Tertiary larger foraminifera of the Salt Range. Waagen (1882- 1885, 1895)
worked on the brachiopods of the Permian of the Salt Range and Fatimi (1973) studied Salt
Range and Trans-Indus Surghar Range. He also worked on Stratigraphic nomenclature on the
Salt Range as did Shah (1977).Kummel and Teichert (1966, 1970) illustrated Permian
brachiopods and described the detailed stratigraphy of the Permian rocks while Grant (1966)
described trilobites.
Haque (1956) described the smaller foraminifera’s from the Tertiary formations of the western
Nammal Gorge, Salt Range. Afzal (1997) completed his thesis on the foraminifera’s and
introduced a planktonic biostratigraphy for the Patala Formation of the Salt Range and
Surghar Range (Afzal & von Daniels, 1991; Afzal & Butt, 2000). Sameeni (1997)
completed his doctoral thesis on the biostratigraphy of the Salt Range under Unescoigcp-
286, headed by Prof. Lukas Hottinger of Basel University, Switzerland, and introduced a
biostratigraphy for the Eocene succession of the Salt Range (Sameeni & Butt, 1996, 2004;
Sameeni & Hottinger, 2003). Ashraf and Bhatti.
A big conflict was between the geological evidence and the paleobotanical evidence in past.
The conflict may, however, be resolved by adopting the approach taken by Gee, who proposed
that an advanced land flora and insect fauna may have existed in the Cambrian or Precambrian.

1.2 Objective
A field trip was arranged by Sargodha University, Department of Earth Sciences on 23, 31
March and 27 June to 1st July 2013. On day 1st we visited eastern salt range which is
approximately 151 km from Sargodha. We left for trip on Saturday 23 march, 2013 at 6:40 am
and arrived back to Sargodha at 9:30 pm. On 2nd day of field work we visited western salt range
after this we visited Hazara area and we spent five days there. We studied formations exposed
there. The main objectives of the trip were to study the tectonics, lithologies, regional geology
and geomorphological features of the area.

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Field Report

Fig. 1.1, directions to Khewra from Bing map

1.3 Significance
The basic purpose of the field was to complete the degree requirement of three credit hours
field work. This was first field done by observer. In this field the main objectives were to get
familiar with the faults, folds, and complex lithologies. Foremost to get an idea about
unconformities and fossils distribution. One basic point was to study of different
unconformities in detail and environment of deposition of different formations with some extra
information about physical properties of minerals. In the report there is detailed description of
formations which were studied and structural features which were observed by the writer.
1.4 Accessibility
1.4.1 Khewra Gorge
The area is accessible through a well carpeted road and the Motorway. The drive to the area is
approximately 2:00 hours from Sargodha.
1.4.2 Nammal Gorge
The area was easily accessible through a well carpeted road. The journey was pleasant and
smooth. The field which we visited was unsteady; rocky along the mountains. The drive to the
area is approximately 3:00 hours from Sargodha.
1.4.3 Hazara Range
The area is accessible through a well carpeted road and the Motorway. The drive to the area is
approximately 7:00 hours from Sargodha.
1.5 Population
Population of Khewra
The population of Khewra, Pakistan is 32620 and the world second largest salt deposits are
located in Khewra.

Population of Khewra: 32 619 people

32, 6500 (3238'60.000"N)
Latitude of Khewra:
73, 0167 (731'0.120"E)
Longitude of Khewra:
Fig. 1.2, Population of Khewra

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Field Report

Population of Mianwali
Mianwali is the capital city of Mianwali District, Pakistan. It is situated in the north-west of
Punjab province on the eastern bank of the Indus River. Thal canal traverses the city and
makes the surroundings a picturesque place. In the 1998 census of Pakistan, the city had a
population of 85,000.
Population of Hazara range
The population of Hazara area was estimated to be over 5 million in 2009. The total area of
Hazara is over 18013km². Population of Abbottabad was estimated 1,430,238 in 2012.
1.6 Khewra Salt Mine
The Khewra salt mine also known as Mayo Salt mine named in the honor of Lord Mayo, who
visited the mine as Viceroy of India. A shallow sea evaporated and with the process of
evaporation of water salt present in the water started reshaping itself into crystal form. It is said
that the salt reservoirs at Khewra were discovered when Alexander visited South Asia, coming
across the Jhelum and Mianwali region, during his Indian campaign. The discovery of the mine,
however, was not made by Alexander but by his horse. It is said that when Alexander's army
stopped there for rest, the horses with them started licking the stones. One soldier took notice
of it and when he tasted the rock part, it was salty thus leading to the discovery of the salt mine.

Fig.1.3, Khewra salt

1.7 Methodology
We applied different methods in our field to recognize the lithology, dipping directions, faults,
and folds. Methods are given below:
i. A Brunton Compass was used to measure the dip and strike of the rocks.
ii. Geological Hammer was used for collecting samples and differentiating between fresh
and weathered surface of rocks. It is also used as a scale.
iii. Hand lens was used for study of fossils and grain sizes.
iv. Haversack bag was used to keep notebook, pen, water, and samples.

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1.8 Relief
1.8.1 Khewra Gorge
Central salt range area has a moderate relief. Eastern salt range has a high relief. The Mapped
Area lies between the Eastern Plateau in southeast and the Potwar Plateau in north. The highest
point here from sea level is 3687 feet and is called Tobra Peak. The lowest elevation from sea
level is I500 near Khewra town in south of the Mapped Area. Thus the absolute relief is 1987
feet.
1.8.2 Nammal Gorge
Salt range the natural museum of geology is moderately relief area. Sakesar peak is the
highest peak in the Area.
1.9 Vegetation
Vegetation of Khewra and Nammal
The area is vegetated and contains many types of crops for both the summer and winter
seasons. Most common crop of this area is wheat.
The names of various herbs, shrubs and trees present in the area are as follow:
Olea cuspidata (Kau).
➢ Acacia modesta (Phulai)
➢ Acacia arabica (Kiker/ Babur)
➢ Triticum (Gandum /wheat)

Fig. 1.4, vegetation of Khewra

1.10 Rainfall and Temperature
1.10.1 Salt Range
The local climate is more towards the humid because this area has experienced more rainfall
than the adjacent areas of this region. Thick cover of vegetation reduces the intensity of hot
summers. The average yearly rainfall is 70-80mm for salt range. This area lies within limits of
monsoons and receive maximum rainfall in July and August. In December, January and
February there is little rainfall month of April, November and October are almost show the
dryer season of that area.
The climate of area is semi humid and sub-tropical with hot to moderate summers and severe
winters. Due to the higher altitude and presence of Sakesar peak to the west temperature is
usually less in summers as compare to adjoining plain areas and rarely exceeds 440C. During

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Field Report

winters temperature usually remains between 00C to 230C.

1.10.2 Mianwali
Mianwali district has an extreme climate, with a long, hot summer season and cold, dry winters.
Summer lasts from May to September and winter lasts from November till February. June is
the hottest month with average temperatures of 42 °C (highest recorded temperature 52 °C); in
winter, December and January monthly average temperatures can be as low as 3 to 4 °C. The
average rainfall in the district is about 385 mm.

1.10.3 Abbottabad
Abbottabad has a humid subtropical climate, with mild to warm temperatures during the spring
and autumn months, hot temperatures during June and July and cool to mild temperatures
during the winter. The temperature can rise as high as 38 °C (100 °F) during the mid-summer
months and drop below −5 °C (23 °F) during the extreme cold waves. Snowfall occurs
occasionally in December and January, though it is sparse, while the heavy rainfall events
occurs during the monsoon season stretching from July to September that frequently cause
flooding in lower lying parts of the city.

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Field Report

2
2.1 DAY 1 KHEWRA GORGE 23 MARCH 2013
We reached Khewra at the time of 9:15 AM and then our instructor gave us instructions about
formations present there and about the type locality of the area. There we took picture of Punjab
plain with SRT (salt range thrust).

Fig.2.1, Punjab plain and salt range thrust

2.1.1 Salt Range Formation

We stepped in the gorge and the formation present there was Salt Range formation. Our
instructor told us the three members of the Salt Range formation.
1 Billianwala salt member
First member named as Billianwala salt member and it contains dull red coloured marl with
salt seams, dolomite, gypsum and Khewra trap.

Fig.2.2, Billianwala salt member

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Field Report

Geomorphic features such as stalactite and stalagmite were observed in Billianwala salt
member.

Fig.2.3, Stalactite

Fig.2.4, Stalagmite
2 Bhandar Kas gypsum
Second member named Bhandar Kas gypsum present there containing massive gypsum beds
with minor beds of dolomite and clay. The colour of this member is chiefly white to light grey.
We observed this member on the top of Billianwala salt member. Contact between Billianwala
salt member and Bhandar kas gypsum is conformable.

Fig.2.5, Bhandar Kas gypsum

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Field Report

3 Sahwal marl member

Third member of Salt Range formation was bloodred in colour and was consisting chiefly on
marl and named as Sahwal marl member. It contains bright red marl beds with irregular
gypsum, dolomite bedding and Khewra trap. Hoodoos and carbonaceous shale were present in
Sahwal marl member of Salt Range formation. Micro folds were also observed in carbonaceous
shale of Sahwal marl member. In Sahwal marl member we observed Khewra trap having highly
decomposed radiating needles of pyroxene mineral.

Fig.2.6, Sahwal marl member

In Salt Range formation of Precambrian age we observed gypseous marl with radiated needles
of pyroxene mineral. The upper contact of Salt Range formation with Khewra sandstone is
conformable.

Fig.2.7, Khewrite

2.1.2 Khewra Sandstone

Next formation observed after Salt range formation was Khewra sandstone of colour brown to
red. This colour is result of red coloured marl, fresh colour of Khewra sandstone is purple. We
observed alternative beds of shale and sandstone there.

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Field Report

Fig.2.8, Khewra sandstone fault and fold

Ripple marks were present in Khewra sandstone that represent the presence of water in past.
Mud cracks are also present in Khewra sandstone. Crossbeds and honeycomb weathering were
also present in Khewra sandstone.

Fig.2.9, Ripplemarks

Fig.2.10, mud cracks

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Field Report

Fig.2.11, cross bedding

Fig.2.12, Honeycomb weathering

2.1.3 Kussak Formation
Next to Khewra sandstone Kussak formation was present. The contact with Khewra sandstone
of Kussak formation is conformable. Kussak Formation contains shale with thin bands of
glauconitic sandstone. Shale is grey, greenish grey and purplish in colour. Sandstone is
micaceous.

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Fig.2.13, Contact of Khewra sandstone and Kussak formation

Worm tracks and ripple marks were present in Kussak formation. . The age of the Kussak
formation is late early or early middle Cambrian.

Fig.2.14, trilobite trails in Kussak formation

2.1.4 Salt Mine Khewra
While we were walking in the gorge and Kussak formation was present next we saw Jutana
formation but we could not reach there. Then we return back and we visited Khewra mine.

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Field Report

Fig.2.15, Salt mines Khewra

2.1.5 CHOA SAIDEN SHAH ROAD SECTION

2.1.5.1 Baghanwala Formation

Then our road section started we hopped off from bus on the road where we observed
Baghanwala formation and salt pseudomorphs crystals. And saw the peak of Tobra formation
there Nammal formation was also present there.

fig.2.16, Salt pseudomorphs in Baghanwala formation

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Field Report

2.1.5.2 Sakesar Limestone

Again we started our journey and after 25 minutes we hopped off from bus and there Sakesar
limestone was present the colour of limestone was light grey and chert nodules were present in
Sakesar lime stone.

Fig.2.17, Sakesar limestone and chert nodules

2.1.5.3 Patala Formation

In road section we observed Patala shale of brownish colour and we hopped on the bus to
journey back to Sargodha and reached back at the time of 9:00 pm. Samples were collected
from all formations. On our 1st day field no fossils were observed only worm tracks.

Fig.2.18, Shale of Patala formation

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Field Report

2.2 DAY 2 NAMMAL GORGE 31 MARCH 2013

On 31 of March our 2nd day of field started our journey started at the time of 7:00 am. We
reached Mianwali at 9:25 and reached at our destination Nammal gorge at 10:00 am. There our
supervisor led us toward the formations and he told us there was Amb formation absent and
not exposed, the formation in front of us was Wargal limestone. We saw sulfur water passing
from gorge and it had pungent smell too.

Fig.2.19, Sulfur water and Wargal limestone

2.2.1 Wargal Limestone

1st we observed the Wargal limestone and saw chop board weathering in dolomite present in
the formation. On the right side of path there were broken pieces of dolomite and limestone of
Wargal limestone. We collected fossils of brachiopods, pectin, bivalves and some other from
phylum Mollusca.
Then on the left side of the road we observed beds of shale present in the beds of Wargal
limestone. In front of us there was a big curve or a domal structure present in dolomite beds of
Wargal.

Fig.2.20, Domal structure in Wargal limestone

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Field Report

2.2.2 Chhidru Formation

Next formation from Wargal limestone was Chhidru formation it contains shale and the beds
of calcareous limestone with few sandy limestone. The top most bed of Chhidru formation
contains white sandstone with occasional ripple marks.

Fig.2.21, White sandstone of Chhidru formation

Chhidru formation was observed In Nammal gorge during our field work. The lower unit of
Dolomite, upper unit of nodular limestone of yellowish colour and white sandstone at top of
the Chhidru formation was observed. The contact between Chhidru formation and Wargal
limestone was marked. The upper most part of Chhidru formation is white sandstone which
contains remains of Brachiopods and Ammonites.

Fig.2.22, Ammonite fossil in Chhidru formation

The age of formation on the basis of Ammonites considered being Late Permian. On the top of
white beds of Chhidru formation we marked the PT boundary or Perm-o- Triassic boundary.

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Field Report

Fig.2.23, PT boundary between Chhidru and Mianwali formation

2.2.3 Mianwali Formation
Next formation named as Mianwali formation and consist on three members.
1 Kathwai member
1st member we observed there was Kathwai member having colour grey to brown and dolostone
was observed in Kathwai member of Mianwali formation. The fossils of ammonites were
observed in this member of Mianwali formation. Upper contact of Kathwai member is with
Mittiwali member and is conformable, lower contact of Mittiwali member is with Chhidru
formation and is a para conformity and unconformable.

Fig.2.24, Kathwai member of Mianwali formation

2 Mittiwali member
2nd member observed there was Mittiwali member of Mianwali formation that consist of
limestone and shale of greenish grey colour and abundant fossils of ammonite were observed
from Mittiwali member of Mianwali formation. Upper contact of Mittiwali member with
Narmia member is conformable.

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Field Report

Fig.2.25, Mittiwali member of Mianwali formation

3 Narmia member
3rd member observed there was Narmia member of Mianwali formation and consist of
limestone beds in lower part and dolomite in upper part. The Narmia member also contains
shale and sandstone. The colour of Narmia member is dark grey to brown. Narmia member of
Mianwali formation contains the fossils of ammonite and brachiopods. Upper contact with
Tredian formation is sharp and conformable.

Fig.2.26, Narmia member of Mianwali formation

2.2.4 Tredian Formation
Next formation from Mianwali formation was Tredian formation. Tredian formation also
consists of two members.
1 Landa member
1st member observed there was Landa member that contains shale and sandstone of pinkish,
reddish grey to greenish grey colour. Cross bedding and slump structures were observed in
Landa member of Tredian formation. The contact of Landa and Mianwali formation is sharp
and conformable.

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Field Report

Fig.2.27, Landa member of Tredian formation and slump structure

2 Khatkiara member
2nd member of Tredian formation is Khatkiara member. This member consist of sandstone of
white colour. Concretion of iron was observed in Khatkiara member of Tredian formation.

Fig.2.28, Khatkiara member of Tredian formation

2.2.5 Kingriali Formation
Next formation observed there was Kingriali formation which consist on dolomite of grey to
brown in colour. There we observed dolomitic limestone and dolomitic marl too. No dominant
fossils were observed just remains of brachiopods. In Kingriali formation we observed chop
board weathering. The contact of Kingriali formation with underlying Tredian formation is
conformable and was marked between sandstone of Tredian and dolomite of Kingriali.

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Field Report

Fig.2.29, Dolomite of Kingriali formation

2.2.6 Datta Formation
The next formation in the Nammal gorge was Datta formation at the turn of the gorge. The
formation contains red, maroon, and grey sandstone, shale and siltstone. There we observed
mudstone, fireclays and ferruginous glass in the formation. The lower contact of formation
with Kingriali formation was disconformable and the upper contact of formation with
Shinawari formation is gradational.

Fig.2.30, Datta formation

2.2.7 Samana Suk Formation
The next formation we observed there was Samana Suk formation that contain oolitic
limestone. And our instructor told us these oolites in limestone are only present in Jurassic age
limestone. Colour of this oolitic limestone was dark to light brown with white oolites present
in limestone. During the fieldwork we observed sandy limestone and argillaceous limestone in
Samana Suk formation.
The contact of formation with underlying Datta formation was marked. The upper contact with
Hangu formation was marked along the Hangu laterites.

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Field Report

Fig.2.31, Oolitic limestone of Samana Suk formation

2.2.8 Hangu Formation
Next formation observed during our fieldwork was Hangu formation that contains sandstone
shale and carbonaceous shale. Upper part of formation consist on nodular limestone. Hangu
laterites were also observed in Hangu formation. The lower contact with Samana Suk formation
is conformable.
Honey comb weathering was also observed in Hangu formation.

Fig.2.32, Hangu formation and honeycomb weathering

2.2.9 Lockhart limestone
The next formation was Lockhart limestone weathered colour of formation is brown to pale
yellow but the fresh colour is grey. We observed nodules in Lockhart limestone. The lower
contact with Hangu formation was gradational and upper contact of formation with Patala
formation was also gradational.

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Fig.2.33, Lockhart limestone

2.2.10 DHAK PASS SECTION

After this we returned back and hopped on the bus then our road section started. We moved
toward Talagang road and the field section of that area is called Dhak pass section.
We hopped off from bus and had a look on Nammal dam and took pictures of Nammal lake
and stair like structure present there.

Fig2.34, Nammal Lake and stair like structure present there

2.2.10.1 Sakesar Limestone

Then we moved toward formations there we observed Sakesar limestone. The colour of
formation was grey and nodules of black chert were dominant in Sakesar limestone.

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Fig.2.35, Black chert nodules in Sakesar limestone

2.2.10.2 Nammal Formation

Shale, marl and limestone from Nammal formation was observed. After this we observed
cleaved marl of light grey to white in colour and splintery shale from Patala formation.

Fig.2.36, Cleaved marl

Fig.2.37, Alternative shale beds

There we observed impressions of trails formed due to assilina and nummulities. Then we made
our journey back to university and reached back at the time of 9:00.

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2.3 DAY 1 OF HAZARA RANGE 27 JUNE 2013

2.3.1 NIKALSON MONUMENT
We left Sargodha at 9:00 am and made our journey to Islamabad we reached Margala hill range
at 11:30.we hoped off from university bus on GT road near Margala hill ranges. Our instructor
led us to hills.
2.3.1.1 Lumshiwal Formation
First we observed Lumshiwal formation near Islamabad city. At the point of Margala hill the
colour of formation was from grey to brown and from brown to black. The formation was very
hard to break and there were oyster shells present among the sandy limestone of the Lumshiwal
formation. Glauconitic Sandstone was also present in Lumshiwal formation. Age of Lumshiwal
formation is early to middle cretaceous.

Fig.2.38, sandstone of Lumshiwal formation

2.3.1.2 Samana Suk Formation

Next we observed there Samana Suk formation of grey colour, which consist of limestone
having oolites. Marl and shale with minor part also exist in this formation. Samana Suk
formation dominantly consists on oolitic limestone and sandy limestone. The formation also
contains yellow patches of dolomite intraclast and burrows too.

Fig.2.39, Oolitic limestone of Samana suk formation

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2.3.1.3 Hangu Formation

Next formation we observed there was Hangu formation of reddish colour. Hangu laterites
were observed there and our instructor told us about lithology and extraction of Hangu
laterites. Hangu formation contains buxitic clay. It is used in different industries. Laterites
formed due to leaching of iron in humid condition.

Fig.2.40, Hangu laterites of red colour

We were walking along the MBT and it consist on alluvial deposits.

2.3.1.4 Lockhart Limestone

Next we passed from a tunnel and came along the road there we observed the Lockhart
limestone.

Fig.2.41, Lockhart limestone

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Next we observed a recumbent fold there.

Fig.2.42, recumbent fold

2.3.1.5 Chichali Formation

Next formation came there was Chichali formation there we observed Chichali shales that
contained belomnoid fossils. The formation dominantly consist on shale with subordinate
limestone. The colour of Chichali shale was khaki to light brown.
Age late Jurassic to late cretaceous.

Fig.2.43, Belomnoids in Chichali shale

Then we took our lunch there and made our journey back to Abbottabad.

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2.4 DAY 2 OF HAZARA RANGE 28 JUNE 2013

We hopped on the bus at 7:00 am and our journey started. We hopped off from bus at 8:25 am
in front of Abbottabad formation.

2.4.1 Abbottabad Formation

There we observed five members of Abbottabad formation
1 Surben dolomite
1st member of Abbottabad formation observed there was Surben dolomite. The colour of this
member was yellowish to brown. Major colour was brown of Surben dolomite and yellow
colour for dolomitization. Chopboard weathering was present in this member. Ball and pillow
structures were also present in Surben dolomite member of Abbottabad formation.

Fig.2.44, Surben dolomite of Abbottabad formation

2 Sanghar gali
2nd member observed there was Sanghar gali member which consist on sandstone. The Sanghar
gali member consists on beds of sandstone and shale of reddish colour.
3 Tanaki boulder
3rd member of Abbottabad formation observed there was Tanaki boulder. Pebbles, cobbles, and
boulders of Precambrian and Cambrian age were present there.
4 Mirpur member
4th member observed there was Mirpur member which consist on sandstone shale and cross
bedded sandstone.
5 Mohammda gali
5th member observed there was Mohammda gali member which consist on cherty dolomite.
Chop board weathering was present in sandstone of Abbottabad formation and age of this
formation is Cambrian.

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2.4.2 MAQSOOD ROAD SECTION

2.4.2.1 Hazara Formation

Then we hired four local vans and started our journey. We hopped off from vans in front of
Hazara formation. There we observed lithology of Hazara formation. We observed slate,
sandstone and siltstone of Hazara formation. Lithology suggest that marine environment was
present there while the deposition of this formation was in process. Ripple marks, hearing bone
structure, slump structure and greywacke sandstone were present there.
Cleavage and foliation was present in slate of Hazara formation.

Fig.2.45, Ripple marks

Fig.2.46, cleavage in Hazara formation

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Fig.2.47, hearing bone structure in Hazara formation

Again Hazara formation was observed near langrial village. This member contains algal and
nodular limestone. Plumose structure was also observed there whish shows origin of joints.

Fig.2.48, algal limestone of Hazara formation in Langrial village

Fig.2.49, Contact of algal limeston and hazara slate

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Fig.2.50, Plumose structure and joint

2.4.2.2 Chorgali Formation

Next we observed NGT (Nathia gali thrust) where Hazara formation of Precambrian age and
Chorgali formation of Eocene age were at same position. Limestone of Chorgali formation was
observed which was nodular.

Fig.2.51, Chorgali formation

2.4.2.3 Lumshiwal Formation

On crossing nala we observed Lumshiwal formation having glauconitic sandstone and
siltstone. The colour of formation was rusty brown due to weathering. Oyster shell burrows
and tubes were present in Lumshiwal formation. There we took snap of contact of Lumshiwal
formation and Kawagarh formation.

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Fig.2.52, Lumshiwal formation

2.4.2.4 Kawagarh Formation

Next formation came there was Kawagarh formation. Formation contains micritic limestone
and shale. Micritic limestone was very smooth while touching. Environment of deposition of
this formation was planktonic.

Fig.2.53, Kawagarh formation

2.4.2.5 Chichali Formation

Next formation observed there was Chichali formation. Major part of this formation was black
coloured splintery shale containing fossils of belemnoids.4-20% organic contents were present
in Chichali shale.

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Fig.2.54, Shale of Chichali formation

2.4.2.6 Samana Suk Formation

Next formation observed there was Samana Suk formation contains sandy limestone and
patches of dolomite intraclast. Limestone was oolitic. Organism activity tracks on hard ground.

Fig.2.55, Organism activity tracks on hard limestone of Samana Suk formation

2.4.8 JABRI SYNCLINE

There we observed a ductile shear zone where Hangu, Lockhart, and Patala formations were
present in synclinal form.

Fig.2.56, Jabri syncline

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2.4.9 Lockhart Limestone

Next formation observed there was Lockhart limestone. The colour of formation was medium
to dark grey and limestone with subordinate shale was present there. Lockhartia fossils were
present among the formation and formation gives off fetid odour smell on fresh surface.
Nodular ductile sear zone.

Fig.2.57, Ductile sear zone

2.4.10 Patala Formation

Next formation was Patala formation which dominantly consists on shale with splintery nature
of khaki to brown in colour.

Fig.2.58, Shale of Patala formation

2.4.11 Samana Suk Formation

Near the Haro River we observed imbricate zone and intense deformation with yellow colour
patches in limestone of Samana Suk formation. Z shaped folds observed in Chichali formation.

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Fig.2.59, Near the Haro River imbricate zone

Haro thrust was present because Samana Suk of Jurassic uplifted to Margala hill limestone of
Eocene age.
KT boundary:
Next we observed the contact between Lockhart limestone, Hangu laterites and Kawagarh marl
near Pir Ki Bandi. KT boundary was marked too. Colour of Lockhart limestone was light grey
to white, Hangu laterites red in colour and Kawagarh marl was of pale yellowish colour. KT
boundary was marked between Kawagarh marl and Hangu laterites. An unconformity was also
present there.

Fig.2.60, Lockhart limestone, Hangu laterites and Kawagarh marl. KT boundary

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2.5 DAY 3 OF HAZARA 29 JUNE 2013

We started our journey at 7:30 am. While crossing the nala our instructor told us about Pir
Punjal Thrust.
PPT was the boundary between metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic on north
side to PPT and sedimentary in south.

2.5.1 Tanawal Formation

We hopped off from bus in front of Tanawal schist of Precambrian age. There we observed
metamorphic rock chlorite mica schist. Green colour was due to chlorite grade. Weathered
colour was rusty brown. We observed a fold there.

Fig.2.61, folded strata of Chlorite mica schist of Tanawal formation

Foliation was present among the rocks of Tanawal formation. Kink folds were observed there
too.

Fig2.62, Foliation and kink fold in Tanawal formation

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Our next stop was Mansehra by pass.

2.5.2 Mansehra Granite

There we observed Mansehra granite an igneous rock. Acidic felsic plutonic rock formed due
to slow cooling of magma and porphyritic texture. Feldspar crystals of finger like structure and
white colour were present among the rock unit.
Dolerite dike was present there.

Fig.2.63, Dolerite intrusion in Mansehra granite

Next we observed structure terraces and xenolith present in Mansehra granite. Contact
between Mansehra granite and quartzite was marked.

Fig.2.64, Xenolith and feldspar

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Fig.2.65, contact between Mansehra and quartzite

Chitta Watta Feldspar

Feldspar rich zone. Milky colour due to feldspar. Cooling separate this from other granite.
Cross veins of quartz were observed and our instructor told us how cross cut relationship
indicate older and younger age of veins.

Fig.2.66, feldspar outcrop at Chitta Watta

Fig.2.67, Cross cutting in granite

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2.5.3 Tanawal Mica Schist

Again on road section near Balakot we observed Tanawal mica schist with mullion structure,
kink fold, chevron fold and micro folds.

Fig.2.68, Mullion structure

Fig.2.69, chevron fold

Fig.2.70, Kink fold

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Then we hopped off from university bus in front of Kunhar River.

Fig.2.71, Kunhar River

Pir Punjal thrust merged with MBT reddish and maroon colour shale and clay was present
there. Green sandstone was present but the colour represented by out crop of it was red due the
effect of rain and red clay and marl mixed with rain water.

2.5.4 Murree Formation

We observed Murree formation there of red colour marl and clay. There a fault was observed
in Murree formation which is younger but was equal to Abbottabad Surben dolomite. Gouge
and breccia was also present along the fault.

Fig.2.72, Murree formation

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2.6 DAY 4 OF HAZARA 30 JUNE 2013

Visit of Hazara basin

2.6.1 Samana Suk Formation

Next formation observed there was Samana Suk formation containing medium to light grey
sandy limestone and patches of dolomite intraclast. Limestone was oolitic and of sandy
behavior.

Fig.2.73. Sandy limestone of Samana Suk

2.6.2 Lockhart Limestone

Next formation observed there was Lockhart limestone. The colour of formation was medium
to dark grey and limestone with subordinate shale was present there. Lockhartia fossils were
present among the formation and formation gives off fetid odour smell on fresh surface.

3.73, Lockhart limestone

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2.6.3 Kawagarh Formation

Next formation came there was Kawagarh formation. Formation contains micritic limestone
and marl of equally bedded. Micritic limestone was very smooth while touching.
Environment of deposition of this formation was planktonic, fossils of small foraminiferas
and assilina were present among the formation.

Fig.2.74, Micritic limestone of Kawagarh formation

2.6.4 Margala Hill Limestone

Next formation observed there was Margala hill limestone. Colour of limestone was light grey
to medium grey. Size of nodules was large. Fossils of large foraminifera’s and assilina were
also present there.

Fig.2.75, Margala hill limestone

Again we observed Kawagarh formation having micritic limestone.

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Dhor River was present there.

2.6.5 Samana Suk Formation

Near coal mine again we observed chop board weathering and solution holes in Samana suk
formation.

Fig.2.77, Chop board weathering

Next we observed recent deposits on the left side of the road.

Fig.2.78, recent deposits

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2.6.6 Chichali Formation

Next formation observed there was Chichali shale. Black splintery shale having index fossils
of belomnoids.

Fig.2.79, Chichali shale

Again we observed Lumshiwal, Kawagarh and Samana Suk formation.
Patala shale and Margala hill limestone
Next we observed Patala shale with alternative beds of sandstone and limestone. On road we
observed Margala hill limestone and Chichali formation in alternative manners.

Fig.2.80, Margala hill limestone fossils of assilina

On walking track we observed Lumshiwal formation.

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2.7 DAY 5 OF HAZARA 31 JUNE 2013

Oghi khaki road

2.7.1 Chlorite Mica Schist

Weathered chlorite mica schist of was observed along the road. We studied grades of
metamorphism in increasing order chlorite mica schist- biotite mica schist- garnet mica schist-
sillimanite mica schist and Migmatite.

Fig.2.81, Chlorite mica schist

2.7.2 Garnet Mica Schist

Garnet mica schist with small black balls, quartz veins were present in garnet mica schist and
intrusion of dolerite. Spheroidal weathering drag fold, cross joints, plumose structure.

Fig.2.82, Garnet mica schist

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Fig.2.83, Spheroidal weathering

Migmatite. Mixed zone neither igneous nor metamorphic. Black spot are present called
metaconglomerates. Cross joints. Stretched pebbles and smoky quartz.

Fig.2.84, Cross joint

Last point

2.7.2 Granite Gneiss

In Granite gneiss feldspar mineral was dominant as compared to Mansehra granite.
Phenocrystal were also present in granite gneiss. Also called Susal gali granite.

Fig.2.85, Granite gneiss

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3
3.1Tectonic Framework of Pakistan
3.1.1 Salt Range
The great Himalayan Mountain Range is geological expression of collision between the Indian
and Eurasian plate. The collision of the Indian plate has caused fold and thrust belt. Salt Range
thrust is an active fold and thrust belt that emerged due to the thrusting f cratonic Indian plate.
The Cambrian rock in Salt Range like Khewra s.st mainly composed sandstone is a decollement
surface. Salt Range is a surface expression of that decollement thrust in which the crystalline
basement is not disturbed and involve.
The decollement zone appears to be provided by evaporates of Precambrian Salt Range
formation which underlies the Salt Range and the Potwar plateau in the north. The strongly
emerging Salt Range forms escarpment along the SRT in the north while in other wards it
extend as a gentle monocline that the margins in the Potwar plateau. The northern monocline
is the surface that is footwall ramp and basement normal fault to the north. It may be confirmed
by the seismic reflection data.
Our project area falls in eastern salt Range that differ the central and western Salt Range on the
basis of the deformational style as it dominate effect by the folding and faulting.
3.1.2 Thrust systems
In the late Cretaceous Period about 90 million years ago, subsequent to the splitting off from
Gondwanaland of conjoined Madagascar and India, the Indian Plate split from Madagascar. It
began moving north, at about 20 cm/yr. (8 in/yr.), and is believed to have begun colliding with
Asia between 50 and 55 million years ago, in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic Era, although
this is contested, with some authors suggesting it was much later at around 35 million years
ago. If the collision occurred between 50 and 55 Ma, the Indian Plate would have covered a
distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,200 to 1,900 mi), moving faster than any other known plate.
In 2007, German geologists suggested that the reason the Indian Plate moved so quickly is that
it is only half as thick as the other plates, which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. The
collision with the Eurasian Plate along the boundary between India and Nepal formed the
orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalaya Mountains, as sediment
bunched up like earth before a plow.
There are five major thrust system forms due to this collision.
➢ MKT (MAIN KARAKORUM THRUST)
➢ MMT (MAIN MANTLE THRUST)
➢ MCT (MAIN CENTRAL THRUST)
➢ MBT (MAIN BOUNDARY THRUST)
➢ SRT (SALT RANGE THRUST)
The Indian Plate is currently moving northeast at 5 cm/yr. (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is
moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform and the
India Plate to compress at a rate of 4 m/yr (0.15 in/yr).

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➢ MKT (Main Karakorum Thrust)

MKT is oldest thrust system form by collision of Eurasian and Indian plates, world highest
peak Mount Everest from due to Formation of MKT, and called as northern suture zone.
➢ MMT (Main Mantle Thrust)
Main mantle thrust form after the MKT; mean its younger then MKT. higher Himalayas present
between MMT & MCT. It formed by continental vs. continental collision of Indian and
Eurasian plate. It contains a syntaxes structure.
MMT also called as southern suture zone. We observed MMT at locality of Basham at
Karakorum highway during our field work.
➢ MCT (Main central Thrust)
MCT is present in north of MBT. Main central thrust is younger than MMT. MMT is southern
suture zone. Where Lesser Himalayas are at one side of Thakot Bridge and on other side,
Higher Himalayas is present.
➢ MBT (Main boundary Thrust)
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) is a regional thrust dipping northward and oriented sub
parallel to the MMT. It is located at the northern margin of Indian Plate and is younger to MMT
in age. It comprises a set of north-dipping faults and forms a boundary between the Sub
Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas. It has generated low to moderately high and frequent
seismicity, with characteristically shallow focal depths.
MBT is present in the north of salt range thrust and it is older than S.R.T. During our field we
marked MBT in Rumli (Islamabad) where Eocene Samana suk Formation thrusted over
Paleocene Lockhart Limestone.
➢ Panjal Thrust Structure
The Panjal Thrust structure is sited parallel to MBT on the eastern limb of the Syntaxes. The
Panjal Thrust probably separates from MBT about 6 km south of Balakot and continues beneath
Kaghan Valley alluvium up to Ghari Habib Ullah. Panjal Thrust is an active fault and represents
south eastern tectonics of the area. Panjal Fault appears as reverse fault with strike-slip
component, in the south of Abbottabad. Panjal thrust divide lesser Himalayas into two parts
➢ Southern sedimentary zone/Southern Hazara
Also called as Attock Hazara Fold and Thrust belt.
➢ Northern Igneous and Metamorphic zone/Northern Hazara
➢ Nathia Gali Thrust
Another thrust in between Panjal thrust and MBT that is known as Nathia Gali thrust. Hazara
slates are not present in south of Nathia Gali thrust. NGT was marked near Nathia Gali during
our field work where Precambrian Hazara Formation thrusted over Eocene Chorgali
Formation.
➢ Salt Range Thrust
Salt range thrust is a sequence of folds and fault belts that produced due to collision of Eurasian
plate and Indian plate. It is youngest thrust system in Pakistan about 0.5 Ma old. SRT dip
toward MBT in northward and it extend from Jhelum River in the east, to Indus River in west.
It bounded by Jhelum (L.L) strike slip fault in the east and Kalabagh (R.L) strike slip fault in

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west. We marked SRT in Nammal gorge (western part of Salt range) where Permian succession
is thrust over Mianwali Plain.

Fig.2.86, Tectonic map of Pakistan

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4
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF STUDY AREA
Salt range and Hazara area has great economic importance because different useful minerals
and rocks are present there. Salt of Khewra mine is used in the country and exported also, same
for limestone of Sakesar.
Different minerals of great importance present there such as calcite, gypsum, mica, silica and
quartz, along with rocks of great importance.
4.1.1 Calcite/ Limestone
Limestone has great importance in cement industry. Calcite has many uses, (Ca oxide) is a
fertilizer, the raw material from which Portland cement (for making concrete) is made, and is
used as a building stone (limestone and marble).
Name derivation: from Latin calx, meaning "burnt lime."
4.1.2 Dolomite
Dolomite has great importance for construction purpose. Dolomite is used as aggregate for
road construction. Because dolomite contains magnesium, it is a source of this element for
magnesium Deficient diets. It is also used as a building stone or as road gravel. Name
derivation: after French
Scientist D. de Dolomieu.
4.1.3 Gypsum
Gypsum is also used in construction purpose as plaster of Paris. When the H2O is driven off
by heat, gypsum becomes anhydrite and when ground to a powder, it becomes plaster of Paris.
Gypsum is used in the manufacture of sheet rock, plaster casts, etc. the alabaster variety is used
to make statuary, and satin spar is used as ornamental decoration. Name derivation: Arabic
jibs, meaning "plaster."
4.1.4 Halite
Second largest source of salt is present in Pakistan. Used as table salt, a food preservative for
tanning leather, and as a source of sodium and Chlorine, etc. name derivation: Greek halos,
meaning "salt."
4.1.5 Silica
Used in manufacture of glass and refractory materials such as ceramics, abrasives, water
filtration, component of hydraulic cements, filler in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paper,
insecticides, rubber reinforcing agent, especially for high adhesion to textiles, anti-caking agent
in foods, flatting agent in paints, thermal insulator.
4.1.6 Quartz
(Silica): as a crystal, quartz is used as a semiprecious germ stone. Cryptocrystalline forms may
also be germ stones: agate, jasper, onyx, carnelian, chalcedony, etc. crystalline germ varieties

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include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, smoky quartz, etc. because of its piezoelectric properties
quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators, and wave stabilizers; because of its
ability to rotate the plane of polarization of light and its transparency in ultraviolent rays it is
used in heat-ray lamps, prism, and spectrographic lenses. Used in the manufacture of glass,
paints, abrasives, refractories, and precision instruments.
4.1.7 Sulphur
Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, fertilizers, chemicals, explosives, dyestuffs,
petroleum refining; rubber; fungicides.
4.1.8 Sandstone
Sandstone (sometimes known as arenite) is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of
sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Sandstone has been used for domestic construction and
housewares since prehistoric times, and continues to be used.
4.1.9 Coal
Coal originate from the Old English term col, which has meant "mineral of fossilized carbon."
Coal has been a useful resource. It is primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat,
and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. The most significant uses of
coal are in electricity generation, steel production, cement manufacturing and as a liquid fuel.

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REFERENCES
➢ Adams, A.E., Mackenzie, W.S. and Guilford, C., (1988), “Atlas of Sedimentary
Rocks under the Microscopes”, English Language Book Society/Longman, UK p. 1-
102

➢ Afzal, J., Jurgan, H & Khan, M. A., (2001) “Late Paleocene to early Eocene larger
foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the Nammal Formation in the central salt Range,
Pakistan”, Pakistan Jour. Hydro. Res. 12, 25-42.

➢ Ahmad, A., Ahmad, N., Ali, S.M., & Wali, N. (2007) “Source Potential and Maturity
Trends of Lower Permian Sediments in the Punjab Platform and Adjoining Areas,
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➢ Baker, D. M., Lillie, R. J., Yeats, R. S., Johnson, G. D., Yousuf, M. and Zamin, A. S.
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Berlin, 414p.

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➢ Cramez, C., (2006), “Short Course on Salt Tectonics”, Universidad Fernando Pessoa,
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➢ Crawford, A.R. (1974) “The Salt Range, The Kashmir Syntaxis and Pamir Arc”,
Earth Planet. Sci. Letters, 22: 371-379.

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➢ Gee, E. R., (1947) “Further notes on the age of the Saline Series of the Punjab and
of Kohat”, Natl. Acad. Sci., Proc. Sec B. 16(2-4):95-153

➢ Gee, E. R., (1980) “Pakistan Geological Salt Range Series: (6 sheets, scale
1:50,000)”, Directorate of Overseas surveys, U.K. for the Govt. of Pakistan & Geol.
& Survey. Pak

➢ Gee, E. R., (1989) “Overview of the geology and structure of the Salt Range, with
observations on related areas of northern Pakistan”, In: Malinconico, L. L., & Lillie,
R. J., (eds.) Tectonics of the Western Himalayas. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 232:95-
112.

➢ Gee, E.R., (1989), “Overview of the geology and structure of the Salt Range, with
observations on related areas of northern Pakistan”, Special Papers of the Geological
Society of America 232, pp. 95–112.

➢ Ghauri, A.A. KHAN (1979), “Sedimentary structures of the Jutana Dolomite and the
Baghanwala Formation”, Geol. Bull., Peshawar University, vol. 12, p. 1-9

➢ Grelaud, S., Sassi, W., Lamotte, D. F. de, Jaswal, T. and Roure, F., (2003),
“Kinematics of eastern Salt Range and South Potwar Basin (Pakistan): a new
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WEB REFERENCES
➢ www.wikipedia.com/khewra
➢ www.scribd.com/nammalgorge
➢ www.google.com/populationinfo
➢ www.google.com/weatherinfo
➢ www.bing.com/map
➢ www.yahoo.com/tectonicframeworkofpakistan

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