Theories of personality
A the behavior of a model.
Ability traits: Traits that describe our skills and how efficiently we will
be able to work toward our goals.
Actualization tendency: The basic human motivation to actualize,
maintain, and enhance the self.
Aggressive drive: The compulsion to destroy, conquer, and kill.
Aggressive personality Behaviors and attitudes associated with the
neurotic trend of moving against people, such as a
domineering and controlling manner.
Analytical psychology Jung’s theory of personality.
Anima archetype; animus archetype Feminine aspects of the male
psyche; masculine aspects of the female psyche.
Anxiety To Freud, a feeling of fear and dread without an obvious
cause: reality anxiety is a fear of tangible dangers;
neurotic anxiety involves a conflict between id and ego;
moral anxiety involves a conflict between id and
superego.
Archetypes Images of universal experiences contained in the
collective unconscious.
B personality.
basic anxiety A pervasive feeling of loneliness and helplessness; the
foundation of neurosis.
basic strengths To Erikson, motivating characteristics and beliefs that
derive from the satisfactory resolution of the crisis at
each developmental stage.
basic weaknesses Motivating characteristics that derive from the
unsatisfactory resolution of developmental crises.
behavior modification A form of therapy that applies the principles of
reinforcement to bring about desired behavioral
changes.
behavioral genetics The study of the relationship between genetic or
hereditary factors and personality traits.
C all structures of the personality.
cardinal traits The most pervasive and powerful human traits.
case study A detailed history of an individual that contains data from a
variety of sources.
castration anxiety A boy’s fear during the Oedipal period that his penis
will be cut off.
catharsis The expression of emotions that is expected to lead to the
reduction of disturbing symptoms.
cathexis An investment of psychic energy in an object or person.
central traits The handful of outstanding traits that
describe a person’s behavior.
cognitive complexity A cognitive style or way of construing the
environment characterized by the ability to perceive
differences among people.
cognitive needs Innate needs to know and to understand.
cognitive simplicity A cognitive style or way of construing the
environment characterized by a relative inability to
perceive differences among people.
collective unconscious The deepest level of the psyche containing
the accumulation of inherited experiences of human
and pre-human species.
common traits: Traits possessed in some degree by all persons.
compensation A motivation to overcome inferiority, to strive for higher
levels of development.
complex To Jung, a core or pattern of emotions, memories,
perceptions, and wishes in the personal unconscious
organized around a common theme, such as power or
status.
compliant personality Behaviors and attitudes associated with the
neurotic trend of moving toward people, such as a
need for affection and approval.
conditional positive regard Approval, love, or acceptance granted
only when a person expresses desirable behaviors and
attitudes.
conditions of worth To Rogers, a belief that we are worthy of approval
only when we express desirable behaviors and
attitudes and refrain from expressing those that bring
disapproval from others; similar to the Freudian
superego.
conflict To Horney, the basic incompatibility of the neurotic trends.
conscience A component of the superego that contains
behaviors for which the child has been punished.
constitutional traits Source traits that depend on our physiological
characteristics.
construct An intellectual hypothesis that we devise and use to interpret
or explain life events. Constructs are bipolar, or
dichotomous, such as tall versus short or honest
versus dishonest.
constructive alternativism The idea that we are free to revise or
replace our constructs with alternatives as needed.
control group In an experiment, the group that does not receive the
experimental treatment.
coping behavior Consciously planned behavior determined by the
needs of a given situation and designed for a specific
purpose, usually to bring about a change in one’s
environment.
correlational method A statistical technique that measures the degree
of the relationship between two variables, expressed
by the correlation coefficient.
creative power of the self The ability to create an appropriate style of
life.
crisis To Erikson, the turning point faced at each developmental stage.
D hierarchy of five innate needs An arrangement of innate needs, from
death instincts The unconscious drive toward decay, destruction, and
aggression.
defense mechanisms Strategies the ego uses to defend itself against
the anxiety provoked by conflicts of everyday life.
Defense mechanisms involve denials or distortions of
reality.
deficit (deficiency) needs The lower needs; failure to satisfy them
produces a deficiency in the body.
denial A defense mechanism that involves denying the existence of an
external threat or traumatic event.
dependent variable In an experiment, the variable the experimenter
desires to measure, typically the subjects’ behavior or
response to manipulation of the independent variable.
detached personality Behaviors and attitudes associated with the
neurotic trend of moving away from people, such as an
intense need for privacy.
disinhibition The weakening of inhibitions or constraints by observing
displacement A defense mechanism that involves shifting id impulses
from a threatening object or from one that is
unavailable to an object that is available; for example,
replacing hostility toward one’s boss with hostility
toward one’s child.
dream analysis A technique involving the interpretation of dreams to
uncover unconscious conflicts. Dreams have a
manifest content (the actual events in the dream) and
a latent content (the symbolic meaning of the dream
events).
dynamic traits Traits that describe our motivations and interests.
E hierarchy theory.
early recollections A personality assessment technique in which our
earliest memories, whether of real events or fantasies,
are assumed to reveal the primary interest of our life.
ego To Freud, the rational aspect of the personality, responsible for
directing and controlling the instincts according to the
reality principle. To Jung, the conscious aspect of
ego identity The self-image formed during adolescence that integrates
our ideas of what we are and what we want to be.
ego-ideal A component of the superego that contains the moral or ideal
behaviors for which a person should strive. Electra
complex During the phallic stage (ages 4-5), the
unconscious desire of a girl for her father,
accompanied by a desire to replace or destroy her
mother.
encounter groups A group therapy technique in which people learn
about their feelings and about how they relate to (or
encounter) one another. entropy principle A tendency
toward balance or equilibrium within the personality;
the ideal is an equal distribution of psychic energy over
environmental-mold traits Source traits that are learned from social
and environmental interactions.
epigenetic principle of maturation The idea that human development
is governed by a sequence of stages that depend on
genetic or hereditary factors.
equivalence principle The continuing redistribution of energy within a
personality; if the energy expended on certain
conditions or activities weakens or disappears, that
energy is transferred elsewhere in the personality.
experimental group In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the
experimental treatment. expressive behavior
Spontaneous and seemingly purposeless behavior,
usually displayed without our conscious awareness.
explanatory style A way of explaining to ourselves our relative lack of
control over our environment. An optimistic explanatory
style can prevent learned helplessness; a pessimistic
explanatory style spreads helplessness to all facets of
life.
external locus of control A belief that reinforcement is under the
control of other people, fate, or luck.
externalization A way to defend against the conflict caused by the
discrepancy between an idealized and a real self-
image by projecting the conflict onto the outside world.
extinction The process of eliminating a behavior by withholding
reinforcement. extraversion An attitude of the psyche
characterized by an orientation toward the external
world and other people.
F N
factor analysis A statistical technique based on correlations between
several measures, which may be explained in terms of
underlying factors.
feminine psychology To Horney, a revision of psychoanalysis to
encompass the psychological conflicts inherent in the
traditional ideal of womanhood and women’s roles.
fictional finalism The idea that there is an imagined or potential goal
that guides our behavior.
fixation A condition in which a portion of libido remains invested in one
of the psychosexual stages because of excessive
frustration or gratification.
fixed role therapy A psychotherapeutic technique in which the client
acts out constructs appropriate for a fictitious person.
This shows the client how the new constructs can be
more effective than the old ones he or she has been
using.
free association A technique in which the patient says whatever comes
to mind. In other words, it is a kind of daydreaming out
loud.
fully functioning person Rogers’s term for self-actualization, for
developing all facets of the self.
functional analysis An approach to the study of behavior that involves
assessing the frequency of a behavior, the situation in
which it occurs, and the reinforcers associated with it.
functional autonomy of motives The idea that motives in the normal,
mature adult are independent of the childhood
experiences in which they originally appeared.
G peak experience A moment of intense ecstasy, similar to a religious or
growth (being) needs The higher needs; although growth needs are
less necessary than deficit needs for survival, they
involve the realization and fulfillment of human
potential.
H sense of loss because the female does not have a
strongest to weakest, that activates and directs
behavior.
historical determinism The view that personality is basically fixed in the
early years of life and subject to little change thereafter.
I persona archetype The public face or role a person presents to others.
id To Freud, the aspect of personality allied with the instincts; the source
of psychic energy, the id operates according to the
pleasure principle.
idealized self-image For normal people, the self-image is an idealized
picture of oneself built on a flexible, realistic
assessment of one’s abilities. For neurotics, the self-
image is based on an inflexible, unrealistic self-
appraisal.
identity crisis The failure to achieve ego identity during adolescence.
incongruence A discrepancy between a person’s self-concept and
aspects of his or her experience.
independent variable In an experiment, the stimulus variable or
condition the experimenter manipulates to learn its
effect on the dependent variable.
individual psychology Adler’s theory of personality.
individuation A condition of psychological health resulting from the
integration of all conscious and unconscious facets of
the personality.
inferiority complex A condition that develops when a person is unable
to compensate for normal inferiority feelings.
inferiority feelings The normal condition of all people; the source of
all human striving.
instinctive drift The substitution of instinctive behaviors for behaviors
that had been reinforced.
instinctoid needs Maslow’s term for the innate needs in his needs-
instincts In Freud’s system, mental representations of internal stimuli,
such as hunger, that drive a person to take certain
actions.
internal locus of control A belief that reinforcement is brought about
by our own behavior.
introversion An attitude of the psyche characterized by an orientation
toward one’s own thoughts and feelings.
J
Jonah complex The fear that maximizing our potential will lead to a
situation with which we will be unable to cope.
L
latency period To Freud, the period from approximately age 5 to
puberty, during which the sex instinct is dormant,
sublimated in school activities, sports, and hobbies,
and in developing friendships with members of the
same sex.
L-data Life-record ratings of behaviors observed in real-life situations,
such as the classroom or office.
learned helplessness A condition resulting from the perception that we
have no control over our environment.
libido To Freud, the form of psychic energy, manifested by the life
instincts, that drives a person toward pleasurable
behaviors and thoughts. To Jung, a broader and more
generalized form of psychic energy.
life instincts The drive for ensuring survival of the individual and the
species by satisfying the needs for food, water, air, and
sex.
life-history reconstruction Jung’s type of case study that involves
examining a person’s past experiences to identify
developmental patterns that may explain present
neuroses.
M
maldevelopment A condition that occurs when the ego consists solely
of a single way of coping with conflict.
Meta motivation The motivation of self-actualizers, which involves
maximizing personal potential rather than striving for a
particular goal object.
Meta needs States of growth or being toward which self actualizers
evolve.
Meta pathology A thwarting of self-development related to failure to
satisfy the meta needs.
modeling A behavior modification technique that involves observing the
behavior of others (the models) and participating with
them in performing the desired behavior. Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) An assessment test based on
Jung’s psychological types and the attitudes of
introversion and extraversion.
negative reinforcement The strengthening of a response by the
removal of an aversive stimulus. neurotic
competitiveness An indiscriminate need to win at all
costs.
neurotic needs Ten irrational defenses against anxiety that become a
permanent part of personality and that affect behavior.
neurotic trends Three categories of behaviors and attitudes toward
oneself and others that express a person’s needs;
Horney’s revision of the concept of neurotic needs.
O
observational learning Learning new responses by observing the
behavior of other people.
Oedipus complex During the phallic stage (ages 4-5), the unconscious
desire of a boy for his mother, accompanied by a desire
to replace or destroy his father. operant behavior
Behavior emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that
operates on the environment to change it.
operant conditioning The procedure by which a change in the
consequences of a response will affect the rate at
which the response occurs.
opposition principle Jung’s idea that conflict between opposing
processes or tendencies is necessary to generate
psychic energy.
organismic valuing process The process by which we judge
experiences in terms of their value for fostering or
hindering our actualization and growth.
P
mystical experience, during which the self is
transcended.
penis envy The envy the female feels toward the male because the
male possesses a penis; this is accompanied by a
penis.
permeability The idea that constructs can be revised and extended in
light of new experiences.
perseverative functional autonomy The level of functional autonomy
that relates to low-level and routine behaviors.
personal construct theory Kelly’s description of personality in terms
of cognitive processes: We are capable of interpreting
behaviors and events and of using this understanding
to guide our behavior and to predict the behavior of
other people.
personal dispositions Traits that are peculiar to an individual, as
opposed to traits shared by a number of people.
personal unconscious The reservoir of material that was once
conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed.
Personal document technique. personal-document technique
involves the study of a person’s written or spoken
records.
 Feminine Psychology
Womb Envy
personality The unique, relatively enduring internal and external social interest Our innate potential to cooperate with other people to Neurotic Needs The Flight from Womanhood
aspects of a person’s character that influence behavior achieve personal and societal goals. Neurotic Trends The Oedipus Complex
in different situations. source traits Stable and permanent traits that are the basic factors of The Compliant Personality What Did Freud Say about Horney?
Motherhood or Career?
person-centered therapy Rogers’s approach to therapy in which the personality, derived by the method of factor analysis. The Aggressive Personality
Cultural Influences on Feminine Psychology
client (not the “patient”) is assumed to be responsible striving for superiority The urge toward perfection or completion that The Detached Personality Assessment in Horney’s Theory
for changing his or her personality. motivates each of us. The Dominance of One Trend Free Association
play constructions A personality assessment technique for children in style of life A unique character structure or pattern of personal Conflict Dream Analysis
Self-Report Inventories
which structures assembled from dolls, blocks, and behaviors and characteristics by which each of us The Expression of All Three Trends
Research on Horney’s Theory
other toys are analyzed. strives for perfection. Basic styles of life include the The Idealized Self-Image Neurotic Trends
pleasure principle The principle by which the id functions to avoid pain dominant, getting, avoiding, and socially useful types. Tyranny of the Shoulds Feminine Psychology
and maximize pleasure. sublimation A defense mechanism that involves altering or displacing The Neurotic’s Self-Image The Tyranny of the Should
Neurotic Competitiveness
positive regard Acceptance, love, and approval from others. positive id impulses by diverting instinctual energy into socially Externalization
Two Types of Competitiveness
self-regard The condition under which we grant acceptable behaviors.
ourselves acceptance and approval. subliminal perception Perception below the threshold of conscious Erik Erikson: Identity Theory
primary-process thought Childlike thinking by which the id attempts awareness. Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development
to satisfy the instinctual drives. successive approximation An explanation for the acquisition of The Role of Genetics and the Environment
projection A defense mechanism that involves attributing a disturbing complex behavior. Behavior such as learning to speak Conflicts and Crises Assessment in Erikson’s Theory
impulse to someone else. will be reinforced only as it comes to approximate or Adaptive Coping Play Therapy
projective test A personality assessment device in which subjects are approach the final desired behavior. Basic Strengths Psychohistorical Analysis
Psychological Tests
presumed to project personal needs, fears, and values superego To Freud, the moral aspect of personality; the internalization Trust versus Mistrust Research on Erikson’s Theory
onto their interpretation or description of an ambiguous of parental and societal values and standards. Autonomy versus Doubt and Shame Play Constructions
stimulus. superiority complex A condition that develops when a person Initiative versus Guilt The Psychosocial Stages
propriate functional autonomy The level of functional autonomy that overcompensates for normal inferiority feelings. Industriousness versus Inferiority Adolescent Development
Sex Differences in Ego Identity
relates to our values, self-image, and lifestyle. superstitious behavior Persistent behavior that has a coincidental and Identity Cohesion versus Role Confusion Gender and Ego Identity
proprium Allport’s term for the ego or self. not a functional relationship to the reinforcement Intimacy versus Isolation Generativity
psyche Jung’s term for personality. psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud’s received. Generativity versus Stagnation Maturity
theory of personality and system of therapy for treating surface traits Traits that show a correlation but do not constitute a Ego Integrity versus Despair Racial and Ethnic Identity
Gender Preference Identity
mental disorders. factor because they are not determined by a single
psychohistorical analysis The application of Erikson’s lifespan theory, source. Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality
along with psychoanalytic principles, to the study of symptom analysis Similar to catharsis, the symptom analysis The Nature of Personality
historical figures. technique focuses on the symptoms reported by the The Roles of Heredity and Environment
psychological types To Jung, eight personality types based on patient and attempts to interpret the patient’s free Two Distinct Personalities for Two Stages
interactions of the attitudes (introversion and associations to those symptoms. of Life
Personality Development in Childhood:
extraversion) and the functions (thinking, feeling, T Personality Traits The Unique Self
sensing, and intuiting). T-data Data derived from personality tests that are resistant to faking. Personal Dispositions Stages of Development
psychosexual stages of development To Freud, the oral, anal, temperament traits Traits that describe our general behavioral style in Motivation: What We Strive for The Importance of the Infant–Mother
phallic, and genital stages through which all children responding to our environment. Functional Autonomy Bond
pass. In these stages, gratification of the id instincts token economy A behavior-modification technique in which tokens,
depends on the stimulation of corresponding areas of which can be exchanged for valued objects or Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, The Five-Factor Theory,
the body. privileges, are awarded for desirable behaviors. HEXACO, and the Dark Triad
psychosocial stages of development To Erikson, eight successive traits To Allport, distinguishing characteristics that guide behavior. Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits
stages encompassing the life span. At each stage, we Traits are measured on a continuum and are subject to Common Traits and Unique Traits
must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or a social, environmental, and cultural influences. To Ability, Temperament, and Dynamic Traits
maladaptive way. Cattell, reaction tendencies, derived by the method of Surface Traits and Source Traits
punishment The application of an aversive stimulus following a factor analysis, that are relatively permanent parts of Constitutional Traits and Environmental-Mold Traits
response in an effort to decrease the likelihood that the the personality. Stages of Personality Development
response will recur. tyranny of the shoulds An attempt to realize an unattainable idealized Infancy Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The
Q self-image by denying the true self and behaving in Childhood Five-Factor Model
Q-data Self-report questionnaire ratings of our characteristics, terms of what we think we should be doing. Adolescence Measuring the Five Factors
attitudes, and interests. U Maturity Origin and Overlap of Factors
Q-sort technique A self-report technique for assessing aspects of the unconditional positive regard Approval granted regardless of a Late Maturity Cross-Cultural Consistency
self-concept. person’s behavior. In Rogers’s person-centered Old Age The Relative Value of the Factors in
R therapy, the therapist offers the client unconditional Assessment in Cattell’s Theory Different
range of convenience The spectrum of events to which a construct positive regard. Life records (L-data) Cultures
can be applied. Some constructs are relevant to a unique traits Traits possessed by one or a few persons. Questionnaires (Q-data) Gender Differences
limited number of people or situations; other constructs Personality tests (T-data) How People View Themselves and
are broader. V The 16 PF (Personality Factor) Test Others
rationalization A defense mechanism that involves reinterpreting our validity The extent to which an assessment device measures what it is Research on Cattell’s Theory Stability of the Factors over Time
behavior to make it more acceptable and less intended to measure. The Bivariate Approach Predicting Changes over Time
threatening to us. vicarious reinforcement Learning or strengthening a behavior by The Clinical Approach Emotional Correlates
reaction formation A defense mechanism that involves expressing an observing the behavior of others, and the The Multivariate Approach Behavioral Correlates
id impulse that is the opposite of the one that is truly consequences of that behavior, rather than A Sample of Research Findings Personality Traits and the Internet
driving the person. experiencing the reinforcement or consequences The Dimensions of Personality Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions
reality principle The principle by which the ego functions to provide directly. A Joint Effort Five-Factor Model
appropriate constraints on the expression of the id W Three Dimensions of Personality
instincts. womb envy The envy a male feels toward a female because she can Stability over Time
reciprocal determinism The idea that behavior is controlled or bear children and he cannot. Womb envy was Horney’s The Role of Intelligence
determined by the individual, through cognitive response to Freud’s concept of penis envy in females. Extraversion
processes, and by the environment, through external word association test A projective technique in which a person Neuroticism
social stimulus events. responds to a stimulus word with whatever word comes Psychoticism
regression A defense mechanism that involves retreating to an earlier, to mind. The Primary Role of Heredity
less frustrating period of life and displaying the usually Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis Abraham Maslow: Needs-Hierarchy Theory
childish behaviors characteristic of that more secure The Structure of Personality Personality Development: The Hierarchy of Needs
time. The Id Characteristics of Needs
Psychosexual Stages of Personality
reinforcement The act of strengthening a response by adding a The Ego Development Physiological Needs
reward, thus increasing the likelihood that the response The Superego Growing up Is Not Easy Safety Needs
will be repeated. Anxiety: A Threat to the Ego The Oral Stage: Taking In or Spitting Out Belongingness and Love Needs
reinforcement schedules Patterns or rates of providing or withholding Reality Anxiety The Anal Stage: Letting Go or Holding Back Esteem Needs
The Phallic Stage
reinforcers. Neurotic Anxiety The Latency Period The Self-Actualization Need
reliability The consistency of response to a psychological assessment Moral Anxiety The Genital Stage Conditions for Achieving Self-Actualization
device. The Purpose of Anxiety The Importance of Childhood Achieving Self-Actualization in Non-Traditional Ways
repression A defense mechanism that involves unconscious denial of Cognitive Needs
the existence of something that causes anxiety. Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory
resistance In free association, a blockage or refusal to disclose painful Psychic Energy: The Basis of Jung’s System The Development of the Self in Childhood
memories. Principles of Psychic Energy Positive Regard Assessment in Rogers’s Theory
respondent behavior Responses made to or elicited by specific Aspects of Personality Conditions of Worth Person-Centered Therapy
environmental stimuli. The Ego Incongruence Encounter Groups
S The Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion Congruence and Emotional Health Psychological Tests

safety need A higher-level need for security and freedom from fear. Psychological Functions George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory
secondary traits The least important traits, which a person may display Psychological Types The Development of the Personality Ways of Anticipating Life Events
Childhood to Young Adulthood
inconspicuously and inconsistently. The Personal Unconscious Middle Age
The Construction Corollary
secondary-process thought Mature thought processes needed to Complexes The Individuality Corollary The Range Corollary
Individuation: How to Reach Fulfillment
deal rationally with the external world. The Collective Unconscious The Organization Corollary The Experience Corollary
self archetype To Jung, the archetype that represents the unity, Archetypes The Dichotomy Corollary The Modulation Corollary
integration, and harmony of the total personality. The Choice Corollary The Fragmentation Corollary
self-actualization The fullest development of the self. Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology The Commonality Corollary
B. F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory
self-characterization sketch A technique designed to assess a Inferiority Feelings: The Source of All Human Striving The Sociality Corollary
Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior
person’s construct system; that is, how a person The Inferiority Complex Respondent Behavior
perceives himself or herself in relation to other people. Causes of inferiority Complexes Operant Behavior
Birth Order The Self-Control of Behavior
self-control The ability to exert control over the variables that The Superiority Complex The First-Born Child Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box Stimulus Avoidance
determine our behavior. Striving for Superiority, or Perfection Characteristics of First-Borns From the Skinner Box to the Real World Self-Administered Satiation
self-efficacy Our feeling of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in Fictional Finalism The Second-Born Child Operating on the Environment Aversive Stimulation
coping with life. The Style of Life Characteristics of Second-Borns Personality: A Collection of Operant Behaviors Self-Reinforcement
The Youngest Child Benefits of Self-Control
self-reinforcement Administering rewards or punishments to oneself The Creative Power of the Self The Only Child Schedules of Reinforcement
for meeting, exceeding, or falling short of one’s own Four Basic Styles of Life Fixed Interval
expectations or standards. Social Interest Fixed Ratio
self-report inventory A personality assessment technique in which The Role of the Mother in Developing Social Variable Interval
subjects answer questions about their behaviors and Interest Variable Ratio
feelings. The Role of Adler’s Life Experiences in Developing Social Interest Albert Bandura: Modeling Theory
sensation seeking The need for varied, novel, and complex Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning
sensations and experiences. Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends Bobo the Inflatable Doll The Processes of Observational Learning
sentiments To Cattell, environmental-mold source traits that motivate Basic Anxiety: The Foundation of Neurosis Other Modeling Studies Attentional Processes
behavior. Securing Affection Disinhibition Retention Processes
shadow archetype The dark side of the personality; the archetype that Being Submissive The Effects of Society’s Models Production Processes
Characteristics of
contains primitive animal instincts. Attaining Power Self-Protective Mechanisms Characteristics of the Modeling Situation Incentive and Motivational Processes
Withdrawing