BT

Chemistry

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Chemistry
Course content Expected working hour = 15 days

❑ Valence shell, valence electron and octet theory,

❑ Ionic bond, covalent bond, co-ordinate covalent bond and their properties,
❑ Lewis dot structure of some common compounds of s and p block elements
❑ Resonance
❑ Bond characteristics: Bond length, Ionic character, Dipole moment, Vander waal’s force
and molecular solid
❑ Hydrogen bonding and its application
❑ Metallic bonding and properties of metallic solids
❑ VSEPR Theory and shape of some simple molecules ( BeF2, BF3, CH4, CH3Cl , PCl5 , SiF6,
H2O, NH3, CO2, H2S , PH3)
❑ Elementary idea of valence bond theory
❑ Hybridization involving s and p orbitals

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▪ Chemical bond
Chemistry
The chemical bond is defined as the force of attraction which holds the
constituent atoms together in a molecule.

▪ Valence electrons and Valence shell

The electron presents in the outermost shell of an atom which takes part in
chemical bonding are called valence electrons and the corresponding shell is
called valence shell.
▪ Core electrons
Except valence electrons, all the remaining electrons present in atom are called
core electrons.

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❑ Octet Theory
Chemistry
▪ Octet rule

The tendency of an atom to have 8 electrons in their valence shell is called octet
rule. For example:
* + -
Na Cl Na Cl
*
2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

▪ Exception to the octet rules

There are many molecules which does not follow octet rule but they are found to
be stable.
1. Molecules in which only duplet is formed.
Example: H2, He
H2 → H H 4
2. Molecules having less than 8 electrons in the central atoms. BT
Chemistry
It could not explain about the formation of molecules in which central atom
contains less than 8 electrons. For example: AlCl3, BF3, BeCl2, etc.
Cl * Be * Cl
2,8,8 2,4 2,8,8
Here, central atom Be contains only 4 valence electrons
3. Molecules having more than 8 electrons in the central atoms.
It could not explain about the formation of molecules in which central atom
contains more than 8 electrons. For example: PCl5, SF6, IF7, etc.
Cl
Cl

p Cl

Cl
Cl
Here, central atom P contains 10 valence electrons 5
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Types of chemical bonding
Chemistry
1. Ionic bond or electrovalent bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Co-ordinate covalent bond
1. Ionic bond or electrovalent bond
The chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons
from one atom to another atom, is called electrovalent or ionic bond. The
compounds containing such bond are called electrovalent or ionic compounds.
For example: NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgO, Al2O3, etc.
Conditions:
1. One atom should be metal and another atom should be non-metal.
2. Metal should have low ionization energy
3. Non-metal should have high electron affinity.
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 Electrovalency BT
The total number of electrons lost or gained by an atom during the formation of Chemistry
ionic bond is called electrovalency.
Example:
+ - Hw c. MgCl2
a. NaCl Na* Cl Na Cl
*
2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8
Here, electrovalency of Na and Cl is 1.

b. Al2O3, Al** O
* --
+++
O 2Al 3 [ *
* O ]
Al**
* O
Here, electrovalency of Al is 3 and that of O is 2. 7
2. Covalent bond BT
The chemical bond which is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between Chemistry
the combining atoms, is called covalent bond and the corresponding
compounds are called covalent compounds. For example: H2, O2, N2, HCl, H2O ,
CH4, etc.
Conditions:
1. The combining atoms should have almost same electronegativity.
i.e. Generally, non-metals form covalent bond.

Covalency
The total number of electrons shared between the combining atoms during the
formation of covalent bond is called covalency.
The covalency of H, O, N and C are 1,2,3 and 4 respectively.

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Chemistry

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3. Co-ordinate covalent bond (Dative bond)
Chemistry
A special type of covalent bond which is formed by donating a lone pair of
electrons from donor atom to acceptor atom, is called co-ordinate covalent
bond and the corresponding compounds are called co-ordinate covalent
compounds. The co-ordinate covalent bond is denoted by an arrow ( → ) pointing
towards acceptor atom.

A +B A B A B
Conditions:
1. One atom should be electron rich and another atom should be electron
deficient species. The species which have tendency to donate electron pair
are called donor atom ( Lewis base ) and the species which have tendency to
accept electron pair are called acceptor atom ( Lewis acid ).
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Example:
Chemistry
a. NH₄⁺

NH₄⁺ ⟶ ⟶

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 ❑ Comparison of properties of Ionic, Covalent and Co-ordinate covalent bond
Properties ↓ Ionic Bond
1. State They exist in solid state.
2. MP and BP They have high melting and high
boiling point ( i.e. held by strong
electrostatic force of attraction).
3. Solubility They are soluble in water as well
as other polar solvent but are
insoluble in non-polar solvents
like CCl4, Benzene, etc.
4. Hardness They are hard and rigid.
5. Directional They are non-directional in
nature nature. i.e electrostatic force of Eg:
attraction exits from any direction
6. Electrical They are bad conductor of
conductivity electricity in the solid state but
are good conductor in the molten
or aqueous state. ( ions are free
to move in molten or aqueous
state)
Covalent bond
They exist in all three state.
They have low melting and low
boiling point ( i.e. held by weak
Vander Waal’s force of
attraction).
They are insoluble in water but
are soluble in non-polar
(organic) solvents like CCl 4,
Benzene, etc.
They are rigid.
They are directional in nature.
Shape: Tetrahedral
Bond angle: 109.50
They are bad conductor of
electricity. ( they have no free
electrons to conduct electricity)
Co-ordinate covalent bond
They also exist in all three state.
BP and MP are higher than that of
covalent bond but lower than that
of ionic bond.
They are sparingly soluble in
water as well as in non-polar
(organic) solvents. ( Due to semi-
ionic nature).
They are also rigid.
They are also directional in nature.
They are also bad conductor of
electricity.
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 ▪ Steps for drawing Lewis structure
1. Write the total number of valence electron (v)
2. Write the total number of electrons needed for octet or duplet (T)
T-V
3. Total number of covalent bond (C.B) =
2
For example: Oxyacids
a. H2SO4
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x1 + 6 + 4x6 = 32
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) = 2x2 + 8 + 4x8 = 44
T-V 44-32
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = = 6
2 2

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 a. H2SO4
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x1 + 6 + 4x6 = 32
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) = 2x2 + 8 + 4x8 = 44
T-V 44-32
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = =6
2 2

O
H O S O H
O
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 -
b. HSO4
-
O O
-
H O S O Or H O S O
O O
--
-- O O
c. SO4 -
-
O S O Or O S O
O O 15
Homework
2. a. H2CO3 b. HCO3- c. CO3-- d. Na2CO3 e. MgCO3

3. a. HNO3 b. NO3- c. KNO3 d. NH4NO3

- -- ---
4.a H3PO4 b. H2PO4 c. HPO4 d. PO4
e. (NH4)3 PO4

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Nitrogen Oxides [NO, N2O, NO2, N2O4, N2O3, N2O5]
a. NO
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 5 + 6= 11
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) = 8 + 8 = 16
T-V 16-11
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 = 2.5
2

N O

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 b. N2O
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x5 + 6= 16
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) =2x8 + 8 = 24
T-V 24-16
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 =4
2

N N O

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 c. NO2
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 5 + 2x6= 17
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) =8 + 2x8 = 24
T-V 24-17
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 = 3.5
2

O N O

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 d. N2O4
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x5 + 4x6= 34
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) =2x8 + 4x8 = 48
T-V 48-34
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 =7
2

O O
O N N O
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 e. N2O3
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x5 + 3x6= 28
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) =2x8 + 3x8 = 40
T-V 40-28 6
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 =
2

O
O N N O
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 f. N2O5
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x5 + 5x6= 40
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) =2x8 + 5x8 = 56
T-V 56-40
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 =8
2

O O
O N O N O
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 g. P2O5
Total no. of valence electron (v) = 2x5 + 5x6= 40
Total no. of electron needed for octet or duplet (T) =2x8 + 5x8 = 56
T-V 56-40
Total number of covalent bond (C.B) = = 2 =8
2

O O
O P O P O
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[Boric acid]

[Perchloric acid] [Chloric acid]

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 [Hypochlorous acid]
[Chlorous acid]

Cl O H

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❑ Ionic character of covalent Bond
Chemistry
▪ Polar- covalent bond
When covalent bond is formed between
two dissimilar atom, a partial ionic
character is developed due to large
difference in electronegativity of combining
atoms, such bond is called polar covalent
bond and the corresponding compound is
called polar covalent compound.
For example: HCl, HBr, HI, etc
δ+ δ-
H Cl

Electronegativity difference 0.1 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.7 2.3 3.0

% Ionic character 0.5 1 10 25 50 75 90
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Chemistry
▪ Non-Polar- covalent bond
When covalent bond is formed between
two similar atom, then the shared
electrons are equally distributed between
the combining atoms, such bond is called
non-polar covalent bond and the
corresponding compound is called non-
polar covalent compound.
For example: H2, N2, O2, etc

H H

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Chemistry

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Chemistry

The degree of polarity in covalent bond is expressed in terms of dipole moment.

Dipole moment is defined as “the product of magnitude of positive or negative
charge and distance between them”. It is represented by a Greek letter ‘μ’ and
its unit is Debye (D).
Mathematically,
Where, q = magnitude of positive or negative charge = 1x10-10 esu
μ=qxd d = distance between positive and negative charge = 1x10-8 cm
1D = 1x10-10 esu x 1x10-8 cm
1D = 1x10-18 esu.cm

The dipole moment is vector quantity as it has a direction as well as

magnitude and is represented by an arrow head (→) showing the direction
from less electronegative end to more electronegative end of dipole. 29
 The expression of dipole moment in HCl molecule is, BT
Chemistry

Application of dipole moment

1. To predict the polar and non-polar molecules:
a. If a molecule have zero dipole moment, then it is a non-polar molecule.
For example: H2, O2, N2, CO2, BeCl2, etc

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b. If a molecule have certain dipole moment, then it is a polar molecule. For Chemistry
example: H2O (μ= 1.85 D), NH3 (μ= 1.49 D), etc

2. To determine the shape and geometry of molecules:

Dipole moment of CO2 molecule is zero. This is possible only if the molecule
has linear structure.

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 H2O molecule has certain dipole moment (i.e. μ=1.85 D), hence its linear BT
structure is ruled out. Thus H2O molecule has bent structure. Chemistry

Resultant dipole moment

104.50

3. To determine the % of ionic character in molecules:

Higher the value of dipole moment, higher will be the % of ionic character i.e.
the molecule will be more polar.
e.g. HF (i.e. μ=1.92 D) has higher dipole moment than HCl (i.e. μ=1.03 D),thus
HF is more polar than HCl.
% of ionic character can be calculated as:
Observed dipole moment (μobs)
% ionic character= X 100
dipole moment for complete ionic character (μTh)
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Q. Explain why CO2 got linear structure while H2O got angular structure? BT
In CO2 molecule, there are two C=O bond. Each C=O bond is polar. This means Chemistry
each C=O bond has dipole moment. But the net dipole moment of CO2
molecule is zero, because the dipole moment of one C=O bond cancels that of
another C=O bond. Therefore CO2 got linear structure.

In H2O molecule, there are two O-H bond. Each O-H bond is polar. This means each O-H
bond has dipole moment. Since, H2O molecule has net dipole moment (μ=1.85 D), it means
two O-H bonds are not in straight line opposing the dipole moment of each other.
Therefore H2O got angular structure.
Resultant dipole moment

104.50

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Chemistry

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 BT
Chemistry
When hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to highly electronegative atom such as Fluorine,
oxygen or nitrogen, then shared pair of electrons are displaced towards more
electronegative atom. As a result a partial negative charge is developed on more
electronegative atom and partial positive charge is developed on H-atom. Thus molecule
becomes polar. This positive charge on H- atom exert electrostatic force of attraction on
the negatively charged electronegative atom of the same or other molecule which results
in the formation of H-bond.

Thus,
The electrostatic force of attraction between H-atom and highly electronegative atoms like
F, O and N present within the same molecule or another molecule of same or different
compound is known as Hydrogen bonding. It is denoted by dotted line( ).
Types of Hydrogen bonding
1. Intermolecular Hydrogen bonding
2. Intramolecular Hydrogen bonding 36
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1. Intermolecular Hydrogen bonding Chemistry
The hydrogen bond formed between H-atom of one molecule and highly electronegative
atoms like F, O and N atoms of another molecule of same or different compound is known
as Intermolecular Hydrogen bonding.
For example:

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Chemistry

δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-

Intermolecular Hydrogen bond between Ammonia and water molecules

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2. Intramolecular Hydrogen bonding BT
The hydrogen bond formed between H-atom and highly electronegative atoms Chemistry
like F, O and N atoms presents within the same molecule of a compound is
known as Intramolecular Hydrogen bonding.
For example: o-nitrophenol, o-hydroxy benzaldehyde (salicyladehyde),
o-nitro benzoic acid, o-hydroxy benzoic acid (salicylic acid)
Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
OH δ- δ+
O H δ-
O
NO2 δ+
N δ-
O

o-nitrophenol
o-nitrophenol
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 BT
Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
H Chemistry
δ+ δ-
CHO C O δ+
H
O δ -
OH

o-hydroxybenzaldehyde o-hydroxybenzaldehyde

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Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
O δ+
Chemistry
δ-
COOH C O H δ-
δ+ O
NO2 N δ-
O

o-nitrobenzoic acid o-nitrobenzoic acid

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 Intramolecular Hydrogen bond BT
HO δ+ δ- Chemistry
COOH C O δ+
H
OH O δ -

o-hydroxy benzoic acid o-hydroxy benzoic acid

Q. Define Hydrogen bonding with suitable examples.

Q. Define Intermolecular and intramolecular H-bonding with
suitable examples of each.

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Application of Hydrogen bonding
Chemistry
1. Life would not have been possible without liquid water which is the result of
intermolecular H-bond in it.
2. Most of our food materials such as carbohydrates and proteins also consists of
hydrogen bonded molecules.
3. Hydrogen bond also exists in various tissues organs, skins, blood and bones.

4. The rigidity and tensile strength of the silk, cotton or synthetic fibers is due to
H-bond.

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Effect of Hydrogen bond BT
1. State Chemistry

The compounds having H-bonding is usually exists in liquid state. For example, H2O
exists in liquid state whereas H2S exists in gaseous state.
Molecule H2O H2S
Electronegative value O=3.5 and H=2.1 S=2.5 and H=2.1
Difference in Electronegativity 1.4 0.4

It is clear that electronegativity difference between H and O in H2O is greater than

that between H and S in H2S. Thus, intermolecular H-bonding is stronger in H2O but
negligible in H2S. Stronger intermolecular H-bonding in H2O brings H2O molecules
close enough to form liquid. It is not possible in H2S due to absence of H-bonding.
Hence, H2O exists in liquid state whereas H2S exists in gaseous state.

Q. Explain, why H2O is liquid whereas H2S is gas ?

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2. Solubility BT
Chemistry
Covalent compounds generally do not soluble in water. However, the covalent
compounds which can form H-bonding with water are highly soluble in water. For
example, Lower alcohol, ammonia, glucose, sugar, etc are soluble in water because
they can form H-bonding with water.

δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-

Intermolecular Hydrogen bond between Ammonia and water molecules

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3. Melting and Boiling points
The compounds having H-bond usually have high melting and boiling point because
high amount of energy is required to break the intermolecular H-bond and to
separate the molecules. Thus, hydrides of F,O,N i.e. HF, H2O, NH3 etc have high
melting and boiling points compared to other hydrides of same group which form
no hydrogen bond.

4. Association of molecules
The hydrogen bonds link up molecules of the same substance to form large
aggregates. This is called association of molecules. For example, water molecules
undergo molecular association due to hydrogen bonding.
δ + δ - δ + δ -
δ + δ -

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 δ- δ+

δ+ δ-

5. Viscosity and Surface tension

Compounds which can form strong H- bonds have higher values of viscosity and
surface tension. Honey, conc. H2SO4, glycerine are highly viscous liquids due to
larger number of H-bonds.

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❑ Van der Waal’s force [London Dispersion force ]
Dutch chemist Johannes Diderik Van der waal was first to proposed the
existence of weak attractive forces between the atoms of inert gases like
He, Ne, Ar, etc or between the molecules of non-polar compounds like H2,
O2, N2, etc. These weak attractive force is known as Van der waal’s force.
Origin of Van der Waal’s force
- - - Van der Waal’s
- - - --
force
-
- - --
+ - - -- - --
- Motion
+ - - -- + -
- - - --
-- - - - -- - - -- -
- - -- - -
Symmetrical Instantaneous Induced dipole
distribution of dipole
electron cloud
Fig: Origin of Van der Waal’s force 48
A non-polar atom or molecule has its electron cloud distributed symmetrically around
the nucleus. It is supposed that, symmetrical movement of electron become
unsymmetrical for a fraction of second due to their motion. As a result one end gets
positive charge while other end gets negative charge which produces a small temporary
dipole which is known as instantaneous dipole. This instantaneous dipole induces the
neighbouring atoms and produces induced dipole.
The atoms (or molecules) get attracted with each other due to the attraction
between instantaneous dipole and induced dipole, which is known as Van der waal’s
force.

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 When the constituent particles of a solid are molecules, these are
called molecular solids. These molecules are held together either by
dipole-dipole interaction (as in the case of HCl) or by hydrogen bonding (as
in the case of H2O ) or by Van der Waal’s forces of attraction which exist
especially in non-polar ( H2, O2, N2, etc.) or inert molecules (Ne, Ar gas, etc.)
Vander Waal’s forces is responsible for the existence of inert gases,
non-polar gases in liquid and solid state, existence of iodine in crystalline
form and CO2 in solid state.

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❑ Metallic bond
A metallic bond is a force which binds the atoms of a metal with one another. Metallic
bond operates in metals and is a strong and special type of bond.
In order to explain, how the metal atoms in a metal crystal are bonded together, a simple
theory was first proposed by Drude and later on developed by Lorentz, which is known
as Electron sea model.

Electron sea model

According to this model, metal consists of positively charged metallic ions (kernels) in
which valence electrons are moving on the surface of metal as like gas molecule, so this
model is also called electron gas model. Thus, the simultaneous force of attraction
between the mobile electrons and kernels is responsible for holding the metal atoms
together and is called metallic bond.

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 For example:
Let us take Lithium (Li) metal whose electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s1. After loosing one
electron from the valence shell, it forms Li+, the arrangement of Li+ and the valence
electrons are
Li+ e
- + e- + e-
Metallic ions ( kernels)
Li Li

Li+ e- Li+ e- Li+ e-

Li+ e- Li+ e- Li+ e- Free electrons

Fig: Electron sea model of Li-metal

Conditions:
1. The metals should have low ionization energy, so that the metals can readily give up their
valence electrons to form metal ions.
2. The metal should have vacant valence orbitals so that the positive metal ions may move
freely in vacant orbitals. 52
▪ Properties of Metallic bonding
i. Metallic Lustre
Metal possesses metallic lustre. It is because, when light falls on the surface of the metal,
the electrons get excited and returned back immediately to the ground state, during the
process energy is emitted in the form of radiation. Thus, the light appears to be reflected
from the surface of the metal and metal surface shows lustre.
ii. Electrical and thermal conductivity
In metal, the valence electrons are not bound permanently to any particular nucleus,
hence , they are mobile. Because of this, metal conduct heat and electricity through the
movement of mobile electrons.
iii. Hardness
Metals are usually hard solid due to the strong electrostatic force of attraction between
positively charged metal ions and electrons.
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 iv. Malleability and Ductiblity

Stress

M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e-
Stress
M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- e- e- e- e- M+ e-
M+ M+ e- M+ M+ M+

M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e- M+ e-

Metals are malleable and ductile due to non-directional nature of metallic bond.
When stress is applied, the position of kernels is altered without destroying the
crystal lattice i.e. One layer of kernels slips over another layer. In this process,
electrons also moves towards kernels. Therefore, the environment for the
kernels remains same as before. This deforming force simply moves the
kernels from one lattice site to another lattice site. This makes metal malleable
and ductile.
Why metals are malleable and ductile? 54
v. High tensile strength
It is a property of the metal by which they can be stretched without breaking.
This means, metals have high tensile strength.

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