Hydraulic 

Rotary Drilling Rig
 The drilling rig
⇒ all the equipment which are required to drill a well is collectively known as the drilling rig
♦ different types of rigs
⇒ onshore
⇒ offshore
⇒ mechanical
⇒ diesel­electric
♦ major components of a hydraulic rotary rig
⇒ derrick and substructure
⇒ prime mover
⇒ hoisting equipment
⇒ rotary equipment
⇒ fluid handling equipment
⇒ blowout prevention equipment

Prime Mover
 Types
♦ IC engine
⇒ most modern rigs use IC engines
⇒ diesel engine is the most commonly used
⇒ gas engine used where natural gas is plentiful
♦ steam power plant
⇒ predominant upto 1950
♦ AC electric mains
⇒ when drilling in a heavily populated area such as a town or city
 Diesel engine
♦ power rating
⇒ depth to be drilled
⇒ rating of rig
♦ thermal efficiency
♦ power transmission equipment
⇒ mechanical 
⇒ electrical
2

Hoisting equipment
♦ the equipment which is used to raise and lower the drilling tools into the well bore
 Draw-works
♦ wire rope wound on a drum
⇒ drumshaft group ­ self study
• hoisting drum
• brakes
• cooling system
• auxiliary brakes
♦ gear transmission for matching power and load
⇒ main drive shaft and jackshaft group ­ self study
♦ accessories to handle various drilling tools
⇒ catshaft and coring reel group ­ self study
• catheads
• coring reel
 Hoisting tackle
♦ block and tackle system
⇒ the weight of the drill string is handled by employing a block­and­tackle system
• a continuous line is wound around a number of fixed and travelling pulleys
• line segments between the pulley sets multiply the single pull exerted by the hoisting drum
⇒ mechanical advantage
• weight lifted / force exerted
• consider two line system
• weight lifted = W
W/2 W/2
• force exerted = W/2, since it is divided between two lines W/2
W/2
• mechanical advantage = 2 Fastline
Deadline
• in general MA is equal to no. of lines between the pulleys
• ignoring friction at the pulleys, the pull required at the hoisting
drum is equal to the total weight divided by the number of line Hoisting drum W = Hook Load
segments between the pulley sets
♦ crown block and travelling block
⇒ the stationary set of pulleys or sheaves  fastened to the top of the derrick is the crown block
• a steel framework with the sheaves mounted parallel on a shaft on tapered roller bearings
⇒ travelling block has several independently mounted sheaves
• completely enclosed to prevent injury - must be free of sharp edges
• must be short and slim so that it can travel as high as possible
• must be heavy to overcome friction quickly
• drilling hook is attached to the travelling block in one unit - self study
⇒ number of sheaves mounted on a stationary shaft, each sheave => one pulley
• the drilling line is reeved successively round the crown block and travelling block sheaves; the
end coming from the crown block sheave goes to an anchoring clamp
• line connecting hoisting drum to the crown block is described as the 'fast line'
• speed of fast line is equal to number of lines times the speed of the travelling block, because
work done at both ends must be the same
• the fast-line sheave of the crown block must be positioned close to the centre line of the hoist-
ing drum
• fleet angle is the angle made by the fast line with the vertical, looking from the hoisting drum;
must be less than 1.5° to minimise poor drum spooling and line wear
• sheaves must be 30-35 times wire line diameter to reduce wear and fatigue; sheave grooves
have tapered faces to support 150° of rope circumference
• coring line sheave and other small sheaves are also mounted on the crown block
 Hoisting Equipment: 3

⇒ hook
⇒ miscellaneous tools
• tongs
• pipe spinner
• slips
• elevators
⇒ efficiency of block and tackle system
• static crown load = fast line load + hook
load + deadline load = W/n + W + W/n =
W(n+2)/n where n is the number of lines
between crown block and travelling block
• dynamic crown load = dynamic fast line
load + hook load + deadline load
• let η = block and tackle efficiency factor,
K = sheave and line efficiency per
sheave; then, W=P1+P2+P3+…+Pn;
or W=FL(K+K2+K3+…+Kn); hence,
W 1− K 
F L= n , where FL is the fast
K  1− K 
line load
n
K 1 −K 
• =
n 1− K 
• Q. Assuming K = 0.9615, find the static and dynamic fast line loads for a hoisting system em-
ploying 8 lines with a hook load of 100,000 lbs
• hook load HL = weight of drill string or casing in mud
• fast line load FL = HL/n (static) = HL/nη (dynamic)
• dead line load DL = HL/n (static) = FLKn(dynamic)
♦ dead line anchor
⇒ means for securing the dead line and measuring hook load
• small pulley fixed to a base which is securely attached to the rig substructure
 Drilling line
♦ wire rope - several strands wound around a core
⇒ Lang’s lay and regular lay
• in Lang's lay wires in the strands and the strands in the rope are twisted in the same direction
• better resistance to wear due to larger contact area - tends to unwind
• regular lay - wires in the strands and the strands in the rope are twisted in the opposite direc-
tions
• small wearing surface but easier to install and handle
⇒ specification
• lay, construction details - no of wires in each strand and number of strands, nominal diameter,
mass per unit length, and nominal strength
⇒ design factor 
• nominal strength of wire rope ÷ maximum load carried by a single line
• DF = strength ÷ fast-line load
• design factor is applied to compensate for wear and shock loading and its magnitude depends
on the kind of work performed
• API recommendation - DF >= 3 for hoisting and >= 2 for setting casing and overpull
♦ service life
⇒ evaluated by taking into account the work done by the line during drilling, fishing, coring, 
and running casing
• the stresses imposed by acceleration and deceleration loading, vibration stresses and bend-
ing stresses must also be taken into account
⇒ ton­miles ­ refers to the unit used to measure it
• gives a measure of work done by the drilling line in various operations while drilling to a cer-
tain depth
4

• indication of the stresses placed on the line => helps in evaluating the service life of the line
D  L s  D  W e D  M C /2 
• in round trip operations: T r =  ¿ ton-miles, where D = depth, Ls =
10,560,000 2,640,000
length of each stand, M = mass of travelling assembly, We = effective weight of drill pipe,
C =  LW dc − LW dp  BF , where Wdc = weight of drill collar in air; Wdp = weight of drillpipe in air;
ρm
L = length of drill collars; BF = buoyancy factor; BF =1−
ρs
• Drilling operations: Td=3Tr ton-miles
• coring operations: Tc=2Tr ton-miles

• setting casing: T s = 1
 D  Ls  D  W cs MD
2 10,560,000
 
2,640,000
ton-miles, where Wcs = weight of casing

• the total work performed by the drilling line in drilling a certain depth is the sum of Tr + Td + Tc
+ Ts
⇒ cut­off practice
• the service life of a drilling line can be increased by frequently cutting off a suitable length
• this avoids highly stressed points being constantly left in the same positions
• highly stressed points are on top of the crown block sheaves, the bottom of the travelling block
sheaves, and at cross-over points on the hoisting drum
• frequency of cut-off is determined from the ton-miles of work done by the drilling line; it is also
dependent on the type and diameter of the wire and on the local conditions
• cut-off frequency is usually found from API tables which lists the ton-miles for cut-off for differ-
ent rope sizes and locations
• the length which is to be cut off is dependent on the hoisting drum diameter and height of the
derrick
• API table is used for determining the length
• Q. Given the following:
drum diameter = 30" two-step spirallel grooving
derrick height = 136 ft
wire rope size = 1¼"
design factor = 3.5
Determine the ton-miles between cuts and cut-off length
 Power requirements
♦ the power required at the draw-works can be calculated from the fast-line load and fast-line
velocity
⇒ for a given distance moved by the hook load, the fast line has to move n times, where n is 
the number of lines
• V FL = nV H where VFL = velocity of fast line, and VH= velocity of hook
• power required at drum = FL x VFL
H
• or P= L nV H
nh
H V
• or P= L H
h
• Q. The following data refer to a 1½" drilling line with 10 lines of extra improved plough steel
wire rope strung to the travelling block:
hole depth = 10,000 ft
drill pipe = 5" OD, 19.5 lb/ft
drill collars = 500 ft, 8" OD, 150 lb/ft
mud weight = 75 pcf
block & tackle efficiency = 0.9615
Calculate:
1.weight of drill string in air and mud
2.hook load, assuming weight of travelling block and hook to be 23,500 lb
3.dead line and fast line loads, assuming an efficiency factor of 0.81
4.dynamic crown load
5.power required at drawworks if the drill string is to be raised at 3 ft/sec
6.wireline design during drilling if breaking strength of wire is 228,000 lb
7.design factor when running 7" casing of 29 lb/ft
8.round trip ton-miles at 10,000'
9.casing ton-miles if one joint of casing = 40'
 Hoisting Equipment: 5

10.ton-miles when drilling from 10,000' to 10,180'

Derrick
♦ a tower of sufficient height and strength to allow the raising and lowering (hoisting) of
equipment into the well
• the working place of driller
• substructure supports the derrick and other major equipment
 Portable
♦ jack-knife or A type
• transported and erected on site in one piece
• most commonly used
• self study
♦ truck mounted
 Fixed
♦ standard derrick
• can be transported only after dismantling into small pieces
• offshore rigs and very deep wells
• self study
 Specifications
♦ vertical load capacity - dead load + overpull
⇒ dead load = vertical load placed on top of the derrick by the weight of the casing string
• directly related to the depth of the well
• load is > casing string weight due to block and tackle system
• load is transmitted to the ground through the derrick legs
• girts and braces required to prevent the legs from buckling due to compression
⇒ overpull is the extra pull required to free the drill string if it gets stuck
• will vary depending on the type of formation and depth to be drilled
♦ wind load capacity - lateral wind load on derrick and stacked pipe
⇒ bending load 
• stacked pipe will add to this load
⇒ approx. wind load = 0.004V2 lb/ft2 , V is wind velocity in mph
• perpendicular area exposed to wind
• area of stacked pipe has to be taken into account
 Derrick efficiency factor
♦ measure of the use made of derrick strength
⇒ efficient utilisation of derrick design capacity
♦ DEF = (actual load / equivalent load) × 100
⇒ consider 4 lines => T=W/4 ; total vertical load = 6T C D
dead
Total Load Leg A Leg B Leg C Leg D line
Centred Load 4T 1.0T 1.0T 1.0T 1.0T Draw works
Fast line load T 0.5T 0.5T
Dead line load T 1.0T
Total Load 6T 1.0T 1.0T 1.5T 2.5T
A B
• the equivalent load = 2.5T × 4 = 10T => DEF = 6T/10T = 60%
• Q. What percentage of rated derrick capacity may be utilised when six lines to the travelling
block and eight lines on the crown block are used, with the dead line being attached to a der-
rick leg opposite the hoisting drum.
6

Rotary equipment
 Rotary table
♦ transfers rotary motion to the kelly
⇒ construction details ­ self study
♦ master bushing - self study
⇒ different types
⇒ slips
 Swivel
♦ prevents rotation of travelling block by kelly
⇒ heavy­duty roller bearings ­  takes the total weight of the drill string
♦ entry point for drilling fluid into the hole
⇒ gooseneck
• rotary hose
• fluid seals
♦ self study

Fluid handling equipment
 Mud pumps
♦ reciprocating pumps are used because large volumes and high pressures are required
⇒ duplex type
• two cylinders - usually double-acting
• used in shallow and medium depth wells
⇒ triplex or plunger
• three cylinder single acting
• capable of higher pressures
• more efficient and requires less maintenance
♦ construction
⇒ there are two major parts ­ power end and fluid end
• both are mounted on a common skid
• the power end contains the driving parts consisting of main drive pulley, drive gear, eccentric con-
necting rod, cross-head, etc.; it converts the rotary motion from the prime mover into reciprocating
motion, which is transmitted to the piston rod
• the fluid end contains of two or more cylinders; each cylinder contains two suction and two dlivery
valves, in case of double-acting pump, or one each in case of single-acting pumps; in double-act-
ing pumps, suction takes place form one end of cylinder and at the same time delivery takes place
from the other end
♦ capacity and pressure
⇒ able to handle fluids containing solid, abrasive particles
⇒ pressures and volumes can be changed
• pressure and volume requirements change as the well is drilled
• at shallow depths where the hole diameter is large, large volume of drilling fluid is required at low
pressure; smaller volumes at higher pressures are required as the hole becomes deeper
• interchangeable liners and pistons of various sizes are available
• smaller diameter liners and pistons give higher pressures with lower volume flow rate
• surface pumping pressures and volumes are calculated at intervals of 2000-3000' and at every
 Rotary, Fluid Handling & BOP Equipment: 7

change of hole size to determine the liner sizes

⇒ surge chambers are required to minimise pressure pulsations 
• discharge from reciprocating pumps is fluctuating
• a gas filled diaphragm chamber is attached to the outlet which absorbs the fluctuations
2
p D SN
⇒ flow rate  q = gpm
231
• D=liner diameter in inches, S=stroke length in inches, N=number of strokes per minute
2
D SN p
⇒ power  P=  hp
107,000
• p=pressure in psi
⇒ pressurised suction of mud pump
• a centrifugal pump is used to pump mud into the mud pump inlet; this is especially required in
triplex pumps which are comparatively high speed, operating at about 120 strokes per minute;
due to the high velocity of the piston, the full volume of fluid is not drawn in during suction strokes
• the centrifugal pump keeps the suction manifold flooded under pressure; this ensures full suction
during suction strokes with an increase in the volumetric efficiency
♦ specification of mud pump
⇒ maximum input horsepower or output hydraulic horsepower
pq
• output hydraulic horsepower = , p is in psi, and q is in gpm
1714
• pump is rated at the maximum pressure with the smallest liner
 Mud treatment equipment
♦ mud tanks
⇒ required for storage, mixing, treatment and circulation of mud
• either steel tanks or pits dug in the ground
• mud has to treated with chemicals, weighting materials, bentonite, etc., periodically
• chemical barrel - small tank (1-5 bbl) used for adding chemicals to mud
• trip tank - 15-30 bbl - used for measuring an accurate volume of mud or other fluid to be pumped
into the hole
• mixing hopper - conical drum placed on a fluid line containing a jet nozzle - used for mixing a
powdered solid with a liquid
• mixing and suction tanks or pits - the drilling fluid is kept in constant agitation in these tanks to
prevent settling and ensure thorough mixing of all added material
• mud agitators are used to agitate the drilling fluid - electric motor driven paddles or jets called
paddle mixer or mud gun
8

♦ flowpath of the drilling fluid

Vibration Hose
Mud ditch Mud tanks Mud suction pit Mud Pump Manifold Mud line

Gas Rig floor

Separator circulating
system
Shale
Shaker
Flow line

Bell nipple Standpipe

Annulus Bit Drillstring Gooseneck/swivel Rotary hose

• manifold - combination of valves and piping to divert fluid from one or more sources to or more
outlets
• rig floor circulating system - used to divert flow of mud from standpipe to fillup line connected to
annulus during tripping
• a pressure gauge is also attached here
• circulating time - time required by the drilling fluid to make one complete circuit of the flowpath
• hole circulating time - time from pump through the drillpipe up to the surface of the hole
• lag time - time from bit to the surface
♦ removal of drill cuttings
⇒ control of solid particles in the mud
• solids in mud degrade the properties of the mud and decrease the drilling efficiency
• shale shakers
• desanders, desilters
• degassers
• self study

BOP equipment
⇒ prevents unwanted flow of formation fluids into the well bore
⇒ basically fast action valves
• closes the well bore in case of influx of formation fluids
 BOP stack
⇒ annular preventer
• closes the well bore regardless of the type of drillstring element in the hole
⇒ pipe ram
• closes the well bore when there is drillpipe in the hole
⇒ blind ram
• closes an empty hole
⇒ shear ram
• cuts off the drillpipe and closes the hole
 Control equipment
♦ hydraulic pumps, valves and lines
⇒ BOP's are operated by hydraulic pressure
• plunger pumps pressurise the hydraulic fluid
 Rotary, Fluid Handling & BOP Equipment: 9

• fluid flows to the control panel and the BOP's through pipes called hydraulic lines
• valves are used to direct the fluid to the various BOP's
• valves are remotely operated from a control panel
• usually two control panels are situated away from the derrick
♦ accumulators
⇒ are used to store the pressurised fluid
• a high pressure cylinder containing precharged nitrogen gas and hydraulic fluid
• the gas is separated from the fluid by a rubber diaphragm
• the gas pressure helps in releasing the fluid at a much higher rate than can be achieved by the
pump
• this allows the preventers to be closed at the highest possible speed
⇒ a number of accumulators are required
• called a bank of accumulators
• number of accumulators depends on the volume of hydraulic fluid required
♦ charging pumps
⇒ air­ or electrically­driven
• air-driven pump is powered by compressed air from an air compressor or air storage tank
• electrically-driven pumps are driven by an electric motor powered by a generator
⇒ normally powered by two independent sources
• dual air/electric
• dual electric
• two sources are required for extra safety
10

The Drill String
 Kelly
♦ transmits rotating force to the drill string while allowing it to move axially
⇒ square or hexagonal tube
• carries the entire weight of the drill string
• high grade chrome molybdenum steel - heat treated for surface hardness and strength
• length - 40' or 54'; diameter - 2.5 to 6"; usually 5.25" OD and 3" ID
♦ kelly drive bushing
⇒ transmits motion from master bushing to kelly Roller

• fits into the master drive bushing and engages either through pins or a
square section Kelly
• the corners of the kelly section fit into rollers mounted in the kelly drive
bushing
• rotation of the rotary table turns the master bushing which rotates the
kelly drive bushing thereby turning the kelly
• as the kelly goes down due to deepening of the hole the rollers allow
free movement of the kelly and keep it centred in the hole
♦ kelly accessories
⇒ kelly saver sub
• a small sub (a short pipe with threads on both ends) connected to the bottom of the kelly
• protects kelly threads from excessive wear due to repeated making up and breaking out of
drillpipe during drilling operations
• the sub can be replaced when it is worn out - saves replacing the kelly
⇒ kelly cock
• a special sub installed on top of the kelly - contains a one way valve
• acts as a back-pressure valve, protecting equipment above the kelly (the swivel and rotary
hose) from the high pressures which may occur inside the hole
• can be installed below the kelly also - used to shut off drillpipe pressure during well kicks
♦ failure of kelly
⇒ three conditions can cause failure of kelly
• bending due to improper tightening or handling
• fatigue in the drive section
• rounding off of the drive corners
 Drill string
♦ drill pipe
⇒ main function is to transmit rotary motion and high pressure drilling fluid to the drill bit 
at the bottom of the hole
• axial loading due to own weight
• radial forces due to formation pressure
• torque due to rotation
• cyclic loads due to rotation in crooked hole
⇒ seamless, alloy steel pipe, upset at both ends
• external, internal/external, or internal upset - increased wall thickness at the pipe ends
• manufactured in three lengths - Range One, 18-22 ft; Range Two, 27-30 ft; and Range Three,
38-45 ft
• diameter ranges from 23/8" to 65/8"
• four grades - API specifications - E, X95, G105, and S135; graded according to tensile
strength of the steel used— E–75,000; X95–95,000; G105–105,000; S135–135,000 psi min-
imum yield strength
• since the strength of the drillpipe will decrease due to wear and tear, the drillpipe is also
graded according to degree of wear - Class One, Premium, Class Two, and Class Three
⇒ specifications
• nominal weight per foot
 The Drill String: 11

• internal diameter
• collapse resistance
• internal yield pressure
• pipe body yield strength
• torsional yield strength
• API tables are available which list the properties for different sizes and grades of pipe
⇒ tool joints ­ short pieces of pipe with threads attached to the drillpipe ends for connecting 
two pipes together
• attached to the drillpipe ends by a flash welding process
• threaded either internally or externally - external threaded tool joint is called the 'pin'; internal
one is called the 'box'; drillpipe singles are joined together by screwing the pin of one pipe into
the box of another pipe
• the pin and box are tapered for easy fitment
• most important part of the drill string since it holds the individual pipes together, taking all the
loads the pipes are subjected to, and prevents the leakage of drilling fluid from the drillpipe
• the threads - called rotary shouldered connection - must be carefully designed to provide a
strength at the joint equal to or greater than the pipe body and provide a seal against the in-
ternal pressure in the drillpipe
• various thread forms are used - specified by width of thread crest, radius of thread root, angle
between threads, and number of threads per inch; nomenclature—Vx - x is the width of the
crest; VxR - x is the radius of the root
• fluid seal is provided by metal contact of the shoulders of the tool joints
• proper tightening, called make up, is of utmost importance in preventing failure of the joint —
sufficient torque has to be applied to prevent wobble and leakage while too high torque will
result in failure of the pin
• the tool joint is hard-faced on part of its outer surface to increase its wear resistance
♦ drill collars
⇒ used to provide weight on bit and to keep the drillpipe in tension
• drillpipe buckles when placed in compression - leads to increased fatigue stresses particularly
at the tool joints resulting in early failure
• fatigue failure is eliminated by keeping the drillpipe in constant tension, which means that the
drillpipe is always hanging from the hook
• to provide the weight on bit necessary for drilling, the drill collars are attached next to the bit
• 75-85% of the buoyant weight of drill collars is placed on bit
• neutral point - point of zero tension and compression - will lie in the drill collars
• safety factor of 1.15 to 1.25 against drillpipe being placed in compression
• this is required because of the shock loads on the bit which can change the weight on bit
⇒ heavy­walled pipe with small internal diameter compared to outside diameter
• average length is 31 ft, outside diameter - 27/8" to 12", inside diameter - 1" to 4"
• because of the thickness of the pipe body separate tool joints are not required; the pins and
boxes are cut from the drill collar itself
• the connection is similar to a tool joint connection
⇒ selection of drill collar size
• small inside diameter results in high pressure losses during pumping of the drilling fluid
• hence the largest size of drill collar available is usually chosen
• added advantage of less number of drill collars required - fewer drill collars to handle
• fewer connections - fewer points of failure
• weight is concentrated near the bit - better performance
• if all drill collars are lost, less of hole is lost - this happens because the joint between the drill-
pipe and drill collars is most prone to failure
• other factors affecting drill collar size are bit size, crooked hole tendency, and size of
washover tool available
• in general the largest size of drill collar that can be washed over, if stuck, is selected
⇒ types of drill collars
• self study
12

♦ accessories - self study

⇒ stabilisers
⇒ reamers  
⇒ heavy­wall drillpipe
⇒ shock subs
⇒ drilling jar
♦ bit
⇒ the main component of the drill string
• tool that actually cuts through the rock and drills the hole
• the bit crushes the rock under the combined action of weight on bit and rotation of bit
• the broken up rock chips are flushed out by the circulating fluid
• the bit can then attack a new rock surface
⇒ drag type bit
• earliest type of bit used for rotary drilling
• no moving parts - consists of fixed spade-like blades on a mandrel
• two or three blades are used - two bladed bit is also called a fishtail bit
• blades made of alloy steel with the cutting edges hard faced with tungsten carbide
• outlets for the drilling fluid placed in between the blades - the mud stream is directed ahead of
the cutting edge
• drills by a shovelling action - the blades dig into the formation material and push it out
• effective only in soft formations since in hard formations the blades just rub over the rock sur-
face and get worn out very fast
• once widely used for drilling soft sticky formations
⇒ rolling cutter bits
• first designed in 1909 by Howard Hughes
• cutters in the shape of cones which rotate about their axis
• the cones have cutting teeth either milled or inserted in them
• three types - two cone, three cone, and four cone
• three cone bit is the most widely used in oil well drilling
• as the bit rotates, the cones also rotate on their own axis and roll on the rock face
• under the action of the weight on the bit the teeth in the cones crush the rock
• a scraping action is also provided at the teeth which further helps in cutting and removing the
rock chips
• nozzles are provided in between the cones from where drilling fluid flows out at high velocity
and flushes out the rock chips and cuttings
• many types of bits are available for soft, medium and hard formations
• important considerations in selecting a suitable bit are the formation characteristics, size of
the hole, and depth of the hole
⇒ polycrystalline diamond bits
• similar to the old drag type bit
• consists of a large number of cutting elements, called drill blanks, which are fixed to a body
made of tungsten carbide
• drill blanks are made of tungsten carbide on which a layer of man-made polycrystalline dia-
mond is bonded
• combines the advantages of fast drilling action of a drag bit with the wear resistance of dia-
mond
• drilling is by a shearing action - can be used only in soft and medium hard rocks
⇒ diamond bits
• used for drilling very hard and abrasive formations
• consists of a tough, durable body on which commercial diamonds are partially embedded
• drilling is primarily by a scraping and grinding action
• since the bit has a very long life, it is also commonly used for drilling very deep holes, where
the time required to change a bit takes up a large part of the total drilling time
 Drill String Design: 13

Drill String design
 determination of the lengths, weights, and grades of drillpipe
 design depends on several factors
♦ hole depth and size
⇒ the anticipated total depth and hole size must be known 
♦ mud weight
♦ desired safety factor
⇒ the safety factors required in tension and collapse or the margin of overpull must be estab­
lished beforehand
♦ length of drill collars
♦ desired drillpipe sizes and usage/inspection class
 design criteria
♦ tension
⇒ the load placed on the drillpipe due to the weight of the drillstring
• only buoyant weights will be considered
• since the drillstring is always submerged in the drilling fluid
• buoyant force reduces the total weight of the drillstring; magnitude depends on fluid density
⇒ total weight carried by the top joint of the drillpipe
• P=weight of drillpipe in mud + weight of drill collars in mud (weight of other accessories is in-
cluded in weight of drill collars
• P =  L dp W dp  L dc W dc  BF , where Ldp=length of drillpipe; Wdp=weight of drillpipe per unit
length; Ldc=length of drill collars; Wdc=weight of drill collars per unit length; BF = buoyancy
ρm
factor; BF =1− , where ρm = density of mud; ρs = density of steel
ρs
• drillpipe strength is expressed in terms of yield strength - load at which deformation occurs
• API tables list the strength properties of new as well used drillpipe
• for design purposes 90% of the tabulated yield strength is used to provide an added margin of
safety in the design since the table values are theoretical and measure the point at which
some permanent deformation has occurred
• maximum tensile design load, Pa= theoretical yield strength x 0.9
• the drillpipe grade to be chosen will depend on the safety factor, which is dependent on the
overall drilling conditions, including hole drag and the likelihood of the pipe becoming stuck
• Pa = P x SF , where SF is the safety factor
• knowing Pa the drillpipe strength table can be looked up to choose a suitable grade of drillpipe
for a given size
• the difference between design load and actual load is the margin of overpull, MOP = Pa – P
• MOP normally varies between 50,000–100,000 lb.
P×0.9− MOP W dc
• or, L dp = − L , this gives the maximum length of a given grade of drill-
W dp BF W dp dc
pipe which can be used for a given loading situation
P×0.9 W dc
• or, L dp = − L , expressed in terms of SF
SF ×W dp BF W dp dc
• either of these two equations can be used to design a tapered string, consisting of different
grades and sizes of drillpipe
• the pipe having the lowest strength is placed next to the drill collars and its maximum length
calculated with the above formula; the next stronger pipe is placed next, but in this case the
weight of the lower string is added to drill collar weight term Wdc
♦ collapse
⇒ external pressure required to cause yielding of drillpipe
• in normal drilling, the pressures inside and outside the drillpipe are equal because the mud
columns are equal in density and height on both sides of the pipe
• under some conditions the drillpipe may be run partially full; in this case the maximum differ-
14

L 1  L−Y   2
ential pressure across the drillpipe, Dp= − , where Y = depth of fluid in-
19.251 19.251
side the drillpipe; L = total depth of well in ft; ρ1 = fluid density outside the drillpipe in ppg; ρ2 =
fluid density inside the drillpipe in ppg
L 1
• when drillpipe is completely empty, Dp=
19.251
Y
• fluid density is same both inside and outside the drillpipe, Dp=
19.251
• once the collapse is calculated, a safety factor is applied to determine a suitable grade of drill-
pipe from API tables; usually SF = 1.125
♦ shock loading
⇒ imposed on drillpipe when slips are suddenly set on a moving pipe
• additional tensile load is placed on pipe
• Fs = 3200Wdp assuming an average velocity of 13 seconds per 40'
♦ torsion
⇒ torsional loads are placed on drillpipe by the rotary table
• drillpipe is rotated against the opposing forces due to bit drag and rubbing of drillpipe against
the hole wall
• becomes critical when drilling deviated or deep holes, reaming, or when pipe is stuck
⇒ torsional loads are also imposed when a drillpipe joint is tightened
• make-up torque
• the torque applied on a drill pipe can never exceed the make up torque of the tool joints
⇒ the torsional yield strength is calculated from the yield strength
• minimum torsional yield strength, Q=
0.096J
D  2 P2
Y m − 2 lb-ft, where Ym = minimum yield
A
strength, psi; J = polar moment of inertia = 0.098(D4–d4); D = outside diameter, in; d = inside
diameter, in; P = total load in tension, lb; A = cross-sectional area, in2
• Ex. a) A drill string consists of 600 ft of 81/4 in x 213/16 in drill collars and the rest is a 5 in, 19.5
lbm/ft Grade X95 drillpipe. If the required MOP is 100,000 lb and mud weight is 75 pcf (10
ppg, calculate the maximum depth of hole that can be drilled when (a) using new drillpipe
(501,090 lb yield strength)and(b) using Class 2 drillpipe having a yield strength of 394,600 lb
b)If 10,000 ft of the drillpipe is used, determine the maximum collapse pressure that can be
encountered and the resulting safety factor. If the fluid level inside the drillpipe drops to 6000ft
below the rotary table, determine the new safety factor in collapse. Collapse resistance of X95
pipe is 12,010 psi
 selection of drill collars
♦ weight of drill collars
⇒ the weight of the drill collars is dependent on the weight on the bit
• the required weight on bit is determined from manufacturers recommendations, bit perform-
ance data, and information from nearby wells
weight on bit
• air weight of drill collars = , where θ = hole angle from vertical; the safety
cos q ×SF× BF
factor is used to keep the neutral point within the drill collar assembly
♦ size of drill collars
⇒ it should be as large as possible
• if very large collars are used a tapered string with two or more sizes must be used to reduce
the large change in cross-sectional area at the drill pipe joint
♦ bending strength ratio
⇒ sudden changes in bending strength in the drill string results in stress failures
• the bending strength is dependent on the cross-sectional area of the pipe
• too much change in cross-sectional area from large collars to the drill pipe or from one size of
drill collars to a smaller size will cause accelerated connection failures and rapid fatigue dam-
age
• the bending strength ratio can be measured from the section modulus of the pipe;
 Drill String Design: 15

p
 OD4 − ID4 
32
OD
⇒ between drill collar and drill pipe
• the ratio of the section modulus between the drill collar and the drill pipe should be always
kept below 5.5; in severe drilling conditions it should be 3.5
⇒ within the drill collar connection
• since the connection consists of a pin fitting into a larger diameter box, there is a change in
cross-sectional area
• the section modulus ratio between the box and pin can be found; it should be in the range of
3.2 to 1.9
 critical rotary speeds
♦ the drillstring can vibrate due to its own rotational forces
⇒ axial or longitudinal vibrational mode
• recognised at the surface by bouncing of the kelly and whipping of the drilling line
⇒ torsional vibrational mode
• cannot be seen at the surface since the rotary table is holding the drillstring
• results in extra torsional loads on the drillpipe
⇒ transverse or lateral vibrational mode
• lateral movement of the drillpipe
• increases the bending forces
⇒ vibrational forces result in excessive wear, fatigue failure, and rapid deterioration of the 
drillpipe
♦ vibration occurs due to resonance
⇒ when the frequency of the applied force equals the natural free vibration frequency of the 
drillstring
⇒ to prevent this vibration the drill bit must be rotated at a speed different from the natural 
frequency of the drillstring
♦ calculation of critical rotary speeds based on drill collar length
⇒ for a three­cone bit, the frequency of vibration at the bit is given by
1
• f = 3N cycles/sec , where N = rotary speed of drillstring, rpm
60
• this relation has been determined empirically
⇒ hence, critical rotary speed, N =20 x f rpm
⇒ the critical rotary speed is calculated from the natural vibrational frequency of the drill­
string
4212
• natural frequency of longitudinal vibrations of the drill collars, f 1 = c/s, where L =
L
length of drill collars
2662
• natural frequency of torsional vibrations of the drill collars, f 2= c/s
L
⇒ the bit should be rotated at a speed less or greater than the natural frequencies of the drill 
collars
 Stretch of drillpipe
♦ stretch due to weight carried
PL
⇒ drillpipe extension or elongation,  e 1 = 735,444W in
dp
• L = length of drillpipe, ft; P = weight of drill collars, lb
♦ stretch due to own weight
2
L
⇒   e2 =  65.44 −1.44  m  in
9.625 ×10 7
• where ρm = density of mud, ppg
16

Rotary drilling bits
 Three cone bit
♦ principal features
• a three-cone bit employs three equal sized cutting cones, each fitted on an identical leg, with a
suitable bearing arrangement
• the bearings run on a pin which forms an integral part of the bit leg; the three legs are welded
together and form the cylindrical section, which is threaded to make a pin connection to
provide a means of attachment to the drill string
• each leg is provided with an opening for fluid circulation; the size of this opening can be adjus-
ted by fitting nozzles of different sizes; nozzles provide the constriction necessary to obtain
high jetting velocity for efficient hole cleaning
• mud pumped through the drill string passes through the pin bore and out through the nozzles
♦ design factors
• the design of a rolling cone bit depends on the type and hardness of formation and the size of
the hole to be drilled; formation hardness dictates the type and property of the material used
for the cutting elements
⇒ journal angle
• the bit journal is the bearing load carrying surface; the journal angle is defined as the angle
formed by a line perpendicular to the axis of the journal and the axis of the bit
• the magnitude of the journal angle directly affects the size of the cone; an increase in journal

angle will result in a decrease in the basic angle of the cone and, in turn, cone size; at a journ-
al angle of 45° the cutters can theoretically become truly rolling
• the smaller the journal angle the greater the gouging and scraping action by the three cones;
this is because the cone circumference along its length does not match the length of its rolling
path
• as the journal angle increases from zero, the cones must be shaped to prevent them from in-
terfering with one another; it follows that the journal angle influences both cutter size and cut-
ter shape
• optimum journal angles for soft and hard roller bits are 33° and 36°, respectively
⇒ cone offset
• the degree of offset is defined as the horizontal distance between the axis of the bit and a ver-
tical plane through the axis of the journal
• the adjacent figure shows a cone with its apex at the centre of bit rotation and will move in a
circle centred at the apex; this movement produces true rolling action
• usually, the bit cone incorporates two basic cone angles, neither
of which has its apex at the centre of bit rotation; the conical heel
surface tends to rotate about its theoretical apex, and the inner
cone surface about its own apex; since the cone is forced to ro-
tate about the centreline of the bit, it slips as it rotates producing
a tearing, gouging action
• the slipping action of the bit can be further increased by offset-
 Rotary Drilling Bits: 17

ting the centrelines of the cones from the centre of bit rotation; the amount of offset is directly
related to the strength of rock being drilled
• hard rocks are characterised by brittleness and high strength, and can be better drilled by
crushing and chipping actions, as opposed to soft rocks which can be more easily drilled by
gouging and scraping action; hence, in hard rock bits, offset is zero, while in medium bits the
skew angle can be up to 2°

⇒ teeth
• the length and geometry of the teeth are directly related to the strength of the rock to be
drilled; however, the tooth depth is limited by the size of the cone and bearing structure
• the criteria employed in tooth design are:
1.spacing and interfitting of teeth — interfitting of cone teeth permits meshing of teeth for self
cleaning
2.shape and length of teeth — this is dictated by formation characteristics.
Long, slender and widely spaced teeth are used for drilling soft formation rocks; this results
in the breaking of a greater volume of rock at any one contact between bit and rock; the
wide spacing allows space for the resultant large size cuttings and permits their easy re-
moval; the included angle of the tooth ranges from 39° to 42°.
For hard formations the teeth are manufactured shorter, heavier and more closely spaced,
to withstand the higher compressive loads required to break the rock; the teeth are not in-
tended to penetrate the rock, but simple to fracture it by application of high compressive
loads
A medium-hard formation bit would have a moderate number of teeth, having 43–45° in-
cluded angles; the included angle for the hard bit teeth is 45–50°
3.types of teeth — the three cone bit teeth can be milled type or insert type. Milled teeth are
cut from the cone body, one side of the tooth being hard-faced with a resistant material
such as tungsten carbide to provide a self-sharpening effect. As the unfaced side of the
tooth wears away, it leaves a sharp edge suitable for efficient drilling. Milled-tooth bits are
only suitable for drilling very soft to soft formations in which moderate weights are required
to fracture the rock.
For hard rocks the cutting elements of the cone are of the insert type. Inserts, also called
buttons, are made of tungsten carbide and are cold-pressed into holes already drilled in the
cone shell. There are several shapes of inserts, each being designed to suit the hardness
of rock being drilled. Chisel-shaped inserts are used to drill soft rocks, while round or hemi-
spherical inserts are used to drill medium to hard rocks.
⇒ bearings
• bit bearings are required to: (a) support radial loads; (b) support thrust or axial loads; and (c)
secure the cones on the legs; three bearings are used in a bit — outer bearing, middle ball
bearing, and nose bearing
• radial loads are supported by the outer and nose bearing; the ball bearing and friction thrust
faces support the axial loads and secure the cones
• two different bearing arrangements are commonly used —
1.anti-friction bearings – two types are used: a) roller-ball-roller (RBR); and b) roller-ball-fric-
tion (RBF)
2.friction bearings – both nose and outer bearings are journal bearings, which allows the
cone journal diameter and length to be increased resulting in a more rugged bearing design
• bearings are classified as non-sealed or sealed, with reference to the lubrication system; non-
sealed bearings, which are rarely used, are lubricated by the mud system, while sealed bear-
18

ings are lubricated by a special system built within the leg body
• a sealed bearing consists of bearing, seal, reservoir and pressure compensator; an O-ring
provides the seal necessary to prevent mud from entering or grease from leave the bearing;
the reservoir provides a lubricant to the bearing through a connecting passageway; the move-
ment of the lubricant is controlled by the pressure compensating system, which maintains
equal pressure inside and outside the bearing
♦ classification
• various designs of milled-tooth or insert bits can be manufactured by using different combina-
tions of size, shape and type of tooth, amount of offset, bearing type, and lubrication mechan-
ism; there are several bit manufacturers, each of them having their own modifications to the
basic bit design
• thus, for the same rock type, there are many different designs from several manufacturers; to
simplify the problem of selecting a bit, the International Association of Drilling Contractors has
prepared a comparison chart in which each bit is distinguished by a three-code system
• the first digit defines the series classification relating to the cutting structure; for milled-tooth
bits, the first code carries the numbers 1 to 3, which describes soft, medium, and hard rocks,
respectively; insert bits are numbered from 5 to 8; again these numbers relate to increasing
rock hardness
• the second digit relates to formation hardness subdivision within each group and carries the
numbers 1 to 4; these numbers signify formation hardness, from softest to hardest within each
series
• the third code defines the mechanical features of the bit, such as bearing type, etc.
• once the three-digit code of the bit type required is determined, the code can be looked up in
manufacturers’ charts to find out a manufacturer’ name or code for that bit type
 Polycrystalline diamond compact bits
♦ features
⇒ new generation of old drag bit
• also called ‘stratapax’ bits
• the bit breaks the rock in shear and not in compression, as is the case with rolling cone bits;
shear failure requires significantly less energy; less weight on bit can be used, resulting in less
wear and tear on the rig and drill string; however, this bit can be used only in rocks of soft to
medium hardness
♦ construction
• the PDC bit employs a large number of cutting elements, each called a drill blank; the drill
blank is made by bonding a layer of polycrystalline man-made diamond to a cemented tung-
sten carbide substrate in a high-pressure, high-temperature process
• this process produces a blank (or compact) having the hardness and wear resistance of dia-
mond complemented by the impact resistance of the tungsten carbide layer; the blanks are
bonded to specially shaped tungsten carbide studs and are then either brazed or interference
fitted to the bit body
♦ design factors
⇒ bit body material
• two types of bit body materials are in use —
1.heat-treated alloy steel, as used in rolling cone bits
This is less durable and less resistant to erosion by the drilling fluid than are the matrix
body bits. Steel body bits use stud-type cutters and are provided with three or more
nozzles for fluid passage
2.a tungsten carbide matrix, as used in diamond bits.
Tungsten carbide matrix body bits are cast in a mould similar to the process of manufactur-
ing diamond bits. This allows a complex profile to be obtained. The studs are then attached
by brazing to the matrix body
⇒ bit profile
• the bit profile affects the cleaning and stability of the hole and gauge protection, which is the
prevention of undergauge hole
• the double-cone profile allows more cutters to be placed near the gauge; it prevents under-
gauge hole and since it is more closely held in the hole controls hole deviation
• the shallow-cone profile affords less area for cleaning, but drills faster owing to the more direct
loading of the cutters on the bit face by the weight applied by the drill collars
 Rotary Drilling Bits: 19

⇒ gauge protection
• the sides of the bit are protected from wear due to rubbing the sides of the hole by placing cut-
ting elements
• steel body bits utilise tungsten carbide inserts placed near the edges, while matrix body bits
use natural diamonds for gauge protection
⇒ cutter geometry
• the PDC blanks are produced in three basic shapes – standard cylindrical, chisel shape, and
convex
• generally longer bit life is obtained with a greater concentration of cutters; however, the penet-
ration rate decreases due to greater difficulty of cleaning the areas between the cutters
• cutter exposure is the length of the blank which projects above the bit body; this determines
the cutting depth; penetration rate increases with increased cutter exposure, but with a greater
risk of breakage
• cutter orientation refers to the back and side rake angles, as shown in the adjoining figure; the
back rake angle varies between 0° and 25°, and its magnitude directly affects the rate of pen-
etration; as the rake angle increases, the penetration rate decreases, but with more resistance
to cutting edge damage increases; the side rake angle assists hole cleaning by mechanically
directing cuttings towards the annulus
⇒ hydraulics
• PDC bits require optimum hydraulics for efficient hole cleaning, which results in efficient
drilling
• the bit nozzles are closer to hole bottom in PDC bits, compared to rolling cone bits; hence
maximum jetting speed will result in improved cleaning and high penetration rates
 Diamond bits
• a diamond bit consists of a large number of small-sized diamonds geometrically distributed
across a tungsten carbide body; there are no moving parts
• diamond bits are generally used for hard and abrasive rock drilling and when longer bit runs
are required in order to reduce trip time, such as in deep wells, and in offshore wells, where
rig costs are very high
♦ types
♦ features
 Bit selection
♦ cost per foot method
♦ specific energy method