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HSSRPTR - Plus Two Botany Focus Area 2022-23-MBTA
HSSRPTR - Plus Two Botany Focus Area 2022-23-MBTA
HSSRPTR - Plus Two Botany Focus Area 2022-23-MBTA
13. Pollengrains are preserved as fossils. Why?:- Due to the presence of Sporopollenin (Organic material
resistant to high temperature, strong acids & alkali & cannot be degraded by enzymes)
14. Germ pores :– Thin walled area in exine where sporopollenin is absent.Pollen tube comes out through
germ pore during germination.
15. Pollentube :– Tube formed by pollengrain & it carry 2 male gametes into the embryosac
16. Vegetative cell :– Bigger cell. Contain reserve food materials. Large irregularly shaped nucleus.
17. Generative cell :– Small cell. Float in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. Spindle shaped with dense
cytoplasm and nucleus.
18. Pollen bank :– Storage of pollengrains in liquid nitrogen (-196°c). Pollen bank can be used in crop
breeding programmes.
19. Pollen viability :– Period for which pollengrains remain functional.
20. Effect of pollengrain :– Cause allergies & lung disorders (asthma, bronchitis). eg., Pollengrain of
Parthenium /carrot grass
21. Pollen tablets & syrups are in use by people these days. Why? : - (a) Pollen grains are rich in nutrients .
(b) Pollen consumption increase the performance of athletes & race horses.
22. Gynoecium (pistil) :– Female sex organ consists of carpels (Ovary, style & stigma)
23. Megasporogenesis :– Formation of megaspore from megasporemother cell through meiosis.
24. Stages of Megasporogenesis & formation of Embryosac :-
Megaspore mother cell (single cell at mycropylar end of nucellus) develops within the Ovule
(megasporangium)
MMC undergo meiosis to form 4 megaspores (Linear tetrad)
Three megaspores degenerate .
Functional megaspore undergo 3repeated mitotic divisions (8 nucleus formed)
Out of 8 nucleus, 3 located at chalazal region, 3 located at micropylar region , 2 remain in the
centre.
Cytokinesis leads to the formation of 7 celled 8 nucleate stage called Embryosac / Female
gametophyte
Triple fusion :- Male gamete (n) + Secondary nucleus(2n) → PEN (3n) → Endosperm (3n)
54. Zygote is dormant for some time in fertilized ovule. Why? ::- Endosperm provide food to developing
embryo. So zygote divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed.
55. Endosperm development :-
PENEN undergoes free nuclear divisions to form many triploid nuclei . This is liquid endosperm /
nuclear endosperm
Then cell wall formed from periphery towards centre to form solid endosperm /multicellular
endosperm
Coconut water from tender coconut – Liquid endosperm. White kernel – Solid endosperm
56. Parts of embryo :- Embryonal axis & Cotyledon
57. Epicotyl :- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon. Terminate with plumule
58. Hypocotyl :- Portion of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledon . Term
Terminate
inate with radicle.
59. Plumule /stem tip :- develops into shoot
60. Radicle /root tip :- develops into root.
61. Cotyledon :- First formed leaf.Give nourishment to developing seedling. In dicot plants 2 cotyledons &
in monocot plant 1 cotyledon present.
62. Identify the figure & label the parts ::- Dicot embryo.
64. Scutellum – Single cotyledon of monocot embryo, situated towards the lateral side of the embryonal
axis.
65. Coleoptyle – Covering of plumule
66. Coleorhiza – Covering
overing of radicle.
67. Aleurone layer :- Proteinacous layer which separate endosperm & cotyledon in monocot seed.
68. Fruit :-fertilized ovary
69. Seed :- Fertilized Ovule. Basis of agriculture.
70. Albuminous / endospermous seed ::- Seeds with endosperm. eg., rice, wheat, at, coconut
71. Exalbuminous / Non endospermous seed ::- Seeds without endosperm. eg., pea
72. True fruit – develop from the ovary . e.g., mango
73. False fruit – develop from the part of the flower other than ovary. e .g., Apple , Strawberry , Cashew .
Here Thalamus is the edible part.
74. Pericarp :- Fruit wall
75. Perisperm :- Remnants of nucellus in the seed. eg., black pepper, beet
76. Testa :- Outer hard seed coat developed from outer integument of ovule
77. Tegmen :- Inner thin seed coat developed from inner integument of ovule.
78. Parthenocarpy :- Formation of fruit without fertilization. Can be Induced by auxin & giberellin. eg.,
banana, seedless grapes
79. Polyembryony :- Formation of more than one embryo in the seed . eg., Seeds of orange, citrus, mango.
80. Reason for poly embryony :- (a) Presence of more than one egg cells & all get fertilized (b) Presence of
more than one embryosac (c) Many embryos develop from parts like synergids, antipodals, nucellus,
integuments etc
81. Apomixis :- Seed formation without fertilization. It mimic sexual reproduction.
Diploid egg cell may develop into embryo without fertilization
Cells of nucellus develops into embryo & pu pushed into embryosac
eg., Some species of Asteraceae & Grasses.
82. Apomictic seeds are used in hybrid industry. Why? ::-
Apomixis helps in the production of hybrid seeds with a combination of desirable characters.
In apomictic hybrid seeds, there is no segregation of characters .
Prepared by Nandini. K. N, NHSS Kolathur, Malappuram Page 6
48. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) :- synthesis of multiple copies of gene invitro using two sets of
Primers and DNA Polymerase enzyme.
49. Primers :- Chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA.
50. DNA Polymerase enzyme - Enzyme responsible for forming new copies of DNA.
51. Name the DNA Polymerase used in PCR :- Taq DNA Polymerase is isolated from a bacterium
Thermus aquaticus. It remains active in high temperature (Thermostable)
52. Explain the steps involved in PCR :-
Denaturation - Treating DNA at high temperature about 94° C. Two strands of DNA separate
and each strand act as template.
Annealing - Temperature is lowered about 45° C. Two primers are added. They join with the 3
end of two templates.
Extension -DNA Polymerase enzyme extend the primer by adding nucleotides.
Amplification -the above process repeated many times to get billion copies of target DNA
63. Downstream Processing :- All process after biosynthetic phase is collectively called Downstream
processing .they include
22. Gene Therapy :- collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed
in a child / embryo. (Functional genes are inserted into patient’s cell to treat hereditary disease. It
compensate for the non-functional gene)
23. Name the disease which was successfully corrected by gene therapy for the first time ? . Adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency
24. In which year first clinical gene therapy was performed and to whom ? In 1990 to a 4 year old girl.
25. Function of Adenosine deaminase enzyme ? Activate immune system
26. Gene therapy – Procedure :-
Lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside the body.
A functional ADA cDNA is then introduced into these lymphocytes using retroviral vector & are
returned to the patient.
Lymphocytes are not immortal, so periodic transfusion is necessary.
27. How gene therapy is practiced for a permanent cure? Gene therapy at embryonic stage (ADA gene
from bonemarrow is introduced into cells at early embryonic stage)
28. Alternative methods for gene therapy :- (a) Bone marrow transplantation (b) Enzyme replacement
therapy( functional ADA is given by injection) . But these are not completely curative.
29. Molecular diagnostic methods :- (a) PCR based on amplification of DNA (b) ELISA based on antigen
antibody reaction. (c) Radioactive probe (d) rDNA technology
30. How do radioactive probes works?
A single stranded DNA /RNA, tagged with radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridize
to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells
Then detection using autoradiography.
Clone having mutated gene will not appear on photographic film
5. Population attributes :- Birth rate, death rate, sex ratio, age group etc.
6. Birth rate :- Rate of production of new individuals in a population by birth per unit time. eg., In a pond,
last year 20 lotus, 8 new lotus are added this year. Birth rate is 8/20 =0.4 offsprings per lotus per year
7. Death rate :- Rate of loss of individuals in a population per unit time by death. eg., Out of 40 fruit flies,
4 died. Death rate = 4/40 =0.1% individual per fruit fly in that period.
8. Sex ratio :- individual is either male or female. But population has sex ratio eg., 60% females & 40%
males in a population
9. Age group :- (a) Pre reproductive age groups – children (b) Reproductive age group - Young people
,who add new members to the population (c) post reproductive age group – Older individuals
10. Age pyramid - Graphical representation of properties of various age groups. (% individuals of a given
age or age group).
11. Characteristics of age pyramid :- (a) shows age distribution of males & females in a combined
diagram. (b) shows nature of population, whether it is growing, stable or declining.
12. Expanding age pyramid – More number of pre-reproductive individuals. Population is growing.
13. Stable age pyramid – Pre-reproductive &reproductive individuals are almost equal. No increase or
decrease in population.
14. Declining age pyramid – Pre-reproductive individuals are lesser in number. Large number of
reproductive individuals.
15. Population density / Population size :- Number of individuals present per unit area at a given time.
indicated by the letter N.
16. How can we measure population density ?
In number of individuals of a population
In % cover / biomass ( e.g., 200 parthenium plant and one huge banyan tree in an area. The
role of banyan tree in that community is greater than parthenium)
Relative population density. ( e .g., The number of fish caught /trap is used to measure total
population density of fish in the lake)
Counting the colonies in a bacterial culture
Indirect method – In tiger reserves tiger census is done on pug marks (foot prints)and fecal
matter
17. Population growth :- Number of individuals added in a population per unit time due to birth &
immigration over the death & emigration.
18. What are the physical factors that affect population density ? (a) Food availability (b) Predation
pressure (c) Weather
19. What are the four basic processes that affect population density :- Natality, Mortality, Immigration &
Emigration
20. Natality (B) – Number of births in a population during a given period. Population increase
Prepared by Nandini. K. N, NHSS Kolathur, Malappuram Page 15
If N is the population density at time ‘t’, then its density at time ‘t+1’
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population density will increase if (B+I) > (D+E)
25. Exponential /Geometric growth model ::- Growth curve is J shaped.. Initial slow growth or lag phase,
followed by rapid growth/ exponential growth/ log phase.. Growth stops suddenly due to death of
individuals. eg., Insect population.
26. Equation for exponential growth ::- dN/dt= rN ( dN/dt = [b-d]*N . [b-d]= r, here N - population density,
t- time, b- birthrate, d- death rate, rr- intrinsic rate of natural increase).
27. Intergral form of the exponential growth equations ::- Nt = N0ert ( Nt –population
population density at time t, N0
- initial density, e – base of natural logarithms, rr- intrinsic rate of natural increase)
28. Species undergo exponential growth can reach great population densities in short time. why? (a)
There is an unlimitedited supply of resources (b) There is no environ
environmental
mental resistance/ check eg.,(1)
eg.,(1 Slow
growing animal like elephant could reach enormous numbers in the absence of environmental
envi
resistance / check (2)) bacterial culture reach enormous amount if they provi provide
de unlimited supply of
food & space
29. Environmental resistance :- Things that limit the growth of population. ( predators, disease,
competition, lack of food, fire, flood , drought etc)
30. Logistic growth model / verhulst pearl logistic growth ::- S shaped growth th curve. Initial slow growth
(lag phase) followed by rapid growth (exponential /log phase) . When environmental resistance come
into play / when carrying capacity reaches, growth slows down (Stationary
Stationary phase)
phase
31. Carrying capacity (K) :-Maximum
Maximum n number
umber of individuals of a particular species that can live in a
particular area.
32. Equation for logistic growth :- dN/dt =rN [K [K-N/k]
33. Which growth model is realistic or natural? Why? Logistic growth model. Resources for growth for
most animal populations are re finite & become limiting sooner or later.
34. Identify the growth models
Commensalism + 0
Predation + _
Competition _ _
Ammensalism _ 0
41. Mutualism (++) :- interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited
42. Mutualism- examples :-
Lichen – Symbiotic association between fungi and algae. Algae prepare food &give it to the
fungus. Fungus give shelter & protection.
Mycorrhiza – Association between fungi& roots of higher plants. Fungus absorbs moisture and
nutrients from the soil and give it to root. Root gives food to fungus.
Pollination & seed dispersal. Examples are
(a) Fig tree & wasp .Female wasp , while searching for suitable place for egg laying, it pollinate
the inflorescence of fig tree. In return, fig gives some developing seeds as food.
(b) Mediterranean orchid, Ophrys & bees. sexual deceit for pollination. One petal of its
flower resembles female bees in size , colour &markings. So male bee pseudocopulate
with the flower & dusted with pollen. When this bee pseudocopulate with another flower,
it transfers pollen to it. If the female bee’s colour pattern change slightly during evolution,
ECOSYSTEM
1. Ecosystem :- Functional unit of nature . The sum total of interaction between biotic and abiotic
components , which is capable of independent existence
2. Classification of Ecosystem :- Natural ecosystem & Artificial ecosystem
12. Factors influencing primary productivity :- Sunlight, temperature, moisture, plants in that area,
photosynthetic capacity, availability of nutrients etc.
13. Secondary productivity :- Rate of biomass production at consumer level
14. Annual NPP of biosphere - 170 billion tons .
15. Productivity of ocean - 55 billion tons. (Light can penetrate upto 250m depth from water surface).
16. Decomposition :- Breakdown of organic materials into inorganic materials by decomposers. Oxygen
requiring process.
17. Detritus :– Dead remains of plants (leaves, barks etc) and animals including fecal matters. Detritus are
raw material for decomposition.
18. Detritivores :- Organism which breakdown detritus. e .g., Earth worm.
19. Steps of Decomposition:-
Fragmentation – Breakdown of organic matter into small fragments by detritivores.
Leaching – Water soluble substances penetrate into the deeper layers of soil and get
precipitate as unavailable salts.
Catabolism – Enzymatic breakdown of detritus into inorganic materials. Enzymes are released
by micro organisms.
Humification – Formation of partially decomposed dark coloured amorphous substance
called Humus from detritus. Humus is resistant to microbial action and it is colloidal in nature.
So It undergoes slow decomposition . Humus is Reservoir of nutrients.
Mineralisation – Humus is degraded by micro organisms and release inorganic nutrients.
20. Factors affecting decomposition :-
Warm and moist environment favour decomposition
Decomposition rate becomes high if detritus, rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances .
Decomposition rate is slow in detritus, rich in lignin & chitin.
39. Pyramid of biomass :– Representation of biomass of organisms at successive trophic levels ( Aquatic
ecosystem – inverted, All others Upright)
40. Pyramid of energy – Representation of energy used by organisms of successive trophic levels. Always
upright because energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional.