Renata Thesis Final THS 02

Development of electromagnetic
shielding fibrous structures for

medical device applications
Renata Redondo Bonaldi
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

University of Bolton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
July 2012
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ABSTRACT
This thesis presents the research study undertaken to investigate, characterise and
develop novel Electromagnetic (EM) Shielding fabrics and structures to be used in
wearable medical applications. The application under study is a ‘Smart Bra’.
Electromagnetic shielding is important to block electromagnetic radiation that could

be harmful to electronic devices, environment and humans. Textiles have been
highly considered for EM shielding applications in the electrical & electronic
industries as well as for the production of protective garments due to the increasing
concern about health issues caused by human exposure to radiation. The
emerging role of textiles as EM shielding is mainly due to their desirable properties
in terms of flexibility, versatility, low mass and low cost. As for the specific Smart
Bra application, the EM shielding fabric has the objective to protect the electronic
system of the Bra from external radiation, hence avoiding interference.
Therefore, the methodology of this research work was organised as follows: firstly,
commercial fabrics were fully investigated in terms of EM shielding behaviour,
washing durability and Bra cup moulding performance. Secondly, an attempt was
made to develop alternative EM shielding fabrics exploring new approaches such
as knife-over-roll coating, padding coating and melt-spinning, and also novel
conductive fillers such as micro/nanoparticles of conductive polymers, metals,
and carbon nanotubes, which have not been considered previously in the literature
for EM shielding fabric applications. Thirdly, an overview on Bra design
background and a consumer survey were undertaken in order to investigate the
Smart Bra textile requirements, customer expectations and eventually
conceptualise the EM shielding Bra design.
Exploratory and systematic research methodologies were adopted in this study

and quantitative & qualitative approaches were used to characterise and
investigate the materials. The main characterisation techniques used were:
scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, Raman spectroscopy,
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thermo-gravimetric analysis, BET surface area analysis, surface resistivity and EM
shielding. The Shielding Effectiveness evaluation was undertaken on three
different methodologies, and the range investigated was from 200 MHz to
6000 MHz. The empirical information obtained was critically analysed and
supported by extensive relationship to EM shielding theory so as to build an in-
depth understanding of the results obtained.
This study reports a significant number of scientific findings and contributes

substantially to the growing body of literature on EM shielding fabrics. In addition,
novel EM shielding fabrics were successfully produced and characterised, with the
use of carbon nanotubes and knife-over-roll coating technique. The developed
fabrics as well as the investigated commercial fabrics have potential to be applied
in the Smart Bra technology. The developed fabrics, in special, have unique
morphology and novel characteristics, which relates to the porous and extremely
high surface area ascribed to the three-dimensional network formed by exposed
carbon nanotubes. This morphology is believed to enhance the EM shielding
absorption mechanism.
In summary, the original contribution of this study lies on the novel carbon
nanotube EM shielding fabrics produced; the new approaches used for the
methodology; the scientific findings, and the novel Smart Bra application.
Moreover, this is a pioneering study in this subject; it provides food for thought and
will lead to further research work on the topic.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1- INTRODUCTION 18
2- LITERATURE SURVEY 24
3- EXPERIMENTS- Phase 1: Characterisation of commercial EMS fabrics 69

1-
4- EXPERIMENTS- Phase 2: Development of novel EM shielding fabrics 99
2-
5- EXPERIMENTS- Phase 3: Smart Bra case-study 177
3-
6- FINAL RESULTS & DISCUSSION 194
4-
7- CONCLUSION 209
5-
8- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 218
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9- BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 219
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DETAILED CONTENT
List of Figures 10
List of Tables 15
List of Equations 16
List of Symbols/Constants 17
1. INTRODUCTION 18
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 24
2.1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Shielding (EMS) 24

2.1.1 EM shielding theory 24
2.1.2 Plane Wave theory- Single layer concept 27
2.1.3 Plane Wave theory- Multi layer/Laminated concept 29
2.1.4 Experimental EM shielding calculations 31
2.1.5 Shielding effectiveness measurement standards 34
2.2 EMS textiles - Research papers 36

2.2.1 Conductive yarns & fibres 40
2.2.2 Fabric conductive coatings 45
2.2.3 Fabric constructions 50
2.3 EMS textiles - Market overview 56

2.3.1 EMS Fabrics 56
2.3.2 EMS Bras 59
2.4 EMS textiles - Patents overview 61

2.4.1 EM shielding wearing apparel and fabric patents 61
2.4.2 EM shielding corsets & brassieres patents 62
2.5 EMS films using carbon nanotubes – Research overview 65

2.6 Textile yarns using carbon nanotubes – Research overview 67
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3. EXPERIMENTS- Phase 1: Characterisation of commercial EMS fabrics 69
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3.1 Materials 69
3.2 Methodology 72
3.2.1 Shielding Effectiveness under 1 GHz 72
3.2.2 Shielding Effectiveness above 1 GHz 73
3.3 Results and Discussion 74

3.3.1 EM shielding results 74
3.3.2 Absorption and reflection behaviours of EM shielding 76
3.3.3 Durability of EM shielding after washing 78
3.3.4 EM shielding in relation to thickness of fabrics 80
3.3.5 EM shielding results in relation to different faces and directions of warp
knitted fabric 81
3.3.6 EM shielding in relation to stretch on warp knitted fabric 84
3.3.7 Theoretical EM shielding prediction 85
3.3.8 Conclusions 87
3.4 Development and EMS Bra Cups 88

3.4.1 Materials 88
3.4.2 Bra Cup moulding process 88
3.4.3 Shielding Effectiveness set up 89
3.4.4 Moulding process performance of the conductive fabrics 92
3.4.5 EM shielding results of conductive Bra Cups 94
3.4.6 Interference of the moulding process into EM shielding results 95
3.4.7 Interference of conductive sealing and leakage into EMS results 96
3.4.8 Flat fabric results under the Patch and Horn antenna methods 97
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4. EXPERIMENTS- Phase 2: Development of novel EM shielding fabrics 99
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4.1 Fabric knife-over-roll and padding coating approaches using conductive fillers
4.1.1 Materials 100
4.1.2 Methodology 104

4.1.2.1 Textile coating methodologies 105
4.1.2.2 Shielding effectiveness and surface resistivity methods107
4.1.2.3 Characterisation methodologies 108
4.1.3 Results of the knife coating application on nonwoven fabric 108

4.1.3.1 Polypyrrole nanoparticles (Ppy) 109
4.1.3.2 Nickel coated carbon fibre filler (Ni/CF) 111
4.1.3.3 Silver nanoparticles (Ag) 113
4.1.3.4 Polyaniline microparticles (Pani) 114
4.1.3.5 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT) 115
4.1.3.5.1 Macroscopic characterisation 116
4.1.3.5.2 Microscopic characterisation 118
4.1.4 Results of the factorial experiment 2⁴ 124

4.1.5 Results of the knife coating application on knitted fabrics 131
4.1.6 Energy dispersive X-ray characterisation 134
4.1.7 Thermal gravimetric analysis of CNT coated fabrics 136
4.1.8 Raman spectroscopy of CNT coated fabrics 139
4.1.9 Absorption and reflection behaviours of EM shielding 141
4.1.10 BET surface area characterisation 143
4.1.11 Porosity analysis 147
4.1.12 Theoretical EM shielding prediction 149
4.1.13 Durability of EM shielding after washing 154
4.1.14 Results for CNT padding application 155
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4.2 Melt-extrusion spinning approach using conductive fillers 161
4.2.1 Materials 161
4.2.2 Methodology 161
4.2.2.1 Blending extrusion step 162
4.2.2.2 Melt-spinning process 165
4.2.3 Results and Discussion 165
4.2.3.1 Scanning electron microscope and optical microscope 167
4.2.3.2 Energy dispersive X-ray 173
4.2.3.3 Raman spectroscopy 174
4.2.4 Conclusion 175
5. EXPERIMENTS- Phase 3: Smart Bra case-study 177

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5.1 Bra design background 177

5.1.1 Parts of the Bra 178
5.1.2 Types of Bra 178
5.1.3 Characteristics of the Bra’s fabric 179
5.1.4 How fabric stretch affects Bra properties 180
5.1.5 Sports Bra design 181
5.2 Bra fitting 181
5.3 Bra statistics 182
5.4 Smart Bra background 183
5.5 Interference phenomenon 184
5.6 Smart Bra textile requirements 185
5.7 Smart Bra consumer survey 186
5.7.1 Introduction 186
5.7.2 Results 187
5.8 EMS Bra design discussion 189
5.8.1 Durable EM shielding Bra 190
5.8.2 Convertible EM shielding Bra 191
5.9 Conclusion 193
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6. FINAL RESULTS & DISCUSSION 194
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6.1 Correlations among resistivity, SE, reflection and absorbance 194

6.2 Correlations among resistivity, filler load and SE 197
6.3 Correlations among surface area, filler, SE and absorbance 198
6.4 Correlations between theoretical and experimental SE 199
6.5 Relationship between thickness and SE 200
6.6 Comparison among Knife coating, Padding coating, Melt-spinning and other
approaches 201
6.7 SE Comparison between commercial fabrics and developed fabrics 202
6.8 Comparison among metals, conductive polymers and CNT 204
6.9 Discussion and EM prediction for multi-layer application 205
7. CONCLUSION 209
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7.1 Overall conclusion 209
7.1.1 Scientific perspective 210
7.1.2 Industrial perspective 213
7.1.3 Application/Consumer perspective 214
7.2 Future work 215
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 218
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9. BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 219
DISCUSSION……………………………………….…±10 pgs
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Appendix A - MathCad equations used for Single Shield
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Appendix B - MathCad equations used for Laminated Shield
Appendix C - Customer Survey supporting information
Appendix D – Specified requirements of EMS textile (Taiwan standard)
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Mechanisms of EM shielding.

Figure 2 Radiation Spectrum (Roh et al, 2008).
Figure 3 Diagram of incident, reflected and transmitted radiation of a single layer shield.
Figure 4 Diagram of incident, reflected and transmitted radiation of a multi-layer shield of 3 layers.
Figure 5 Relationship between SE % and Decibels.
Figure 6 Representation of a single layer shielding behaviour of A= R= 10dB and SE= 20dB,
showing the two ways of approaching the absorption percentage.
Figure 7 Summary of scientific paper publications from 1990 to 2011.
Figure 8 Textile Supply Chain for the production of conductive fabrics.
Figure 9 Overview of approaches, fabrics and materials used for EM shielding fabric research.
Figure 10 Images of the commercially available X-Bra, EM shielding Bra.
Figure 11 Images of the commercially available Radiation Blocking Sports Bra (Left) and Bra insert
(right).
Figure 12 EM shielding patents by year of publication.
Figure 13 Wearable EM shielding patents by country of publication, and application.
Figure 14 Images of the commercial fabrics used for the experiments.
Figure 15 Images of fabric number 3 (left) and 4 (right), revealing the internal structure after yarns
have been removed.
Figure 16 Details of the measurement set-up, under 1 GHz.
Figure 17 Details of the measurement set-up, above 1 GHz.
Figure 18 SE results of commercial fabrics from 2 to 6 GHz.
Figure 19 SE results of commercial fabrics under 1 GHz.
Figure 20 EM shielding behaviour of commercial fabrics, average from 30-1000MHz.
Figure 21 Relationship between absorption and frequency of commercial fabrics.
Figure 22 Left: Fabric number 14 after hot washing; Right: Fabric number 16 after hot washing.
Figure 23 EM shielding results of commercial fabrics after washing treatments.
Figure 24 EM results of commercial fabrics tested in single and double layers.
Figure 25 EM shielding of Warp Knitted fabric from 2 to 6 GHz, in different directions.
Figure 26 EM shielding comparison between different faces and directions.
Figure 27 Direction of the highest EM shielding obtained. Front side facing incident radiation and
yarn running direction parallel to Electric field, whereas the weft direction is parallel to
Magnetic field.
Figure 28 Warp knitted structure before and after stretch.
Figure 29 EM shielding results of commercial fabrics- Theoretical versus Experimental at 1GHz.
Figure 30 Image of the Bra Cups obtained.
Figure 31 Diagram of the EM shielding measurement set up of Bra Cups.
Figure 32 Images of the set up without sample (right) and with sample (left).
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Figure 33 Patch antenna soldered to N-type connector. Front/patch side (right), and back/ground
side (left).
Figure 34 Return Loss results of the patch antennas “A” and “B”.
Figure 35 SE results of the Set up Calibration.
Figure 36 Fabric number “2”. Left: fabric before moulding (29 wales/cm, 27 courses/cm). Right:
fabric after moulding (20 wales/cm; 18 courses/cm) and goldish colour.
Figure 37 Fabric number “3”.Transmittance of light across the fabric on moulded (lighter circle,
centre area) and no moulded area (surrounding area).
Figure 38 SE results of Bra Cups.
Figure 39 Set up for measurement of flat/original fabrics.
Figure 40 SE results of Bra Cups versus flat fabrics.
Figure 41 SE results of Bra Cups with sealing tape (full line) and without tape (dotted line).
Figure 42 Results of flat fabrics from the developed set-up (left).Results of flat fabrics from the
standard ASTM method (right).
Figure 43 Pristine CNT powder, as received.
Figure 44 Non coated nonwoven fabric (left); Non coated knitted fabric (right).
Figure 45 Non coated polyester fibre (nonwoven, left); Non coated cotton fibre (knit, right).
Figure 46 Images of the prepared coating recipes: Ppy, CNT, Ag, Ni/CF.
Figure 47 Laboratory coating machine (Mathis Type SV).
Figure 48 Knife-over-roll coating Diagram.
Figure 49 Laboratory Padding coating machine (left). Padding coating Diagram (right).
Figure 50 EM shielding results of Knife coating on nonwoven fabric.
Figure 51 Polypyrrole knife coated nonwoven fabric (from 1 to 4 layers).
Figure 52 Polypyrrole coated nonwoven fabric (4th layer).
Figure 53 Polypyrrole coated filaments on nonwoven fabric (1st layer).
Figure 54 Ni/CF coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer).
Figure 55 Ni/CF coated nonwoven fabric, from 1st to 4th layer.
Figure 56 Ag coated Nonwoven fabric (4th layer).
Figure 57 Pani coated Nonwoven fabric (5th layer).
Figure 58 EM shielding results of nonwoven fabrics.
Figure 59 Macroscopic 3D network of CNT coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer). A sponge-like,
irregular and porous morphology is observed.
Figure 60 CNT coated nonwoven fabric (from 1st to 4th layer), showing the gradual coverage of
CNT on the surface of the fabric.
Figure 61 Pristine Nonwoven fabric (a); CNT Coated nonwoven fabric, 2nd layer (b). Homogenous
coating is observed, turning the transparent filaments into a metal-like colour.
Figure 62 CNT coated filaments (2nd layer). Homogenous coating of the filaments is observed,
which resulted in the percolation threshold.
Figure 63 CNT coated filament (2nd layer), where Percolation threshold was obtained. The CNTs
are randomly and individually adhered to the surface by the binder.
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Figure 64 CNT coated nonwoven (5th layer). The microscopic network is visible as the CNTs are
exposed and partially embedded by the binder.
Figure 66 CNT coated fabric, surface of the 5th layer. CNTs are randomly arranged, individually
separated, well connected, and mostly exposed, forming a microscopic 3D network.
Figure 67 CNT coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer), showing CNT partially embedded by the binder.
th
Figure 69 Image of network formed by CNTs (5 coating layer), individually coated and separated,
randomly arranged, well connected and partially embedded by the coating.
Figure 70 Image of pristine CNT, as received powder.
Figure 71 EM Shielding Results of the Factorial experiments containing CNT, Ag, Ppy and Ni/CF.
Figure 72 CNT + Ag coated nonwoven fabric.
Figure 73 CNT + Ni/CF coated nonwoven fabric.
Figure 74 CNT + Ppy coated nonwoven fabric.
Figure 75 Microscopic images of CNT + Ppy coated Nonwoven (left); and CNT + Ag coated
Nonwoven (right).
Figure 76 Cross section optical images of the coated nonwoven fabrics, showing the thickness of
coating.
Figure 77 EM shielding results of coated knitted fabrics.
Figure 78 Image of CNT coated knitted fabric 4th layer.
Figure 79 CNT + Ag coated knitted fabric (left); CNT + Ni/CF coated knitted fabric (right).
Figure 80 Cross section optical images of the coated knitted fabrics, showing the thickness of
coating.
Figure 81 EDX results of pristine nonwoven fabric (a); CNT coated nonwoven (b); Ni/CF coated
nonwoven (c), Ppy coated nonwoven (d); CNT + Ni/CF coated nonwoven (e); Ag coated
nonwoven (f); CNT + Ag coated nonwoven (g).
Figure 82 EDX results of the pristine Knitted fabric (a); CNT coated knit (b); CNT + Ag coated knit
(c) and CNT + Ni/CF coated knit (d).
Figure 83 TGA Analysis of CNT coated Nonwoven fabrics, from 1st to 5th Layer.
Figure 84 TGA, DTG and DTA Analysis of CNT coated Nonwoven fabrics (from 1st to 5th Layer),
pristine nonwoven and pristine CNT.
Figure 85 TGA, DTG and DTA Analysis of CNT coated Knitted fabric (4th Layer), and pristine
knitted fabric.
Figure 86 Raman spectroscopy of the pristine CNT and coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer).
Figure 87 Raman spectroscopy of the polymeric binder.
Figure 88 EM shielding behaviour of the most relevant coated fabrics.
Figure 89 Relationship between absorbance and frequency of the most relevant coated fabrics.
Figure 90 BET Surface Area Results on Pristine and coated fabrics.
Figure 91 Pristine CNT Pore Size Distribution - Adsorption/Desorption Isotherm.
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Figure 92 Pictures of coated fabrics, showing the porosity against a background light.
Figure 93 Theoretical and Experimental EM shielding results of coated fabrics.
Figure 94 Comparison of Experimental and theoretical results for CNT coated Knitted fabric along
the frequency range.
Figure 95 Diagram of the incident, reflected and transmitted radiation at microscopic (left) and
macroscopic (right) representations of the coating boundary.
Figure 96 SEM images of CNT + Ni/CF coated Knitted fabric before washing treatment (left); and
after washing treatment (right).
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Figure 97 Left: CNT coated knitted fabric, by padding technique, with conductive mesh (1 cm ).
2
Right: conductive mesh (1cm ) sewed on knitted fabric.
Figure 98 EM Shielding results of Padding coating and sewn mesh.
Figure 99 Macroscopic image of the CNT coated knitted fabric, padding technique.
Figure 100 Microscopic images of the CNT coated fibres, padding technique.
Figure 101 EDX results of the non coated Knitted fabric (left) and CNT coated knit using the
padding technique (right).
Figure 102 Image of the materials: CNT Master-batch chip (left) and Polypropylene chip (right).
Figure 103 Parameters of the Twin Screw Blending extruder.
Figure 104 Images of the Twin Screw blending extruder.
Figure 105 Image of the produced chip containing 50% CNT MasterBatch and 50% Polypropylene
(Test 2).
Figure 106 Images of the CNT coated polypropylene chips (left), and the CNT residue at the end of
the process.
Figure 107 Pilot Melt-spinning equipment.
Figure 108 Filament diameters obtained and the resistivity.
Figure 109 Macroscopic image of the filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNTMB/PP).
Figure 110 Filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNTMB/PP).
Figure 111 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNTMB/PP).
Figure 112 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNT MB/PP).
Figure 113 Macroscopic image of the filament cross section of Test 5 (100% CNT MB).
Figure 114 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of Test 5 (100% CNT MB).
Figure 115 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of Test 5 (100% CNT MB).
Figure 116 Images of the surface of the filaments produced by Test 5 (left); and Test 2 (right).
Figure 117 Fractured cross section of 100% CNT MB chip (as supplied).
Figure 118 Fractured cross section of the 50/50 CNT MB/PP chips produced.
Figure 119 Optical images of the filament in test 2 (CNT MB + PP).
Figure 120 Optical images of the filament in test 5 (100% CNT MB).
Figure 121 Raman spectroscopy of the filaments obtained.
Figure 122 Illustration and explanation of Bra parts.
Figure 123 Illustration and explanation of types of Bras.
Figure 124 Illustration and explanation of fabric pull and its effect on Bras.
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Figure 125 Examples of poor Bra fit.
Figure 126 Visual comparison between soft unpadded Bra and underwired padded Bra.
Figure 127 Smart Bra Customer survey results.
Figure 128 Experimental relationship between EM shielding and Surface Resistivity of the overall
samples tested.
Figure 129 Relationship between EM shielding as function of Surface Resistivity in thin shields.
Figure 130 Left: correlation between load, resistivity and SE of CNT coated nonwoven. Right:
Relationship between load and resistivity.
Figure 131 Relationship between Surface Area, EM shielding and filler.
Figure 132 Multi-layer diagram suggested for CNT coated EM shielding fabric.
Figure 133 Theoretical predictions of EM shielding behaviour versus free space between coated
fabrics at 4GHz.
Figure 134 Theoretical prediction of single and double layers of CNT coated knitted Fabric, from
0.1 to 100 GHz.
Figure 135 Theoretical prediction of a Multi-layer system with 5 mm spacing between layers, from
0.1 to 100 GHz.
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List of Tables
Table 1 Details of the scientific papers related to the development of conductive yarns & fibres.
Table 2 Details of the scientific papers related to the development of fabric conductive coatings.
Table 3 Relationship between SE and fabric parameters.
Table 4 Details of the scientific papers related to the development of conductive fabrics, using
diverse fabric constructions.
Table 5 Details of the EM shielding Bra patents.
Table 6 Scientific Papers related to EM shielding films using Carbon Nanotubes.
Table 7 Details of the commercial fabrics analysed.
Table 8 EM shielding results of single and double fabrics, at 1GHz.
Table 9 Theoretical versus Experimental SE results at 1GHz.
Table 10 List of fabrics used for Bra moulding.
Table 11 Moulding process results.
Table 12 Conductive materials used.
Table 13 Chemical auxiliaries used.
Table 14 Wet Recipes for knife-over-roll coating.
Table 15 Wet Recipe for padding coating.
Table 16 Dry content of conductive filler.
Table 17 Effect results of the factorial experiment.
Table 18 Matrix of the Factorial Experiment.
Table 19 Details of the Factorial Experiment.
Table 20 BET Specific Surface Area Analysis.
Table 22 Melt-Spinning experiment results.
Table 23 Melt-spinning filaments obtained.
Table 24 Melt-spinning Filament EDX Characterisation.
Table 25 Person Correlations of Surface Area, EM shielding and filler.
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List of Equations
Equation 1 Skin Depth

Equation 2 Electrical Conductivity
Equation 3 Shielding Effectiveness (ratio of power, voltage and current)
Equation 4 Shielding Effectiveness (sum of R, A and MR mechanisms)
Equation 5 Theoretical Shielding Effectiveness (no approximations)
Equation 6 Intrinsic Impedance of the Shield
Equation 7 SE by Reflection
Equation 8 SE by Absorption
Equation 9 SE by Multiple-Reflection
Equation 10 SE by Reflection for laminated shields
Equation 11 SE by Absorption for laminated shields
Equation 12 SE by Multiple- Reflection for laminated shields
Equation 13 Insertion Loss, SE (power ratio)
Equation 14 Return Loss, SE by Reflection (power ratio)
Equation 15 Radiation Transmitted %, calculated from Insertion Loss
Equation 16 Radiation Reflected %, calculated from Return Loss
Equation 17 Shielding Effectiveness %
Equation 18 Reflection %
Equation 19 Absorption (decibels)
Equation 20 Absorption (decibels)
Equation 21 Absorption %
Equation 22 Surface Resistivity by AATCC 76
Equation 23 CNT Factorial Effect formula
Equation 24 SE for thin shields as a function of Surface Resistivity
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List of Symbols/Constants
Wavelength (m)
Skin Depth (m)
Frequency (Hz)
Magnetic Permeability of shield ( )
Magnetic Permeability of free space ( )
Electrical Conductivity (1/ )
Thickness (m)
Intrinsic Impedance of shield (Ω)
Intrinsic Impedance of free space (377Ω)
Phase constant of free space
Electrical Permittivity of shield (F/m)
Electrical Permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)
R Surface Resistivity (Ω/sq)
SE Shielding Effectiveness
dB Decibels
R Reflection
A Absorption
MR Multiple Reflection
P Power
V Voltage
I Current
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1. Introduction
The present research study relates to the investigation and development of

electromagnetic (EM) shielding fibrous structures that can be successfully
employed for medical device applications. The application under study is a ‘Smart
Bra’ for early breast cancer detection. The Smart Bra utilizes a microwave
radiometry technology, which is sensitive to external radiation; hence the aim of
this research is to produce an electromagnetic shielding fibrous structure capable
of blocking external electromagnetic radiation that could interfere in its internal
microwave circuitry system. The following specific objectives were considered in
order to accomplish this study:
 Carry out an in-depth and comprehensive literature survey;

 Measure and investigate EM shielding properties of commercially available
EM shielding fabrics;
 Evaluate washing durability of commercially available EM shielding fabrics;
 Evaluate impact of knitted fabric direction, face, and stretch;
 Produce EM shielding bra cups;
 Develop bra cup EM shielding measurement set-up;
 Produce novel EM shielding fabrics by different approaches (knife-over-roll
coating, padding coating and melt-spinning), using knitted and nonwoven
fabric;
 Develop the recipes and methodologies for the approaches above
mentioned;
 Perform factorial design experiments with the conductive fillers
 Evaluate effect of washing on the developed fabrics
 Characterise the developed fabrics using a diverse range of techniques;
 Correlate and predict the results using EM shielding theory
 Identify correlations, relationships and regressions within the results
 Carry out a Smart Bra consumer survey
 Conceptualise and discuss EM shielding bra designs and suitability of
fabrics;
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Electromagnetic shielding is the process of limiting the flow of EM fields between
two locations by a barrier. The shielding barrier needs to have high conductivity,
dielectric constant or high magnetic permeability, and the shielding happens due
to reflection, absorption or multiple reflections of the incident radiation by the
barrier. Therefore, EM shielding is important to block electromagnetic radiation
that could be harmful to electronic devices, environment and humans.
EM shielding products are broadly used and increasingly under research and
development, and textiles have been widely explored in this area, mainly in
applications for electromagnetic interference shielding in the electrical & electronic
industries and for the production of protective and camouflage garments. The
increasing role of textiles as EM shielding is mainly due to their desirable
properties in terms of flexibility, versatility, thermal issues, low weight and low cost.
Textiles are intrinsically non EM shielding materials and are rather insulating
materials; however, they can be successfully turned into EM shielding fabrics after
raw-material changes, new production process or process adaptations that can
make them electrically conductive. Some of the common methods to obtain
conductive fabrics are using fibres and yarns made of copper, aluminium, stainless
steel, intrinsically conductive polymers (ICP), and/or metallic fillers or coatings
incorporated in the yarn production. Other approaches include the application of
conductive materials on the surface of the fabric itself using processes such as
lamination, coating, spraying, ionic plating, electroless plating, vacuum
metallization, cathode sputtering, and chemical vapour deposition.
Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. The conductive coating
technologies provide more versatility as they can be applied directly on the
garment or fabric thereby avoiding earlier processes such as yarn production and
fabric construction, which tend to cause damage to the conductive material and
machinery. Coating is also easy to apply as there are fewer parameters to
consider than in a fabric made of metallic yarns. Coating usually does not change
the flexibility of the fabrics and is applied in very thin layer, low weight and closed
fabrics; however, poor adhesion and durability may be obtained. The coating is
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normally applied at the end of the textile chain, during fabric processing, however,
it can also be applied during yarn spinning processes, where small diameter
conductive yarns can be obtained, and hence, very flexible and light weight
fabrics. Most of the conductive fabrics on the market are coated by plating
techniques; have homogeneous and closed structures thus exhibiting high
electromagnetic shielding capabilities and isotropic behavior.
EMS fabrics are also produced with conductive yarns. Approaches for the
production of conductive yarns include mixing the fibre polymer with metal fillers
during chemical spinning processes such as melt or wet spinning; or by twisting
and wrapping a synthetic fibre with metallic yarns in mechanical spinning
processes. These technologies are less often used due to their inherent
complexities. Conductive fabrics can also be made of wires or 100% metallic yarns
(stainless steel, copper, carbon fibre, etc); however, they are difficult to develop as
these types of yarns tend to have low flexibility due to larger diameter, which
produces a heavier and uncomfortable fabric. To reduce this effect, metallic yarns
are used to replace a few synthetic yarns in the fabric structure, thereby reducing
the overall stiffness of the fabric. This method has been reported by several
research studies, where the fabrics are analysed having diverse fabric
constructions, different densities, patterns, yarn diameters, quantity of conductive
yarns in the structure and yarn direction. Metallic yarns can also damage the
machinery during the fabric construction process.
Apart from the technology to produce conductive textiles, the electromagnetic

shielding also depends on the fabric type, such as woven, nonwoven or knitted
fabric. The woven fabric is the most used fabric for shielding and achieves a very
high shielding effectiveness. Woven fabrics normally have conductive yarn in both
directions (warp and weft) to ensure isotropic behaviour. Most of the conductive
woven fabrics on the market are conductive in both directions and both sides, and
are coated by metal plating technique after fabric construction. They are usually
made by nylon or polyester because of the good mechanical properties associated
with these materials and they have low weight and to a large extent closed
structure.
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Knitted fabrics have usually lower electromagnetic shielding because of the open
structure, stretch and orientation dependency. The structure is not isotropic as the
conductive yarns are used only in the weft direction (weft knitted fabrics), or warp
direction (warp knitted fabrics). Knitted fabrics are not commonly used as
electromagnetic shielding; they are only useful when there is a need for elongation
and flexibility. Nonwoven fabrics are also used for shielding and they have the
advantage of having fibres in random directions, which improves homogeneity and
isotropic behaviour, and they have very low weight and closed structure.
Nonwoven fabrics are mainly used for lightweight and low cost applications, where
there is no need for high electromagnetic shielding and mechanical properties.
The experimental methodology adopted in this study was divided into three
stages. The first one regarding the investigation of a wide range of commercial
fabrics; the second is the development and characterisation of novel EMS fabrics;
and third is a discussion on the Smart Bra case-study. Firstly, a wide range of
ready-to-use EM Shielding fabrics were obtained from the market and carefully
investigated. It has been concluded that metal plated woven fabrics provide the
highest EM shielding (~84dB), followed by metal plated nonwoven (~54dB), metal
plated knit (~40dB) and lastly carbon fibre nonwoven (~27dB) and polypyrrole
coated fabrics (~17dB). Absorption is higher at knitted fabrics, carbon fibre and
polypyrrole fabrics (~35%). Reflection is the primary mechanism for metal plated
fabrics in terms of percentage (~75%). It was also found that only Ag plated fabrics
withstood hot washing treatment; and nonwoven or higher mass knitted fabrics are
the most suitable for Bra cup moulding.
Regarding the second experimental stage, novel EM shielding structures were

developed and produced from different techniques so as to investigate new
approaches and materials. The materials included metals, conductive polymers
and carbon nanotubes (CNT), and the techniques employed were knife-over-roll
and padding coating; as well as melt-spinning technique. The characterisation
revealed that most fabrics provide shielding between 90-99,99% (10-20dB), which
is expected from composites containing CNTs; and they exhibit very high
absorption (max. 50%), considering the low thickness of the coating (100-200μm).
CNT and conductive polymers achieved percolation threshold with very low
21
amount, and it gradually increased according to load; whereas metal fillers
reached percolation only at very high load, and it was also unstable. All developed
fabrics were found to be electrically thin ( ). The high absorption found
contradicts the EMS theory, which predicted it to be negligible.
With regards to the materials used in the present study, CNTs have been
intensively tested for EM shielding applications; however, mainly for the fabrication
of composite films for higher frequency applications and not for producing EM
Shielding fabrics. Polypyrrole has been used for the production of conductive
fabric/yarns, but mostly via in-situ polymerization, in the present study,
nanoparticles of polypyrrole were used instead of in-situ polymerisation. And
nickel-coated carbon fibre filler or silver nanoparticles have not been widely tested
for EM shielding. The advantages of using nanoscale materials had also been
previously investigated for EM Shielding applications, such as the ability to fill up
the vacancy of conductive network formed by conductive materials of different
shapes, as a result, forming a denser and more complete conductive network
(Chang et al, 2010). Nanoscale materials also have the advantages of higher
surface area, lower density and lower weight; and carbon nanotubes, in special,
have outstanding structural, mechanical and electrical properties. The proposed
coating techniques and multi-layer coating approach has not been previously
investigated in terms of the relationship between quantity and Shielding
Effectiveness (SE) nor the synergy of CNT with other products has been explored
using this approach. However, Brzezinski et al (2009) demonstrated the
advantages in using knife coating for the production of a multi-layer system,
comprising several layers of different conductive fabrics structures.
In the third stage of the study, a discussion on Bra design background and Smart
Bra textile requirements has been presented and a consumer survey has been
undertaken to gather empirical information about consumer expectations in
relation to the Smart Bra. Based on this investigation, two EM shielding Bras were
deliberated; the Convertible Bra and the Durable Bra, and the suggested EM
shielding fabrics were discussed. The main findings and conclusions from this
22
section are the need of a full cup, padded//moulded and underwired style to
adequately support the breast and the provision of a rigid and stable structure for
the microwave antenna of the Smart Bra. This style also represents most of the
commercialised Bras on the market, and is a preferred choice from consumers.
The first choices of colour are black and white, and the look is expected to be
‘basic’ or ‘sexy’. The Smart Bra is expected to be worn almost every day or
once/month, and bought from a fashion store, and Bra fitting is expected from
most of the consumers. Regarding price, most consumers expect it to be higher
than £20, and two thirds expect it to be between £20 and £40. From the survey, it
was also possible to conclude that the factors affecting the purchase decision of a
Smart Bra are different from a Normal Bra, mainly in terms of Aesthetics, Comfort
and Price, which are expected to be less important. The most important factors
(scale > 4) for the Smart bra are Functionality and Comfort/Fit.
In conclusion, Novel EM shielding fabrics have been reported in this study; carbon
nanotube coated EM shielding fabrics have been produced and fully characterised
for the first time in literature. The developed fabrics were scrutinised in terms EM
shielding theory and characterisation, and a significant number of findings were
obtained in terms of correlations, relationships, regressions and theoretical
analysis. For instance, an original and intriguing finding was observed: the very
high absorption behaviour of CNT coated fabrics, thus contradicting the theoretical
predictions. This mechanism was associated with the high surface area found on
the developed fabrics, thereby enhancing the multiple-reflections; what is assumed
to have originated the high absorption. In addition, the synergy among CNTs,
conductive polymer and metals has also been intensively investigated.
Furthermore, this extensive and comprehensive investigation contributes
substantially to the literature of EM shielding fabrics in general.
23
2. Literature Survey
There are several research works as well as products on the market related to
electromagnetic shielding fabrics, for a broad range of applications. This literature
survey summarises the most influential studies on the development of EM
Shielding fabrics, including an overview of the market and the patents related to
EM Shielding Bra and fabrics. This literature survey also introduces the concept of
Electromagnetic Shielding and explains the methodologies used for the
measurement of Shielding Effectiveness.
2.1 Introduction to electromagnetic shielding (EMS)
2.1.1 EM shielding theory
Electromagnetic (EM) shielding is the process of limiting the flow of EM fields

between two locations by a barrier. The shielding barrier needs to have high
conductivity/dielectric constant or high magnetic permeability. The shielding
happens through a combination of reflection and absorption of electromagnetic
radiation by the material (Figure 1). Electromagnetic radiation is the propagation
through space of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, which continue to
propagate even if the original source is ‘switched off’ (Chatterton and Houlden,
1996).
Reflection Electromagnetic Waves
Absorption
Multiple
Reflection
Transmission
Figure 1 Mechanisms of EM shielding.
24
EM shielding is important and has been increasingly required as electromagnetic
radiation tends to interfere with the electronics, the environment, and the human
health. The EM radiation spectrum is classified in terms of frequency (f, Hertz) and
wavelength (λ, meters), these two units are related according to f= c/λ (where c =
speed of light), hence the higher the frequency the lower the wavelength. The
radiation can also be divided into non-ionizing, ionizing, thermal, optical and etc.,
which relates to their application, characteristics and hazzard, as seen in the
diagram below (Figure 2). The present study investigates the radio and microwave
frequencies (from ± 100 MHz to ± 6 GHz).
Figure 2 Radiation Spectrum (Roh et al, 2008)
The shielding material has to be electrically conducting; however, electrical

conductivity is not the main criterion for shielding, as conduction requires
connectivity in the conduction path (percolation in case of a composite material
containing a conductive filler), whereas shielding does not. Although shielding
does not require connectivity, it is enhanced by connectivity (Chung, 2001).
Reflection is normally the main mechanism of EM shielding, it occurs when the

impedance of the electromagnetic wave in free space is different from the
impedance of the wave in the shield (impedance mismatch). This phenomenon is
independent of the barrier thickness and is a function of the electrical conductivity,
magnetic permeability, frequency and skin depth.
25
Absorption is the secondary mechanism, which requires electric and/or magnetic
dipoles that interact with the electromagnetic fields in the radiation. The electric
dipoles may be provided by materials having a high value of dielectric constant,
while the magnetic dipoles may be generated by materials having a high value of
magnetic permeability. Absorption is mainly related to the thickness and skin
depth.
The last mechanism to govern the shielding is the multiple-reflection, which refers
to the reflections within the shielding material. Internal reflections are enhanced by
large surface area or large interface area, such as porous or foam material, or
composite material containing filler which has a large surface area (Chung, 2001).
Theoretically, multiple-reflection is a correction term and it reduces the overall
shielding when the shield is thinner than the skin depth. When the shield is thicker
than the skin depth its value is negligible, as the reflected wave inside the shield
will be absorbed by the material.
The strength of the EM radiation decreases exponentially as it penetrates the

shield; the penetration distance into which the electric field drops to 1/e of the
incident strength is called “Skin Depth”. Skin depth is a function of electrical
conductivity and magnetic permeability of the shield; and the frequency of
radiation, according to equation (1), where (frequency in Hz), (magnetic
permeability , ) and (electrical conductivity
in . The electrical conductivity is derived from the surface resistivity (
by obtaining the volume resistivity (equation 2), where is the thickness in meters.
(1)
(2)
The losses, whether due to reflection, absorption or multiple reflections, are called
Shielding Effectiveness (SE) and are commonly expressed in decibels (dB). At
26
higher frequencies the SE is defined as the ratio of the power flow in the absence
of the shield and the power flow with the shield, whereas at lower frequencies the
SE is defined as the current or voltage ratio. Decibel (dB) is a logarithmic
representation of a ratio measurement. It is most commonly used for expressing
power, voltage and current ratios (equation 3), Where PT/VT/IT are the transmitted
values with the barrier and the Pi/Vi/Ii are the transmitted values without the barrier
(incident radiation). The result obtained is positive. The total Shielding
Effectiveness is expressed by equation 4, it is a sum of reflection ( , absorption
( and multiple reflection (
Power Ratio dB = 10 log (Pi / Pt) (3)

Voltage Ratio dB = 20 log (Vi / Vt)
Current Ratio dB = 20 log (Ii / It)
(4)
2.1.2 Plane Wave theory- Single layer concept
In order to theoretically calculate EM shielding, several methodologies can be

adopted, which depends on the shield geometry, field being attenuated, electrical
properties and characteristics of the shield. In the present study, Plane Wave
Theory will be considered, and Single Layer Shield modelling will be used to
compare with the experimental results and to investigate the EM shielding
behaviour. Figure 3 illustrates the single shield layer phenomenon.
Figure 3 Diagram of incident, reflected and transmitted radiation of a single layer shield.
27
Plane wave (or transverse EM wave) is obtained when the electric and magnetic
fields are perpendicular to each other and transverse to the direction of
propagation, it is related to far-field conditions. Far-field is generated when the
distance between the radiation source and the shielding material is higher than
(λ/2π), where λ is the free-space wavelength of the emitted radiation. This is the
characteristic of the field being attenuated in the present study, due to the
methodology utilised for EM shielding measurement. According to this theory, the
exact equation to calculate total EM shielding, without approximations, is given by
equation 5.
= (5)
The intrinsic impedance ( of the shield is the ratio of the electric and magnetic
field’s amplitudes. In the case of far-field radiation, the intrinsic impedance of the
wave in free-space is constant and equals to (Kaiser, 2006). The
intrinsic impedance of the shield can be obtained by equation 6. The phase
constant of free-space is given by (2πf/c), and equals to The t
represents the thickness of the shield (m) and the the skin depth in the shield
(m). The absolute value of the complex numbers is considered in all equations.
(6)
Equation 5 can be broken down into the reflection, absorption and multiple-
reflection terms, according to equations 7a, 8a, and 9a, respectively. These
equations are normally approximated in order to simplify the calculations
(equations 7b1, 8b1, 9b1), and equations 7b2, 8b2, 9b2 are used for thin shields. The
approximated equations assume the shield is a good conductor, satisfying the
conditions ( , where is the electrical permittivity; this is not
the case for the developed fabrics (considered poor conductors), hence the exact
equations will be utilised for the theoretical calculations.
28
= (7a)
(7b1)
(7b2)
(8a)
(8b1)
(8b2)
= (9a)
(9b1)
(9b2)
2.1.3 Plane Wave theory- Multi layer/laminated concept
Multi layer shielding calculation utilises the same equations used for single layer
shield; however, the number of reflection terms is proportional to the number of
boundaries, and the absorption and multiple-reflection terms are proportional to
the number of layers. Figure 4 represents a multi layer system of 3 layers, where
layers 1 and 3 are conductive materials, and layer 2 is isolative material. Each
layer has intrinsic impedance (η) and thickness (t) components.
29
Figure 4 Diagram of incident, reflected and transmitted radiation of a multi-layer shield of 3 layers.
In order to calculate the total reflection of the 4 interfaces, the approximated

equation 10 can be used; while the total absorbance of the 3 layers is given by
equation 11; and the total multiple-reflection by equation 12. If the thickness of the
conducting layers is higher than the skin depth (electrically thick), then the
multiple-reflection term can be neglected, otherwise it has to be considered.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(12a)
(12b)
(12c)
(12d)
(12e)
30
2.1.4 Experimental EM shielding calculations
The EM shielding was experimentally measured by Insertion Loss (S21 parameter),

and the EM shielding due to Reflection was measured by Return Loss (S11
parameter); according to the two-port network set-up used for the measurements.
Therefore, equations 13a and 14a were considered for the EM shielding
calculations and the values obtained are negative. The theoretical EMS Reflection
loss equation measures the incident amplitude in relation to the transmitted
amplitude ( = 20 , positive dB), whereas the Return Loss equations
measure the reflected power in relation to the incident power (Eg.14a, negative dB),
therefore, in order to compare experimental results to theoretical predictions, the
Return Loss was transformed into Reflection loss by calculating the incident power
(Pi) in relation to the transmitted power (Pt = Pi-Pr) by equation 14b. The EM
shielding in this study will be reported either by positive or negative dB, due to the
different measurement and calculation methods; nevertheless, the magnitude of
the value should be considered (apart from MR).
Insertion Loss - IL (-dB) = (13a)
SE (+dB) = (13b)
Return Loss - RL (-dB) = (14a)
R (+dB) = (14b)
The EM shielding results will also be reported in percentages, in order to facilitate

analysis and comparisons. The SE in decibels can be related to SE percentage
(%) according to a logarithmic relationship, as illustrated in the figure 5. According
to the graph, it can be observed that -20 dB represents 99% of EM Shielding,
whereas -100 dB represents 99.99999999%.
31
EM Shielding Percentage X Decibels
100.0
Shielding Effectiveness (%)

80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100
Shielding Effectiveness (Decibels)
Figure 5 Relationship between SE % and Decibels
The percentage of the radiation that is reflected and transmitted from the
experimental tests were calculated using the equations 15 and 16, where Pr
relates to the EM power that is reflected by the fabric (Pr/Pi = R%); Pi is the incident
power and Pt is the power transmitted with the fabric (Pt/Pi = T%). The Return Loss
(RL) is calculated differently from the Reflection loss (RdB), as explained
previously.
IL (-dB) = T% = (15)
RL (-dB) = R% = (16)
In order to compare with the theoretical predictions, the following equations were
used to devise the percentage; however, in this case, the percentage was
calculated from the classical equations of SE, absorption and reflection and not
from the IL or RL, and the power ratio (10) was considered in the equations instead
of the voltage ratio (20) so as to compare with the experimental results. The
equations used were 17 and 18:
SE(dB) = SE% = (17)
32
R(dB) = R% = (18)
In order to calculate the absorbance, (either from experimental or theoretical

results) equations 19, 20 and 21 were used. The shielding by absorption is based
on the ability of the material to attenuate the radiation that has not been previously
reflected by the shield’s boundary, thus the shielding (dB) associated with the
absorption is a relative quantity, and the “net incident radiation” is represented by
(Pi - Pr = 100% - R%). Figure 6 clarifies this relationship, providing an example of
R= A= 10dB, where A= 90% when related to net incident radiation and 9% when
related to total incident radiation. It is very important to state at this point that even
though the decibel is related to the “net incident radiation”, there is no rule about
the calculation of the percentage of absorbance; it has been calculated in several
different ways in the literature. Therefore, in this study, the percentage (%)
associated with shielding by absorption will NOT be a relative quantity, It will
instead be an absolute quantity, related to the total incident radiation (considered
100%) as it is a more sensible approach when it comes to comparing and
contrasting results from different materials at different conditions. Equation 21
represents the overall relationship (%) among transmission, reflection, absorption
and total shielding adopted in this study.
AdB = = (19)
AdB = SEdB - RdB (20)
SE% = 100 - T% = A% + R% A% = 100 - T% - R% (21)
33
Figure 6 Representation of a single layer shielding behaviour of A= R= 10dB and SE= 20dB,
showing the two ways of approaching the absorption percentage.
Regarding the multiple-reflection term, it could not be measured experimentally;

however, it is believed to be imbedded in the Return Loss results. An insertion loss
equation relating the impedance of the sample holder (ASTM method) and the
impedance of the shield is also theoretically available ),
where the impedance of the holder is ; the fabric impedance calculated
from this equation is in agreement with the impedance calculated using equation 6,
in most fabrics.
2.1.5 Shielding effectiveness measurement standards
Several systems are available for measuring plane wave shielding effectiveness of
materials, such as shielded room, waveguide methods, dielectric probes, coaxial
transmission lines, dual transverse electromagnetic (TEM) cell method, and open-
space methods (Wieckowski and Janukiewicz, 2006). There is no standard
methodology specifically designed for fabrics, and there is also a lack of generally
accepted standardised methods for measuring shielding effectiveness, as these
methods are commonly adapted and modified to meet individual needs. In the
present study, the method ASTM D 4935-10 was adopted, as well as two non-
standard methodologies, discussed in further details in chapter 2. The following
standards are normally used in literature:
34
ASTM D 4935-10, “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Electromagnetic
Shielding Effectiveness of Planar Materials”: This standard is the most common
for measuring EM shielding of fabric. The most recent revision of this document
dates from 2010. This test method applies to the measurement of SE of planar
materials under normal incidence, far-field, and plane-wave conditions (E and H
tangential to the surface of the material). The shielding effectiveness
measurements are carried out for frequencies ranging from 30 MHz to 1.5 GHz.
The measurement device may consist of a network analyser, which is capable of
measuring insertion loss and return loss; and a sample holder (astm.org).
IEEE-STD 299-2006, “Standard Method for Measuring the Effectiveness of

Electromagnetic Shielding Enclosures” (replaced the cancelled MIL-Standard
285): It is probably the most frequently referenced standard for determining the
effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding enclosures at frequencies from 50 Hz to
100 GHz, having all dimensions greater than or equal to 2.0 m. The types of
enclosures covered include single-shield or double-shield structures of various
constructions. There are numerous adaptations of this method which have been
devised to evaluate the properties of flat shielding materials. Measuring shielding
effectiveness using the above test setup is time-consuming and troublesome; it
requires excellent proficiency and measurement experience. It consists of a
transmitting and receiving antenna. The received signal is analysed and recorded
by a spectrum analyser. The receiving antenna is located in a shielded chamber,
which has an opening without shielding, and the shield is placed in this opening
(ieeexplore.ieee.org).
ASTM ES7-83, “Test Method for Electromagnetic Shielding Effectiveness of

Planar Materials” (Withdrawn 1988): This method is less used due to its
complexity and is no longer an active standard. It normally uses a network
analyzer and a coaxial transmission-line cell. A number of researchers have
described the detailed set-up and testing procedure using plane-wave
electromagnetic field.
Free-space method: The free space method is suitable for flexible thin samples
which are difficult to measure using conventional microwave measurement
35
techniques, such as waveguide methods, dielectric probes and coaxial
transmission lines. The only drawback of this method is the requirement of
sophisticated equipment, such as an open-space area, spectrum analyser,
amplifier, antennas, etc; and this method is also complex due to the influence of
diffraction and lower dynamic range.
2.2 EMS textiles – research papers
Textiles have been highly considered in applications for electromagnetic

interference (EMI) shielding in the electrical & electronic industries as well as for
the production of protective garments due to the increasing concern about health
issues caused by human exposure to radiation. The emerging role of textiles in
EMI shielding is mainly due to their desirable properties in terms of flexibility,
versatility, low mass and low cost. Textiles are intrinsically non EMI shielding
materials and are rather insulating materials; however, they can be successfully
turned into EMI shielding materials after raw-material changes, new production
process or process adaptations that can make them electrically conductive
(Perumalraj and Dasaradhan, 2008). Figure 7 illustrates the increasing research
activity on the field of EM shielding fabrics, mainly in the last 3 years.
Number of scientific paper publications by Year
40
30
Scientific Papers
20
10
Year of Publication
Figure 7 Summary of scientific paper publications from 1990 to 2011.
Some of the methods to obtain conductive fabrics are based on producing fabrics
with the use of metallic fibres and yarns, such as stainless steel, aluminium or
copper yarns; however, these types of yarns tend to have low flexibility due to their
36
large diameter, which produces a heavier, stiffer and uncomfortable fabric. To
reduce this problem, researchers have been studying the influence of yarn density,
fabric constructions, different patterns, yarn diameters, quantity of conductive yarns
in the structure, layers and yarn direction.
Conductive fabrics can also be produced by conductive yarns, where the yarn
conductivity is obtained by using conductive fillers or coatings incorporated in the
yarn production. These processes are based on mixing the fibre polymer with fillers
during the chemical processes such as melt or wet spinning; or by twisting and
wrapping a synthetic fibre with metallic yarns using mechanical spinning
processes. The coating approaches include in-situ polymerisation or plating
techniques. By using conductive fillers or coating during yarn production, yarns of
small diameter can be obtained, and therefore, resulting in very flexible and light
weight fabrics. These technologies are less often used due to their inherent
complexities. In general, the above techniques are time-consuming, complex and
require the utilisation and know-how of the whole textile supply-chain. Moreover,
the resulting fabrics do not possess isotropic EM shielding behaviour, due to the
yarn direction obtained by weaving and knitting processes.
Other approaches to develop conductive fabrics include the application of

conductive materials on the surface of the fabric itself using lamination, coating,
spraying, ionic plating, electroless plating, vacuum metallisation, cathode
sputtering, and chemical vapour deposition. Coating usually does not change the
flexibility of the fabrics and is applied in very thin layer, low mass and closed
fabrics. Most of the conductive fabrics in the market made by coating technologies
have very homogeneous and closed structures thus exhibiting extremely high EM
shielding capabilities and isotropic behaviour.
An overview of the most common approaches used to produce EM Shielding

fabrics, as well as conductive fabrics in general is given in the following diagram,
which relates to the textile supply chain, from raw material to garment
manufacturing.
37
RAW-MATERIAL SPINNING FABRIC YARN OR FABRIC METAL GARMENT
CONSTRUCTION COATING PROCESSES TECHNOLOGY
Synthetic polymers/
fibres/ yarns: PES, WEAVING In-situ polimeryzation of ICP Embroidering and
PA, PU, PP, C, Glass MELT/ WET Conductive yarns are sewing
SPINNING used in the warp or weft with conductive
direction and changes Electroless Plating threads
Blending of metals in density, number of
Natural fibres or yarn: yarns, openness, yarn
or ICP with Sputter plating (PVD, ion plasma
Cotton, silk, wool diameter, pattern, etc,
synthetic polymers sputtering)
to obtain composite are related to SE GARMENT
yarns or staple FINISHING
fibres WARP KINITTING Vacuum deposition
Artificial fibres or yarn: Conductive yarn is
Rayon, PAN, Viscose Printing/
used in the warp Coating/Spray of
direction and also Conductive nanofibre coating by
Electrospinning conductive
changes in structure inks/polymers/fillers in
RING/ROTOR/ are performed
Metals as fillers or specific patterns
O.E. SPINNING
coating: Ag Cu Ni Tin Electrodeposition/ Electroplating
Twisting/ Wrapping WEFT KNITTING
of conductive Conductive yarns is Wet/wash finishing:
Ink-Jet/ Digital Printing
fibres/yarns with used in the weft The garment is
Inherently Conductive immersed in water
synthetic direction and also
polymers [ICP] as with the chemical
fibres/yarns changes in structure Knife/ Roll/ Foam Coating
fillers or coating: products, and these
are realized
PANI, PPy attach/interact with the
Silk-Screen printing fabric
NONWOVEN
Whole Conductive Conductive fibres in
specified or random Lamination
Fibres/ wires/
Filaments: Stainless directions are used and
Steel, Copper, changes in weight,
Grafting
Aluminium bonding process etc.
are performed
Figure 8 Textile supply chain for the production of conductive fabrics.
Regarding the materials used, metals are the most common materials for EM
shielding; however, metals are expensive and heavy, and may be subject to
thermal expansion and metal oxidation, or corrosion problems associated with
their use. Metals function mainly by reflection. Carbon materials are also used in
EM shielding applications, mainly as conductive fillers (fibres, particles, powders,
and nanotubes), due to their excellent electrical conductivity, chemical resistance,
mechanical strength, radiation absorption properties and low density.
Intrinsically conductive polymers (ICPs) have also been replacing metals for
various shielding applications due to their advantages in terms of lower weight,
oxidation resistance, thermal stability and shielding absorption properties. ICPs
show electrical properties due to their long conjugated chains formed by double
bonds and heteroatoms, which derive both their conducting or neutral (non-
conducting) forms. The polymers can be rendered conductive by modifying the π-
and π-p-electron system in their double bonds and heteroatoms. Charge carriers
are originated by adding to the polymer certain blending or doping agents, which
will serve as electron acceptors or electron donors in the polymer. Thereby,
electron holes or extra electrons are formed in the polymer chain, enabling electric
38
current to travel along the conjugated chain. However, ICPs are inherently
insoluble and infusible due to their strong intermolecular interactions and rigid
characteristics owing to their chemical conformation of benzene rings. Although
they pose difficulty in processing, high quality conducting blends with conventional
polymers are possible by melt mixing, filling or coating (Kim et al, 2003).
The conducting polymers normally investigated are polyacetylene (PA),

polypyrrole (Ppy), polythiophene (PT), polyaniline (PANI) and poly(perinaphtalene)
(Pna). However, the most commonly used to produce EMI shielding textiles are
polyaniline (PANI) and polypyrrole (PPy). Polypyrrole and polyaniline have been
widely investigated owing to their good electrical conductivity, good environmental,
thermal and chemical stability in ambient conditions and because they pose fewer
toxicological problems.
The advantages of using nanoscale materials have also been investigated for EM
shielding applications, such as the ability to fill up the vacancy of conductive
network formed by conductive materials of different shapes, as a result, forming a
denser and more complete conductive network (Chang et al, 2010). Nanoscale
materials also have the advantages of a much higher surface area, lower density
and lower weight; and carbon nanotubes, in special, have outstanding structural,
mechanical and electrical properties.
In summary, the research efforts regarding production and characterization of EM

shielding fabrics can be divided as: i. Conductive Yarns & Fibres, which relates
to the development techniques and characteristics of conductive yarns; ii. Fabric
Conductive Coatings, the processes used to develop conductive fabrics by
coating and their properties, and iii. Fabric Constructions, the development and
parameters used to produce woven, knitted and nonwoven conductive fabrics.
Figure 9 illustrates the participation of each of these approaches to the total of
scientific work published, as well as the contribution of the different materials and
fabrics. It can be observed that the proportion of EMS fabrics developed by
coating is very similar to the ones developed by using conductive yarns.
Mechanical spinning represents most of the conductive yarn approach, whereas
39
electroless plating represents most of the coating approach. Regarding material
and fabric, metals are the most used followed by ICPs and carbon; and woven
fabrics are more than half of the fabrics used in EMS applications.
Approach used for producing EM Fabric used for Material used for
shielding Fabrics producing EM producing EM
shielding Fabrics shielding Fabrics
8% 5% RED
BLUE 8%
EMS EMS Fabric 6%
10% 11%
Fabric produced
produced from 14% 19%
19% 59% 50%
by coating conductive
22% yarns
Pure metal/Carbon fibre Chemical Spinning

woven Metal
Mechanical spinning Electroless Plating
Knit Conductive Polymer
In-situ polymerisation Others Nonwoven Carbon Fibre/Filler
Figure 9 Overview of approaches, fabrics and materials used for EM shielding fabric research.
A summary of the most relevant research up to the present will be presented in

detail in the following sections.
2.2.1 Conductive yarns & fibres
One of the most common methods to obtain EM shielding fabrics is to use

conductive fibres or yarns in their production. The conductive yarns are normally
produced from carbon, nickel, stainless steel, titanium, aluminium and cooper, in
the form of wire, filaments, or staple fibres; however, it is also possible to obtain
conductive yarns by coating or filling the non-conductive yarn with conductive
materials. Therefore, the main approaches are highlighted below:
Hybrid yarns by mechanical spinning approaches
Hybrid yarns such as multi-layered, bicomponent, or core/sheath yarns can be

obtained by wrapping one yarn or staple fibre onto another, or by twisting them
together (Su and Chern, 2004), in processes such as the hollow spindle spinning
method, demonstrated by Cheng et al (2000), open-end friction spinning machine
(Ueng and Cheng, 2001; Ramachandran and Vigneswaran, 2009), rotor-wrapping-
40
twister (Lin and Lou, 2003; Chen et al, 2004), and conventional ring spinning
process (Muhl and Obolenski, 2004) (Perumalraj et al, 2009).
Metallic fibres are expensive, brittle and heavier than most textile fibres, making it
difficult to process in normal textile machinery and either obtains flexible and
comfortable fabrics. When making hybrid or composite yarns, the metallic wire
remains mainly in the core of the yarn, and it is normally wrapped by synthetic
fibres so that to reduce the friction and make the yarn more resistant and
malleable to be used in the following process such as warping, woven or knitting
machines. Stainless steel (SS) and copper yarn (Cu) are by far the most
commonly used metallic yarns to produce shielding fabrics. They can be used by
themselves or twisted, wrapped or joined with non-conductive yarns using
spinning processes.
A drawback of this process is that as the metallic yarns are twisted with non-
conducting yarns, the metal wires may not be well connected at each crossing
point of the fabric structure because the conducting wire is in the core and thus
protected with a synthetic yarn layer. Therefore, the non-connected crossing
points of the structure difficult the coupling between conductive yarns, thereby
reducing the EM shielding (Chen et al, 2007).
The electromagnetic shielding also depends on the geometry of the yarn, such as
the use of filament or staple fibres. Su and Chern (2004) observed that fabrics
made from SS filament or staple fibres have optimum electromagnetic shielding
values at different measured frequencies. Therefore, it seems that there is no
standard behaviour regarding yarn geometry in relation to shielding effectiveness,
it depends on several factors, such as the fabric construction, polarization of the
electromagnetic field, fabric orientation on the measurement device and
frequency.
The influence of the diameter of the yarn is also an important issue to be

considered, and apparently it is also related to several other factors. Cheng et al
(2006) and Perumalraj and Dasarandan (2010) reported lower shielding
effectiveness for fabrics constructed with metal wires with larger diameters, due to
41
larger openness in the structure, owing to less flexible and malleable yarn.
However, Muhl and Obolenski (2004) reported a slight increase in shielding with
the use of higher diameter. The phenomenon called the skin effect also makes the
finer metal filaments more favourable because, the higher the frequency of the EM
wave, the smaller the penetration depth into the fibre. Therefore, a smaller
diameter fibre would be more efficient because a greater proportion of its volume
(the skin volume) would be involved in attenuating the energy than for a larger
diameter fibre. A larger diameter is also worse regarding woven or knitting
processability, as it is not flexible and malleable. (Roh et al, 2008).
Recently, several studies have reported the production of hybrid yarns by mixing
metallic filaments with bamboo yarn in order to explore the infrared properties of
the bamboo in EM shielding applications (Chen et al, 2010), (Lou and Lin, 2011),
(Zhao and Gao, 2011) and (Lu and Xue, 2012).
Composite yarns by melt/wet spinning approaches
Conductive yarns can be obtained by melt-spinning or wet-spinning technologies,

where it is possible to mix different polymers and fillers, extruding them together
into a composite yarn (Devaux et al, 2007), (Kim et al, 2004), (Zhang et al, 2001),
(Jin et al, 2006). Electro-spinning has also been used recently, as demonstrated
by Im et al (2010), and Jin et al (2012).
In this case the materials need to be homogenously dispersed and the

morphological properties, orientation, alignment and percolation threshold of the
conductive filler need to be carefully considered. The presence of aggregates also
decreases the mechanical properties and the electrical conductivity of the
composites. Conducting blends of carbon fillers, carbon nanotubes, polyaniline
(PANI), and polypyrrole (Ppy) with polymeric matrixes have been studied. The
dispersible conductive form of PANI in organic solvents and its spontaneous
molecular assembly has been used to coat PANI on the textile yarn surface
(Devaux et al, 2007).
42
The melt-mixing process has many advantages compared with coating. The metal
embedded in composites is less sensitive to oxidation and friction and the yarn
normally maintains the mechanical properties such as elongation and flexibility,
whereas the coated yarn may suffer from friction, abrasion and high tension from
the fabric machines, which causes the break and elimination of the coating.
(Devaux et al, 2007).
During melt-spinning, the morphology of the yarn, crystallinity and draw ratio have
significant effect on conductivity, for instance, a higher draw ratio can lead to a
higher conductivity, as observed by Zhang et al (2001) and Devaux et al (2007), or
most often lower conductivity (Cayla et al, 2012) (Hooshman et al, 2011) due to
less network and more orientation of fillers.
Composite yarns by coating approaches
The conductive coating of yarns is applied mainly by technologies such as:

vacuum metallization; and chemical & electrochemical in-situ polymerization of
conductive polymers (Kim et al, 2004) (Devaux et al, 2007). Metallic coating
produces highly conductive fibres; however, adhesion and corrosion resistance
can present problems. The oxidation of conductive materials is normally a limiting
factor in the long-term stability of the conductive yarns (Devaux et al, 2007).
Coating the fabric is more common than coating the individual yarns before fabric
construction.
The geometrical structure of the yarn is reported to influence the conductivity after
coating. In the case of spun yarns, the structure is bulky (fibres are not
geometrically organized). In the case of filament yarns, the structure is more
uniform (fibres are often parallel). Free volumes are more present in spun yarns,
therefore the conductive filler penetrates more in the inner yarn structure than in
the case of filament ones during the coating process, which increases the fibre
conductivity (Kim et al, 2004).
The research papers and countries active in the development of conductive yarns
for EM shielding applications are summarized below, with their respective authors
43
and materials used.
Table 1 Details of the scientific papers related to the development of conductive yarns & fibres.
FABRIC OBTAINED COMPOSITE YARN - MATERIALS/ PROCESS
Multi layers of fabric
Metal yarn/filament/
(wrapping, twisting)
Vacuum deposition
Wet/ Melt Spinning
Nonwoven Fabric
Polymerisation of
ICP/ ICP solution
Electro-spinning
Ring, open-end,
Fibre /Polymer
Woven Fabric
Knitted Fabric
rotor spinning
staple fibre
processes
coating
In-Situ
used
YEA COUNTR
AUTHOR
R Y
Aniolczyk, H. et al 2004 POLAND X PAN Cu
Chen, A. P. et al 2010 X SS Cu Bamboo X
2006
Chen, H.C. et al 2007 TAIWAN X X X X SS Cu PA, PP X
2008
2006 X X Cu
PP Carbon
2002 X X SS Cu X
Aramid
Cheng, K. B. et al 2003 TAIWAN X SS Cu Kevlar Rayon X
2001 X SS PES X
PP,Glass,
2000 X X SS Cu X
PES
PANI
Im, J.S. et al 2010 KOREA
CNT
2006
Jin, X. et al 2006
CHINA PES Carbon
PAN
CNT
Jin, X. et al 2012 JAPAN
Cobalt
Ferrite
Jou, W.S. 2004 TAIWAN CF X
Ag,Cu,Al
Kan, L. et al 2007 CHINA X PES
,Ti
PANI,
Kim, B. et al 2004 FRANCE PP, PES Ppy, PANI
Graphite
Lin, J.H. and Lou,
2003 TAIWAN X X X SS PP.Aramid X
C.W.
Lou, C.W. Lin , Cotton/
2011 TAIWAN X SS X
J.H. Bamboo
2004 GERMAN
Muhl, T. et al 2005 Y
X X Cu Ag PA X
Ortlek, H.G. et al 2012 TURKEY X SS X

2009
Perumalraj et al 2010
INDIA X X Cu Cotton, PES X
Roh, J. S. et al 2008 KOREA X SS Cu PES X

Shang, Y.L.and
2011 CHINA X SS Wool X
Xu, L.Y.
Soyaslan, D et al 2010 TURKEY X Cu Cotton X
Su, C. I. and
2004 TAIWAN X SS PES X
Chern, J.
Sun , R. et al 2005 CHINA PES SS
Ueng, T.H. et al 2001 TAIWAN X SS PES, rayon X

Kevlar/Nome
Zhang, H. et al 2011 CHINA X Metal
x
X
Zhang, Q. et al 2001 CHINA PA PANI

CHINA
Zhao, Y. and Gao, Wool/Bambo
2011 X Metal X
H.F. o
Zhu, H. et al 2007 CHINA X Carbon
Wen Lou, C. et al 2011 TAIWAN X SS/Cu Recycled PP X
Legend: SS (Stainless Steel); Cu( Copper); PA (Polyamide); PP (Polypropylene); PES (Polyester); PAN (Polyacrylonitrile);
Ppy (Polypyrrole); PANI (Polyaniline);p CF (Carbon Fibre); Ag (Silver); Al (aluminium); Ti (Titanium).
44
2.2.2 Fabric conductive coatings
Electromagnetic shielding fabrics can be produced by coating the non conductive

fabric with conductive materials, using coating processes such as: spraying,
electroless plating, sputter coating, plasma treatment, vacuum metallisation, in-situ
polymerisation, chemical vapour deposition, textile coating/printing, etc. Brief
explanations of these processes are given below.
Textile Coating: in this process, metallic fillers are incorporated into a polymeric
carrier, such as synthetic rubber, PVC, polyurethanes, silicones, acrylic emulsions,
etc. These are spread coated on the fabric, using conventional coating processes
such as knife coating, roll coating, transfer, lamination, foam coating and etc.
Textile Printing: printing fabrics using the silk-screen printing; the roll printing; or
even the Ink-jet printing (Digital Printing) is possible by using conductive ink and/or
fillers (Wang et al, 2009).
Vacuum deposition: the substrate to be coated is placed in a vacuum chamber

containing the solid metal; this metal is then melted and evaporated. The metal
atoms coming out of the molten metal hit the surface of the fabric, which passes
over a cooled drum, and condense in the form of solid metal.
Sputter coating/plating: The equipment consists of a vacuum chamber containing

an inert gas, usually argon. The chamber is equipped with a cathode (target),
which is the source of the coating material, and an anode, which acts as a
substrate holder. Application of an electrical potential between the two electrodes
produces a glow discharge and a flow of current occurs due to movement of
electrons from cathode to anode. The electrons ionize the argon gas; the argon
ions are accelerated toward the cathode and sputter or dislodge atoms from its
surface by collisions. These atoms and ions condense on the substrate to form a
thin film of coating. This method gives a more uniform coating with better adhesion
than simple vapour deposition. Nylon, cellulose and polypropylene are not suitable
for this process due to poor adhesion of metal elements to the fibre, whereas
45
polyester is the most appropriate substrate (Yonenaga, 2008), (Chen et al, 2007) .
Electroless plating: Unlike electroplating where externally supplied electrons act as

reducing agents, in electroless plating, metallic coatings are formed as a result of
chemical reaction between a reducing agent and metal ions present in the
solution. In order to localize the metal deposition on a particular surface, it is
necessary that the surface acts as a catalyst, or if the deposited metal acts as a
catalyst, autocatalysis occurs, and a smooth deposition is obtained. Only
autocatalytic reduction reactions can be used, as such, the number of metals that
can be coated are not many. A pre-treatment of the fabric is normally necessary.
(Han et al, 2001). This process is the most frequently reported for the production
of coated EMS fabric.
Chemical and electrochemical in situ polymerisations of intrinsically conductive

polymers - ICPs: In-situ chemical polymerization can be made by two distinct
methods. The first one is bulk polymerization taking place in solution, where part of
the resulting polymer deposits onto the surface of the substrate material immersed
in the polymerisation solution. The other approach is a chemical polymerization
provided directly onto the substrate surface. In this case, the surface to be coated
is enriched either with monomer or an oxidising agent, and after that is treated with
a solution or vapour of either oxidiser or monomer respectively. In-situ
electrochemical polymerisation involves the polymerisation of monomers at
electrodes, performed either in aqueous or in organic solutions.
Coating of ICPs in water or solvent dispersion form (solution coating)

Solution coating of various materials with a layer of ICP includes spreading the
solution on the surface of the substrate materials, followed by the evaporation of
the solvent. The major drawback of this process is the poor solubility of most ICPs
in nearly all solvents of practical interest.
Coating from conductive nanofibres by electrospinning processes: Nanofibres are

deposited on the surface of a substrate, thereby producing a conductive coating.
These nanofibres are produce from solutions of different polymers blends in water
or solvent. Polyaniline is the most common conductive polymer used in this
46
process (Im et al, 2010).
Electrodeposition: Electrodeposition is a coating process based on the action of

electric current and is normally used to produce metallic coatings. The deposition
is achieved by negatively charging the substrate to be coated and by immersing it
into a solution containing a salt of the metal to be deposited.
Low-temperature plasma: Metallization of textile materials by ion plasma

sputtering or plasma assisted physical vapour deposition have been reported; with
the use of metallic targets in argon atmosphere or other gases. Carbon coating
using this process has been investigated by Jaroszewski et al (2010).
Regarding the materials used for coating, it can be grouped into: metals,
conductive polymers, and carbon materials. The metals normally used for platting
coating are silver (Ag), tin (Sn), nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu). Each one has its own
properties: Ni and Sn are usually coated after copper as they prevent corrosion
and helps to provide mechanical protection; Ag is usually the first metal coated and
it is then coated with other metals to obtain better properties. Nickel increases the
absorption behaviour due to its magnetic properties. The quantity of metals
normally used by plating techniques is 20-50wt%, depending on the shielding
effectiveness required.
Metals provide the highest EM shielding results; however, they are heavy,
expensive, prone to oxidation and may cause health problems, such as the allergic
reaction associated with nickel.
Conductive polymers have been widely explored lately due to their advantages in
relation to metals. Conducting polymers such as polypyrrole (PPy) and poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) possess high electrical conductivity, ease of
synthesis and good environmental stability, and PPy-coated textiles are known for
their high microwave absorption properties.
The literature reports diverse research works involving coating of intrinsically

conducting polymers on fabrics, such as using polypyrrole (Ppy): Hankansson et al
(2006/2007), Kaynak and Hankansson (2009), Avloni et al (2007/2008), Dhawan
47
et al (2002), Ferrero et al (2006), Hong et al (2001), Kim S.H. et al (2003), Kim
M.S. et al (2002), Kim H.K. (2003) and Lee et al (2001/2002); Polyaniline (PANI):
Dhawan et al (2002), Kim et al (2006) Geetha et al (2005/2010), Zhang and Wang
(2008), Yu et al (2007) and Huang et al (2006); and poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT): Jung et al (2007), Kim H.K. et al (2002/2003)
and Das et al (2010). The process commonly used for coating is the in-situ
polymerisation. Fabrics coated with metals in combination with Ppy were reported
to achieve higher EMI shielding, as the metal helps to increase the conductivity
while the Ppy improves the connectivity among the metal particles.
Carbon materials are also commonly used for the development of EM shielding
fabrics, including the use of carbon black, carbon fibre filler, carbon particles,
carbon nanofibres, and etc. However, they are more used as fillers for the
production of composites rather than coating (Chung, 2001/2004).
Carbon materials exhibit radiation absorption behaviour and are known for their
good mechanical properties. Carbon nanotubes have been intensely explored
lately due to their outstanding structural, mechanical and electrical properties. The
use of nanoscale materials for EM shielding has demonstrated the ability to
produce a better conductive network due to the low size, high surface area, and
low density. Research studies based on the use of carbon nanotubes for the
fabrication of EMS composite films are discussed in section 2.5.
The research papers and countries active in the research of EM shielding fabrics
by fabric coating techniques are summarized below, with their respective authors
and materials used.
48
Table 2 Details of the scientific papers related to the development of fabric conductive coatings.
FABRIC OBTAINED FABRIC COATING PROCESS
Nonwoven Fabric
Plating / Solution
Plasma Coating
Sputter Plating/
Textile Coating
Polymerisation
Woven Fabric
Knitted Fabric
Electroless
techniques
deposition
COUNTRY
(or PVD)
Vaccum
of ICPs
Plating
In-Situ
YEAR
AUTHOR
Afzali, A et al 2010 KOREA CO Cu Ni

2007
Avloni, J. et al 2008
USA PES PES Ppy
Metal
Brzezinski, S et al 2009 POLAND PES PES
PANI
PES,
Ppy,
Dhawan, S.K. et al 2002 INDIA Glass
PANI
Silica
GERMA
Dietzel, Y. et al 2000
NY
PA Zr,Ti
Du, N. et al 2007 CHINA PES Ni Cu

Ni/Ag/
Du, W. et al 2011 CHINA PET
Sn/Cu
Ferrero, F. et al 2006 ITALY X Ppy
BELGIU Ppy,
Gasana, E. et al 2006
M
PA
Cu
2005
Geetha, S. et al 2010
INDIA Glass PANI
2009
Guo, R.H et al 2012
CHINA PES Ni, Cu
2006 AUSTRA PA,
Hakansson, E. et al 2007 LIA PES
Ppy
SOUTH
Han, E. G. et al 2001
KOREA
PES Cu
Hong, Y.K et al 2001 KOREA PES Ppy Ag
Huang, H. et al 2006 CHINA PES PANI
Hui, Z et al 2010 CHINA PES Ni Zn

Jaroszewski, M et
2010 POLAND PP Carbon
al
Jiang, S.X. and
2011 CHINA PES Ni/Cu
Guo, R.H.
SOUTH
Jung, B.R. et al 2006
KOREA
PES PEDOT
SOUTH Ppy,
Kim, H. K. et al 2003
KOREA
PES
PEDOT
Koprowska, J. et al 2004 POLAND X Fe
2001
Lee, C. Y. et al 2002
KOREA PES PES Ppy Ag
Lili, L. et al 2012 CHINA PET Ag
Liu, R. et al 2008 CHINA PET Ag Ni

Carbo
Lopes, C.M.A. et al 2003 BRAZIL PAN
n
Lu, Y et al 2010 CHINA PES Ag
Bambo
Lu, Y. et al 2012 CHINA
o
Ni/ Cu
Onar, N. et al 2009 TURKEY Cotton Pani Ppy

Perumalraja, R. et
2011 INDIA PES Ag
al
Perumalraja, R.
and Dasaradan, 2011 INDIA PES Ni
B.S.
Stefecka, M. et al 2004 JAPAN X Cu
Zhan, J.C. and Gou
2011 CHINA PET Ni/Cu
Y.N.
Zhang, H.and Liu 2008
CHINA PET Ni
R.L. 2012
Zhang, H. et al 2007 CHINA PES Ag

Ni/Cu/
Zhang, H. et al 2011 CHINA PA
Ag
Yu, C. et al 2011 CHINA ABS Ni/Cu
Yu, D. et al 2011 CHINA PES Ni
Xiao-Hong, W. et al 2011 CHINA PES Cu
Legend: SS (Stainless Steel); Cu( Copper); PA (Polyamide); PP (Polypropylene); PES (Polyester); PAN (Polyacrylonitrile);
Ppy (Polypyrrole); PANI (Polyaniline);p CF (Carbon Fibre); Ag (Silver); Al (aluminium); Ti (Titanium); Ni (Nickel); Sn (Tin); Zn
(Zinc); Zr (Zirconium); PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate); Fe (Iron); Pedot (Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene).
49
Coating usually does not change the flexibility of the fabrics and is applied in very
thin layer, low mass and closed fabric structures. Most of the conductive fabrics in
the market are made by coating technologies and have very homogeneous and
closed structures thus exhibiting extremely high EM shielding capabilities and
isotropic behaviour.
The proposed coating techniques and multi-layer coating approach have not been
peviously fully investigated in terms of the relationship between quantity and
Shielding Effectiveness (SE), and the use and synergy of CNT with other products.
However, Brzezinski et al demonstrated the advantages in using knife coating for
the production of a multi-layer system, comprising several layers of different
conductive fabrics (Brzezinski et al, 2009). A screen-printing technique has also
been demonstrated by Wang et al (2009), where the relationship between SE and
thickness was investigated; however, the CNT was applied on plastic substrates
not on fabrics.
2.2.3 Fabric constructions
Textile fabric structures include woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics; each of
them has its advantages and disadvantages in relation to EM shielding behaviour.
The most commonly used to produce shielding materials is the woven fabric.
Fabrics such as woven or knitted are believed to be more effective than
nonwovens due to the fact that the former two have continuous conductive
fibres/yarns (better connectivity), whereas nonwovens have discontinuous
conductive fibres. However, the shielding behaviour also depends on the
conductive material used, as well as the fabric’s parameters and the methodology
used to apply the conductive material.
EM shielding fabrics can be produced by the use of conductive yarns or by many

coating processes applied to the fabric itself, as explained in the previous sections.
However, the shielding behaviour is also heavily influenced by fabric
characteristics such as: structure, pattern, density of yarns, orientation of yarns,
50
etc. Most of the fabrics do not possess isotropic behaviour. The effect of these
parameters has been extensively studied and it will be discussed in details in this
section.
It is difficult to predict the relationship between EM shielding and the frequency

spectrum measured, as fabrics show different patterns and tendency towards the
frequency range. It is reported that EM shileding can increase with increasing
frequency, as well as decrease, or show different resonance peaks at specific
frequencies.
There have been some attempts to make empirical calculation of EM shielding of

conductive fabrics with theoretical approaches such as the Screened Aperture
Method, and the Wave-transmission-matrix (WTM) method. However it has been
proved to be difficult to predict or accurately match the measured results
(Perumalraj and Dasaradhan, 2010). Chen et al (2007) made the following
assumptions when using the Screened Aperture Method: fabric openings are
square; non-metallic fibres only keep metallic fibres apart; metallic fibres are well
conducted; and the metal wires are well connected at each crossing point. And the
results calculated were very different and higher than the experimental values. The
researchers attributed this difference to the fact that the metal wires were not well
connected at each crossing point because of their geometric structure.
The main relationships between SE and fabric parameters are summarised in

Table 3, and the advantages and disadvantages of each fabric structure will be
discussed in the following sections.
Table 3 Relationship between SE and fabric parameters
Parameter Changes Shielding Effectiveness (SE)

Density & Openness Higher density; Lower openness Higher SE
Yarn diameter na There is no standard behavior
Number of conductive yarns Higher number Higher SE
Fabric structure Plain, twill, sateen, interlock, rib etc. There is no standard behavior
Yarn/Fabric direction Weft/ warp in weaving Depends on radiation pattern. It is normally

Wale/ course in knitting higher when yarn is vertical to electric field
Multi-layered fabric Higher number of layers; depends Higher SE
on angle of layers too.
Frequency na There is no standard behavior
51
Knitted fabric
Knitting technology produces a fabric with meshes of interlocking loops. These

loops can move relative to each other without distorting the mesh, giving knitted
fabric normally a two-way stretch. This cannot be done with woven fabrics, as the
yarns are locked together due to the orthogonal configuration, therefore, producing
a tighter structure. This flexibility and elasticity of knitted structures provides either
advantages or disadvantages according to the EM Shielding application.
Furthermore, the shielding behaviour of knitted goods presents an orientation

dependency because of their specific construction, as the yarns run only in one
direction of the fabric - in the warp/vertical direction in the case of warp knitting
and in the weft/horizontal direction in the case of weft knitting. The EM shielding is
normally higher in the yarn running direction (Stegmaier et al, 2008). However,
techniques have proved to minimize this effect and to achieve an orientation
independent shielding effect on knitting goods, such as using a diagonal lapping
structure on warp knitting (Muhl and Obolenski, 2004); improving the connectivity
between the crossing yarns, or laminating several layers of the fabric in different
angles or together with different materials (Chen et al, 2006/2008) (Cheng et al,
2002/2006).
A knitted fabric with higher density provides better EM shielding. However, it is

difficult to obtain as density is determined by the number of knitting needles per
inch of the machine bed, which determines the knit loop size and wale density,
and conductive yarns can damage the needles and are difficult to knit in small
density knitted fabrics, as they are coarse, stiff and with high diameter.
Regarding the knitted structure, Perumalraj et al (2009) reported slightly better EM

shielding of the interlock structure, when compared to plain and rib knitted
structures. This was attributed to a lower porosity obtained from the interlock
structure. On the other hand, Soyaslan et al (2010) showed similar results from
plain and rib structures and strong frequency dependence.
52
Woven fabric
Woven fabric is the most common type of fabric used for EM shielding as it has
yarns in both vertical and horizontal directions, owing to the orthogonal structure of
yarns, thus achieving higher EM shielding. Conductive yarns can be used in both
orthogonal directions; however, it is mostly used in the weft direction, as it does
not suffer from the friction of the warp ends path, such as the read and eyes of the
loom.
When the conductive yarns are used in the warp or weft direction, machine
adaptations are required to reduce yarn breakage and damage to the machinery,
such as minimizing shed depth (height to which warp yarns are lifted for
interlacement) to reduce the tension in the warp yarns; choosing the better weft
insertion carrier so as to reduce the unwinding tension during weft insertion;
control the yarn tension in the fabric selvedge (edge of the fabric in loom) to
reduce breakage at the selvedge and etc (Chen et al, Cheng et al).
When using insulated conductive yarns to reduce friction and damage, the
insulating coating prevents conduction through the warp and weft metal filaments.
Thus, the weave structure does not form an effective conduction mesh network.
Although, at higher frequencies capacitive coupling produces better connection,
increasing the shielding efficiency.
The SE depends upon the polarization of the radiation with regard to warp or weft
direction. When the orientation of metal yarns is parallel to the oscillating direction
of the magnetic field, it is then vertical (perpendicular) to the oscillating direction of
the electric field, and the fabric can effectively intercept electromagnetic waves
and achieves its maximum effect (Sun et al, 2005). However, when the orientation
of metal yarns is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field and parallel to
the electric field it reaches its minimum SE. In short, the electromagnetic shielding
of polarized electromagnetic wave possesses an orientation effect. The testing
angle and its variation trend indicate that the variation of EM shielding also follows
Malus’ Law. However, in reality, electromagnetic waves propagate in multiple
directions; hence it is better to use conductive yarns in different directions (Kan et
53
al 2007).
In the woven structure, square meshes (i.e. 1/1 plain, 2/2 twill) are reported to
have better EM shielding than narrow/long meshes (i.e. 3/1 twill), and there is very
small variation between square meshes such as 1/1 plain and 2/2 twill. The fabrics
with 1/1 plain weave structures have the optimum values according to Su and
Chern, 2004. However, Perumalraj and Dasaradhan (2010) demonstrated that the
sateen structure displayed slightly better EM shielding when compared to twill and
plain structures. This effect was attributed to its longer yarn float length and hence
grouping of yarns and reduction of porosity. For a plain weave strcuture (i.e. 0.5 to
2.0 mm mesh distance), the higher the frequency the smaller the EM Shielding
(Muhl et al, 2004), which can be related to the lower wavelength associated to
higher frequency.
It has been reported that the mesh/grid openness (distance between conductive
yarns) influences more the EM shielding compared to the metal content of the
fabrics. The smaller the openness the higher the EM shielding, in particular, the
EM shielding decreases considerably when the distance between conducting
yarns is higher than 0.5 mm (Roh et al, 2008). The mesh/grid openness is also
associated with the fabric density, the lower the openness the higher the density of
conductive yarns and hence the better the EM shielding. Higher density also has
more connecting points between the conducting yarn, at the warp and weft right
angle, and therefore form a good conduction network in the fabric, contributing to
the higher EM shielding.
Thick composites or multi-layers composite using woven fabrics have been

studied as they show superior attenuation of EM fields due to greater EM
absorption and internal multiple-reflection. It depends upon angle of lamination as
different lamination angles results in multi-directions of conductive yarns, which
results in better SE (Chen et al), (Cheng et al), (Lin and Lou, 2011).
Nonwoven fabric
Nonwoven fabrics can be turned into conductive materials and used for shielding
54
applications with the integration of conductive staple fibres or filaments during the
nonwoven processing or during a finishing treatment such as coating applied on
the constructed fabric. Nonwovens are normally lighter than woven or knitted
fabrics, and offer a cheaper alternative to EM shielding. This type of fabric has
normally short fibres distributed randomly within the surface; therefore, there is no
yarn direction and connectivity along the structure. Nonwovens present a more
isotropic shielding behaviour when compared to other fabrics and it also has a
more homogeneous and flatter surface. There are not many research studies
reported using this type of fabric; however, there are several products on the
market, produced either by carbon fibres or conductive coating that show high EM
shielding.
The research papers and countries active in the research of EM shielding fabrics
by varying the fabric structures and characteristics are summarized below, with
their respective authors and approaches used.
Table 4 Details of the scientific papers related to the development of conductive fabrics, using
diverse fabric constructions.
FABRIC
FABRIC STRUCTURE PARAMETERS
OBTAINED
direction: warp/weft
Fabric mass: g/m²

Distance between
Nonwoven Fabric
twill, rib, interlock

comfort,follow-up
conductive yarns
Structure: plain,
Fabric density:
Woven Fabric
Knitted Fabric
Yarn/ Fabric
Multi-layers
Elasticity,
treatment
yarns/cm
COUNTR
etc.
AUTHOR YEAR
Y
Aniolczyk, H. et al 2004 POLAND X X X
2007
Chen, H.C. et al 2008
TAIWAN X X X X X X X
2006 X X X
2002 X X X X X
Cheng, K. B. et al 2003 TAIWAN X X X
2001 X X X
2000 X X X X X X
Ciesielska-
Wróbel, and 2012 Poland X X
Grabowska
Das, A. et al 2009 INDIA X X X X
Jou, W.S. et al 2004 TAIWAN X X X X

Lin, J.H. and Lou,
2003 TAIWAN X X
C.W.
Lou, C. W. and
2011 TAIWAN X X X X
Lin, J.H.
2007
Lin, J. H. et al 2011
TAIWAN X X X
Lou, C.W. et al 2011 TAIWAN X X X
55
FABRIC
FABRIC STRUCTURE PARAMETERS
OBTAINED
direction: warp/weft
Fabric mass: g/m²

Distance between
Nonwoven Fabric
twill, rib, interlock

comfort,follow-up
conductive yarns
Structure: plain,
Fabric density:
Woven Fabric
Knitted Fabric
Yarn/ Fabric
Multi-layers
Elasticity,
treatment
yarns/cm
COUNTR
etc.
AUTHOR YEAR
Y
2004
Muhl, T. et al 2005
GERMANY X X X X X X X
Ortlek, H.G. et al 2012 TURKEY X X X
Ortlek, H.G. et al 2011 TURKEY X X
2009 INDIA X X X
Perumalraj, R and
Dasaradhan, B.S. 2010 INDIA X X X X X
Qeken, F. et al 2011 TURKEY X X
Roh, J. S. et al 2008 KOREA X X X

Shang H. and Xu
2011 CHINA X X X X X
X.
Soyaslan, D et al 2010 TURKEY X X X
Su and Chern. et
2004 TAIWAN X X X X X
al
Sun , R. et al 2005 CHINA X X X
Stegmaier et al 2008 GERMANY X X
Ueng, T.H. et al 2001 TAIWAN X X X X
Zhang, H. et al 2011 CHINA X X X
Zhang, H. et al 2011 CHINA X X X

Zhao Y. and Gao
2011 CHINA X X X
H.F.
Zhu, H. et al 2007 CHINA X
Wen Lou,C. et al 2011 TAIWAN X X X X
2.3 EMS textiles - Market overview
2.3.1 EMS fabrics
A wide variety of EM shielding fabrics is available in the market and this section
will provide a list of the most common fabrics and companies involved in this field.
Most of the fabrics are produced by metal plating techniques (fabric or yarn),
therefore achieving very high EM shielding. EMS fabrics based on carbon fibre
and conductive polymers are also available. These fabrics have reasonable
shielding ~20dB and are becoming increasingly available, mainly for wearable
applications. Woven fabrics represent the most commercialised fabrics followed by
knitted and nonwoven. Commercial fabrics are usually assessed in the frequency
range from ~100MHz to ~3GHz. The most relevant companies are Less EMF Inc,
56
Marktek Inc, and Shieldex Trading GmbH, and their products are summarised
below.
Less EMF Inc., USA: it is an online superstore, which commercializes several

kinds of EM shielding products in general, including a huge variety of shielding
fabrics (lessemf.com):
 RadioscreenTM : nickel (10.9%) and copper (23.4%) coated polyester mesh;

Attenuation 50dB.
 Argenmesh™: silver (55%) and nylon (45%) mesh fabric; Attenuation
~50dB.
 Soft&SafeTM : silver (30%) and bamboo (70%) woven fabric; Hand
washable; Attenuation ~50 dB.
 StaticotTM: woven fabric made of Polyester (34%) and cotton (41%) blend
with stainless steel microfibers (25%); Attenuation ~ 30dB.
 VeilShield™: woven mesh of polyester fibres coated (platting) with nickel
and copper; Attenuation 40dB.
 Ripstop silver fabric: silver coated woven fabric (platting); Hand washable.
 FlecTron®: copper (35%) plated nylon ripstop fabric; Attenuation 80dB.
 Stainless steel mesh: knitted fabric made of 100% stainless steel yarns;
washable; shielding 15dB-26dB.
 Ex-static™: woven fabric made of 87% polyester, 13% gray BASF Resistat
(carbon) fibres; washable up to 50 cycles; resistivity 105 ohm/sq.
 High performance silver mesh fabric: silver plated knitted fabric;
Attenuation ~50dB.
 Shieldit™ super: plain weave nylon plated with Nickel and Copper;
Attenuation >60dB.
 Stretch conductive fabric: Silver plated 76% Nylon 24% knitted fabric;
Attenuation ~40dB.
 Swiss Shield: woven fabric made of silver coated copper wires spun with
cotton or polyester yarns.
 Cobaltex™: multi metal platted woven fabric; Attenuation 65-80dB.
 NaturellTM : woven fabric made of 82% cotton, 17% copper and 1% silver.
Certificates: Öko-Tex 100 Class 1; Machine washable (gentle cycle), cold
57
water, Hang dry, Iron without steam, low heat, no bleach. Do not dry clean;
Resistivity 106 ohm/sq.
 Silverell® Fabric: knitted fabric made of 84% rayon and 16% silver/nylon;
shielding hand washable; 90% or better shielding (15-20dB); Resistivity < 5
ohm/sq.
 Microwave absorbing sheet: nonwoven nearly-pure carbon fibers; high
absorption.
 DaylightTM : open mesh fabric, 92% polyester, 7.5% copper, 0.5% silver
filament in the yarn; attenuation ~20dB, Resistivity 10 10 ohm/sq. Machine
wash (gentle cycle), cold water. Hang dry. Iron without steam, low heat. No
bleach. Do not dry clean.
 Wear: woven fabric with 0.5% silver 9.5% copper yarn, 90% cotton,
Attenuation ~20dB. High durability to washing; Resistivity 10 8 ohm/sq.
Certificates: Öko-Tex 100 Class 1.
 Zelt fabric: Tin/Copper coated plain weave nylon fabric.
Marktek Inc. is a company based in USA and specialised in products for shielding,
conductive, resistive and absorptive materials, which include foams, fabrics, yarns
and structures made of metal and conductive polymers. Some examples of their
products are (marktek-inc.com):
 EeonTex (TM) Conductive Textiles: Fabrics of all constructions and

compositions coated with conducting polymer formulations to surface
resistivities between 10 ohm/sq and 10 billion ohm/sq.
 Metallized Fabrics: nylon fabrics, nonwovens, and meshes of all
constructions coated with silver, nickel, copper, tin and gold.
 Continuous Nonwoven Mats of Carbon and Other Fibres: Thin,
lightweight, porous mats made of chopped carbon, glass, polyester, and
nickel-coated carbon fibre.
 Eeonomer(TM) Conductive fillers: conductive powders made of carbon
black coated with inherently conducting polymers. Eeonomers can be
incorporated into many different matrices and used for EMI shielding, static
dissipation, conductive adhesives and coatings, and stealth applications.
58
Shieldex Trading GmbH, US – Shieldex Trading GmbH is the trading arm of
Statex GmbH and have an extensive range of fabrics and yarns in a wide range of
combinations including silver, silver/carbon, tin/copper, nickel/copper, nickel/silver,
copper and aluminium foils (shieldextrading.net). Examples of fabrics include:
 Armor - FR Ready to Fabricate Conductive Fabric

 Berlin - PU-Coated Silver Plated Nylon Fabric
 Bonn - Silver Plated nonwoven fabrics
 Boston - Silver Plated Fabric
 Bremen - Silver Plated Nylon Fabric (Rip Stop or Plain Weave)
 Kiel - Copper Plated nonwoven fabric
 Nice - Nickel/Copper/Silver Plated nonwoven fabric
 Nora – Nickel/Copper/Silver woven Fabric
 Nora Dell – Nickel/Copper/Silver woven Fabric
 Norden – Nickel/Copper plated CEREXÂ® Nonwoven Fabric
 Supra – Tin-Copper/Silver Ready to Fabricate Conductive Fabric
 Zell - Tin/Copper/Silver plated woven fabric
 Zeven - Tin/copper plated nonwoven fabric
2.3.2 EMS bras
There are only two types of EM shielding bras commercially available, the ‘X-Bra’
and the ‘Woman's Radiation Blocking Sport bra (Fig leaf)’. They are
commercialised for different purposes. The X-Bra Is intended for women who work
close to generator room or power installation, or who work mainly on computers,
or women sensitive to EM radiation in general. X-Bra is made with an EM shielding
fabric called NaturellTM. It is breathable, soft, and the recommended washing
conditions are hand-wash or machine wash below 30°C, without bleach or
chemical detergent, and dry cleaning is not recommended. This Bra has the
purpose to protect the breast from potential breast cancer, even though there is
not yet clear scientific or medical evidence for the relationship between breast
cancer and exposure to EM radiation. Images of the X-Bra are illustrated in Figure
10 (En.moxie.com.tw).
59
Figure 10 Images of the commercially available X-Bra, EM shielding Bra.
The Woman's Radiation Blocking Sport bra (Fig leaf) on the other hand has the
purpose to protect the breast from imaging equipment such as aeroport whole
body scanners, from radiation while flying at high altitudes; from Alpha/Beta
radiation, T-Wave/Terahertz radiation (remote strip cameras), X-ray radiation
(back scatter x-ray) and ensure privacy of medical and body scanner images. It
requires bleach free and cold temperature washing cycles. This company also
commercialises Bra inserts, as illustrated in the Figure 11 (Rockyflatsgear.com).
Figure 11 Images of the commercially available Radiation Blocking Sports Bra (Left) and Bra insert
(right).
60
2.4 EMS textiles - Patents overview
A comprehensive patent survey was undertaken using the “Espacenet – worldwide

patent search” website of the European Patent Organisation (EPO)
(worldwide.espacenet.com). The survey used the following criterions:
-Worldwide database
-Keywords in title or abstract: “Electromagnetic shielding”, “Electromagnetic
shielding fabric”
-International Patent Classification (IPC):
D= Textiles; Paper
A41= Wearing Apparel
A41C = Corsets; Brassieres
The results were divided into: EM shielding wearing apparel and fabric; and EM
shielding corsets & brassieres.
2.4.1 EM shielding wearing apparel and fabric patents
The results obtained using the International Patent Classification “A41” and the
Keyword “Electromagnetic shielding” are represented by the wearable patents
(blue line); whereas the EM shielding fabric patents (red line) were obtained from
the key word “Electromagnetic shielding fabric” and classification “D” (figure 12).
The patents are related to year of publication, priority country and application. A
total of 144 wearable EM shielding patents were obtained from this survey.
An increase in the number of patents related to EM shielding fabrics and wearing

apparel can be observed during the last 12 years, and a significantly higher
number of patents were published in 2009, 2010 and 2011, mainly for EM
shielding fabrics in general (red line). The two most active countries in this field are
Japan (47%) and China (31%). And the end-use application of these wearable
patents is mainly outerwear (82%) and corsets & brassieres only 5% (Figure 13).
61
Number of Patents by Year of publication
40
Wearable EM shielding patents

30
EM shielding fabric patents

20
10
Year of Publication
Figure 12 EM shielding patents by year of publication.
Wearable EM shielding patents by Wearable EM shielding patents by

Country Application
4%9%
KR, 6% 5%
US, 8% 82%
JP, 47%
CN, 31%
A41B - Shirts; underwear; baby linen

A41C - Corsets; brassieres
A41D - Outerwear; protective garments
CA RU YU IT DE KR US CN JP Other
Figure 13 Wearable EM shielding patents by country of publication, and application.
2.4.2 EM shielding corsets & brassieres patents
A patent survey was carried out using the IPC “A41C”, and the Keyword
“Electromagnetic Shielding” and “radiation”, and 17 patents were obtained. The
details of the patents, such as abstract, number and date are given below. These
bras are intended to reduce health problems associated with breast exposure to
EM radiation. Most of the patents report a layered bra structure, having the EM
shielding layer as an outer or intermediate layer, or the bra padding cup itself is
prepared with EM shielding materials, such as adding copper powder to the
polyurethane foam cup. The conductive fabrics used for EM shielding are mainly
62
made of metal fibres such as stainless steel or silver. No EMS Bra patent has
been identified with the use of carbon nanotubes or conductive polymers, and
coated fabrics. In addition, the bra cup moulding process and full-cup/ underwired
design is not explicitly claimed.
Table 5 Details of the EM shielding Bra patents
Title Abstract
KR20110137952
PURPOSE: A brassiere containing silver is provided to implement excellent water-absorption, high

26/12/2011
speed drying, an antibacterial effect, a rostellum effect, and electromagnetic shielding.

Brassiere containg CONSTITUTION: A brassiere containing silver is comprised of a shock absorbing material, first to
(A)
silver second cover layer, cups(20,30), silver(28), a printing layer, a connection rope, and a shoulder
strap. The first and second cover layers cover the both sides of the shock absorbing material. The
silver is selected from groups which is comprised of the first cover layer and a second cover layer.
CN201767062 (U)
The utility model provides a cup, which comprises at least one radiation protection layer, optimally
radiation protection fibre layers. The cup includes an outer decorative layer, an intermediate
23/03/2011
Radiation protection shaping layer, a radiation protection fibre layer and an inner layer. Radiation protection fibre fabrics
cup and bra having the include 65% nano-silver fibre corded fabric and 35% nylon. The radiation protection fibre layers are
same added to an ordinary cup, accordingly the radiation protection function is added to the basic
functions of the ordinary cup, and the cup meets requirements of modern office women, reduces
harm of external electronic products to female breasts, and reduces incidence of breast diseases.
The utility model discloses a radiation-resistant bra, which comprises cups, side straps and
aiguillettes. The side straps are connected with side edges of the cups, the aiguillettes are
CN201767059 (U)
connected with the upper ends of the cups, each cup consists of a protective layer, a middle layer
23/03/2011
and a lining layer, a supporting cushion is disposed between the middle layer and the lining layer,
and the middle layer or lining layer is a radiation-resistant layer. By means of adding the radiation-
Radiation resistant Bra resistant layers in the cups, the radiation-resistant bra reduces damage of external radiation to
human bodies. The rubber supporting cushions of the bra are softer and thicker than sponge
cushions, match with radian of breast, effectively enlarge volume of breast, shape perfect curve of
breast, and lead breasts to be stronger and bustier. Besides, the surface of the bra is mainly made
of lace fabrics so as to add dreamy and sexy aesthetic sense to the bra.
The utility model relates to a bra with health-care and radiation-protective functions, comprising
CN201444932 (U)
cups and sidebands, wherein each cup is internally provided with a shielding layer used for
05/05/2010
Bra with health-care removing electromagnetic wave radiation; the shielding layer is a fabric layer weaved by silver
fibers and nylon filaments in an embedding manner; the cups and the sidebands are internally
and radiation- provided with a magnetic fabric layers or a plurality of magnetic particles; and the inner surface of
protective functions each cup is further provided with a plurality of bulge parts. The bra with health-care and radiation-
protective functions can eliminate or decrease the damage of electromagnetic wave radiation to the
health of women breasts by arranging the shielding layers in the cups.
The utility model relates to a bra with an electromagnetic radiation resistant fabric liner, comprising
two cup bodies and two shoulder girdles connected with the cup bodies, wherein each cup body
CN201282743 (Y)
comprises a protective fabric layer at outer layer; a middle fabric layer and a liner fabric layer are
Brassiere with inner arranged at the inner side of the protective fabric layer in turn; the bottom ends of the middle fabric
05/08/2009
lining containing fabric layer and the liner fabric layer are provided with support sheets; the middle fabric layer and the liner
for preventing fabric layer are connected at the bottom ends integrally, while an inner sewing part for limiting the
electromagnetic support sheets is provided between their opposite face at middle parts; an outer sewing part is
radiation provided between the opposite surfaces at the top ends of the middle fabric layer and the liner
fabric layer; at least the liner fabric layer contains electromagnetic radiation resistant fabrics. The
bra can effective isolate electromagnetic radiation, remove titillation, excite cell viability, repair
damaged horniness at skin surface, stop bacterial development and eliminate peculiar smell.
CN201085053 (Y)
Disclosed is a bra having an electromagnetic radiation resistant layer, which relates to the
16/07/2008
Bra with structural improvement of the bra. The utility model provides the bra having the electromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation resistant layer. The utility model includes a piece of outer lining cloth, the two sides of the
radiation prevention outer lining cloth are provided with chest covers with spongy bodies and straps, and the utility
layer model has the structural point that the inner sides of the spongy bodies of the bra are equipped
with electromagnetic radiation resistant knitted fabrics
The utility model belongs to the technical field of a woman bra, in particular relates to a radiation
CN201146828 (Y)
resistant bra which is composed of bra cups, two chest circumstances, two shoulder ties, and
hooks of chest circumstances. The radiation resistant bra is characterized in that electromagnetic
12/11/2008
wave protection cloth is connected in the bra cups which are also fixedly connected with the chest
Radiation protection
circumstances, and the chest circumstances are connected with the bra cups through the shoulder
bra ties and contracting buckles thereof; the hooks and the buckles are positioned on ends of the chest
circumstances, and the hooks are articulated and hooked with the buckles. The electromagnetic
wave protection cloth is made from metal fibre, terylene and cotton blended cloth which are
connected into a whole.
63
CN200969868 (Y)
The utility model relates to a clothing. An anti-electromagnetic radiation bra comprises a bra cup
07/11/2007
Bra for preventing and a belt. The utility model is characterized in that the bra cup is provided with a cloth served as a
shielding layer to eliminate the electromagnetic radiation. The thickness of the shielding layer is
electromagnetic between 0.05 mm to 0.08 mm and has 80 to 200 meshes. At the same time of the harm of the
radiation electromagnetic radiation to women being prevented, the utility model has the technology of
lightweight, good air exchange property and being felt convenient and comfort.
An electromagnetic wave proof cup structure for bra includes a first layer, a second layer and an
US6814647 (B1)
intermediate layer joined to the first and the second layers. The intermediate layer contains metallic
09/11/2004
Electromagnetic wave fibre so as to screen the electromagnetic wave and the contact area between the breast and the
proof cup structure for bra cup can be reduced effectively to decrease the hurt resulting from electromagnetic wave. The
bra intermediate layer includes a first sheet piece and a second sheet piece and the two sheet pieces
are attached to two lateral sides of the bra cup respectively in a way of extending upward so that
the breast can be held upward and centrally disposed in the bra cup.
JP20032866
10/10/2003
PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED: To provide a bust pad giving a wearer no botheration, and shielding
02 (A)
the human body, particularly the chest of a woman from electromagnetic waves. ; SOLUTION: The
Bust Pad bust pad is so formed as to fit to the inside of a brassiere, cover at least part of the wearer's breast,
and have an electromagnetic shielding effect on the breast. ; COPYRIGHT: (C)2004,JPO
The utility model relates to a health care product, in particular to a health care bra, which comprises
CN2496480 (Y)
two cups. At least an ultrasonic transducer is arranged inside at least one of the cups, the output of
26/06/2002
an ultrasonic oscillator is connected to the ultrasonic transducer, and the ultrasonic oscillator
controls the frequency and the output power of the ultrasonic transducer. The utility model can
Health-care brassiere enhance the medicine absorption of the breast, and effectively prevent and treat the breast
diseases, thus playing breast enhancement and health care functions. Moreover, the utility model
can effectively shield the electromagnetic wave radiation, prevent the electromagnetic wave injury
to the breast, and prevent the breast diseases
PURPOSE: A brassiere cup having an electromagnetic wave shield function and a manufacturing
method thereof are provided to prevent various diseases due to the electromagnetic wave, to
KR20010088905 (A)
improve the feeling of wearing, and to increase the volume of the cup. CONSTITUTION: The
Brassiere cup having brassiere cup consists of polyurethane of 93 to 95 wt percent, copper powder, serving as an
29/09/2001
electromagnetic wave electromagnetic shield material, of 2 to 4 wt percent, zinc oxide of 0.28 to 1.5 wt percent, and
shield function and stearic acid of 0.5 to 1.5 wt percent. The used copper powder is fine particles of 120 to 180 mesh.
manufacturing method The zinc oxide is used as a foaming agent. The manufacturing method of the brassiere cup
thereof comprises the steps of; forming a solid sheet by adding the copper powder to the polyurethane;
mounting the solid sheet into a foaming mold; stacking non-woven fabrics on the top and the
bottom surfaces of the foamed polyurethane sheet, and then molding it into a cup shaped member
by using a hot press method; and removing the extra edge portion of the polyurethane sheet.
PURPOSE: A health brassiere is provided, to prevent the electromagnetic wave from penetrating
KR20010078682 (A)
into the breast, to promote the circulation of the blood and to improve the air-permeability.
CONSTITUTION: The health brassiere comprises a brassiere body(1); and an inner cloth(5) having
21/08/2001
en embossing(6) which is prepared by mixing an electromagnetic wave blocking material powder

Health Brassiere and a far infrared ray emitting material powder with an adhesive, prevents the electromagnetic
wave from penetrating into the breast, and radiates the far infrared ray for promoting the circulation
of the blood. Also the health brassiere comprises a brassiere body(1); and a sponge(3) being a
padding which is prepared by adding an electromagnetic wave blocking material and a far infrared
ray emitting material and has a plurality of air-permitting holes(4).
KR200161
764 (Y1)
01/12/
1999
Brassiere of preventing
na
electromagnetic waves
CN2346220 (Y)
The utility model relates to an electromagnetic wave radiation preventing bra, composed of a bra
03/11/1999
Electromagnetic wave body and lacings. The bra body comprises an outer layer, an inner layer and an electromagnetic
radiation preventing layer made of conductive fabric. The utility model can effectively prevent the
radiation preventing chest from the invasion of the electromagnetic radiation, and has the function of preventing from
bra breast cancer, etc.; the model also has beautiful appearance, comfortable, convenient and
ventilative wearing, easy washing, and is an ideal health article for women.
US5882
242 (A)
16/03/
1999
A shielding brassiere fabricated of a soft supple material such as cotton interwoven with stainless
Protective garment steel threads to shield and screen the breast from electromagnetic radiation.
The utility model relates to a health-care brassiere with the function of anti electromagnetic
radiation, comprising breast-shaped covers and tying belts. The utility model is characterized in that
CN2235209 (Y)
each the breast-shaped cover is composed of an anti electromagnetic radiation outer layer
18/09/1996
Health-care brassiere containing a stainless steel metal fibre thread, and a purified (or natural silk) cotton inner layer.
with function of anti Breast plumping medicinal pads can be arranged between the inner and the outer layers, forming
electromagnetic breast plumping structures. The utility model has the advantages of beautiful modeling and low
radiation cost, the effect of electromagnetic radiation shielding is obvious after experimenting on the animal,
and has good protective actions to the lactation and the tissue of the breast. The serial products of
the health-care brassiere with the function of anti electromagnetic radiation can be used by the
career women and wide women.
64
2.5 EMS films using carbon nanotubes – Research overview
CNTs have been increasingly used for EM shielding due to their outstanding
electrical properties; high specific surface area; low weight; chemical and
environmental stability, and mainly high aspect ratio, which enhances the
formation of conductive network. Most of the research using CNTs for EM
shielding has been related to microwave frequency bands (mainly X-Band), where
higher shielding is obtained with absorption being the primary mechanism. The
wave absorption and diamagnetic susceptibility of carbon nanotubes have been
intensively studied, and this property could lead to novel EM shielding applications
(Jorio et al, 2009).
The electric properties of individual CNTs are related to the nanotube structure:
chirality, radial breathing mode, defects, purity, and diameter, what classify them
as metallic or semiconducting. The conductivity and EM shielding of a
nanocomposite made of CNT depend on several factor, such as CNT dispersion,
load of CNT, film thickness, frequency, CNT aspect ratio and processing method
(Harris, 2009). The methodology used to disperse and prepare the film can
significantly reduce the conductivity of individual nanotubes, for example, the high
physical stress or strain caused by ball milling and longer ultrasonication periods
have been reported to damage the nanotube structure, thereby reducing
conductivity (Tomassin et al, 2012; Li et al, 2007). Chemical or physical
modification for functionalising CNTs can also greatly reduce conductivity by
altering the sidewall structure of the nanotubes (Aviles et al, 2009; Hoang, 2011).
The methods used to produce EM shielding nanocomposites with CNTs are: 1-

Solution processing: CNTs are dispersed in a solvent (acetone, toluene,
dimethylformamide, ethanol, etc.), mixed with a polymeric matrix, then a film is
formed by solvent evaporation, casting, and compression techniques; 2- Melt-
processing: CNTs are dispersed by ball milling and shear mixing into thermoplastic
polymers, which are then moulded into a thin film; 3- Coagulation: the mixture of
CNTs and polymer is precipitated with the use of solvents, then filtrated, dried,
moulded or compressed; 4-In-situ polymerization: based on polymerization of
65
monomers in the presence of CNTs, normally polypyrrole or polyaniline.
Combinations of these methods are also reported, such as precipitation with
polymerization technique have been used for the preparation of conductive
nanocomposite based on poly(methyl methacrylate) and CNTs. The scientific
papers related to each technique can be found in Table 6.
The film obtained by the above methods is flat, dense; with thickness ~ 2 mm and
the CNTs are totally embedded in the composite. The quantity of CNTs normally
utilized in these processes varies from 5wt% to 25wt%. However, the quantity
used during CNT dispersion is not necessarily the resulting quantity in the film due
to the effect of solvent evaporation, compression, lamination and so forth. The EM
shielding obtained by these processes is commonly from 15dB to 40dB (95-
99.99%).
The difficult dispersability of CNTs for EM shielding purposes poses a significant

challenge due to the high quantity needed for this application. Ball milling is the
most common method used in very high CNT concentrations, as the resulting
solution is too viscous for ultrasonication. Solution ultrasonication is normally used
in lower concentrations, and the film obtained is then compressed or laminated to
achieve higher density and thickness, hence higher shielding effect (Pande et al,
2009). The dispersion can be enhanced with the functionalisation of CNTs by
covalent bonding, such as using acid treatment (Aviles et al, 2009; Li et al, 2008),
or non-covalent techniques, such as wrapping larger polymeric molecules around
the tubes, or using surfactants, which involve physical adsorption to the nanotube
sidewall (Harris, 2009; Bellayer et al, 2005).
The presence of CNT aggregates or agglomerates is impossible to completely

avoid as CNTs also tend to re-aggregate during film formation, due to Van-der-
Walls bonds, therefore, the amount and dispersion of the aggregates also need to
be considered, and both microscopic and macroscopic dispersions have to be
characterised (Li et al, 2007).
Table 6 below summarises and provides details on the most relevant scientific
papers related to CNT composite films.
66
Table 6 Scientific Papers related to EM shielding films using Carbon Nanotubes
Absorbance Method of
Author Year Thickness Total SE Quantity Frequency
SE dispersion
Kim et al 2004 20-400um 27dB - up to 40wt% 50-3500mhz Solution
Zhang et al 2007 0.5 , 3 mm 16dB- 35dB - up to 6.7wt% 8-26, 33-50,50-75 GHz Solution
Liu et al 2007 2mm up to 17dB 45% up to 20wt% 8-12 GHz Solution
2005
Yang et al 1mm 20dB - 5wt% 12-18GHz Solution
2007
Huang et al 2007 2mm 20-30dB - up to 15wt% 8.2-12.4GHz Solution
100-1000Mhz, 8.2-
Li et al 2008 1.5mm 20dB - up to 10wt% Solution
12.4GHz
Pande et al 2009 2.1, 2.2mm 30-40dB ~23dB(20%)* 10 vol% 8.2-12.4 GHz Solution
Wang et al 2009 up to 150um 20dB - 15wt% 0-1000MHz Solution
Jin et al 2011 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2mm 35dB - up to 9wt% 4-7, 13-16 GHz Solution
Hoang 2011 100 um 20 dB - up to 25wt% 8-12 GHz Solution
Jou et al 2006 1mm >40dB - 10 to 50wt% 300-1800 MHz Melt-mixing
Hornbostel
2008 1.1, 1.2, 3mm 30dB - 5.4 wt% 100-1100 MHz Melt-mixing
et al
Al-saleh and
2009 0.34, 1, 2.8 mm 35dB ~20dB(42%)* up to 7.5vol% 8-12 GHz Melt-mixing
Sundararaj
Gupta and
2011 1.5, 2 mm 36-42dB ~31dB(32%)* up to10wt% 12.4-18 GHz Melt-mixing
Choudhary
200-2000MHz, 8-
Das et al 2009 1.7mm 40dB - up to 20wt% Coagulation
12GHz
In-situ
Saini et al 2009 2mm 27.5-39.2dB ~28dB(7%)* up to 25wt% 12.4-18 GHz
polymerisation
In-situ
Huang et al 2011 - 45-55dB - up to 29wt% 200-1500MHz
polymerisation
Thomassin Polimerisation
2012 1mm ~25dB ~90% 2 wt% 40MHz-40GHz
et al + coagulation
*Absorbance percentage was calculated according to A = Incident radiation – Reflected radiation – Transmitted radiation.
2.6 Textile yarns using carbon nanotube – Research

overview
There are no literature reports for the production of CNT yarns specifically for EM
shielding purposes, and most of the research work involving CNT yarns explores
mechanical properties. Therefore, this section will provide only a brief overview on
methodologies related to spinning carbon nanotubes into yarns that are promising
for EM shielding applications, which involves high concentration of CNT. These
methodologies are divided into wet and dry routes (Jorio et al, 2009). The wet
route (or solution spinning) involves obtaining a liquid suspension of CNTs. In wet
suspensions of high concentration, a liquid-crystalline phase is generated, which is
an excellent precursor for obtaining high orientation in fibres spun from liquids.
Another wet spinning approach is the coagulation technique, in which CNTs are
67
mixed with organic solvents and polymers and then the yarn is coagulated.
The dry spinning methods are based on winding and twisting CNTs from a ‘forest’
of CNTs. The CNTs are drawn away from the forest edgeways to form a very thin
coherent film that can be twisted into a fibre. The forests are produced from
vertically aligned nanotubes grown from a substrate and the filament is drawn at
right angles to the direction of the nanotubes in the forest (Zhang et al, 2004),
(Lepro et al, 2012). There is also another method for producing CNT yarns, in
which the yarn is obtained directly from the Carbon Vapor Deposition (CVD)
reaction zone (Li et al, 2004). This method involves synthesis of CNTs in the gas
phase using a floating catalyst method, then the nanotubes are collected as an
aerogel phase and yarn is drawn from the aerogel. These methods are promising
for the production of highly conductive yarns that could be suitable for EM
shielding applications, for instance, solution spinning has been reported to achieve
conductivity of 537 S/cm, dry spinning from forest 30 x 10 3 S/m, and the spinning
from CVD 0.3 x 106 S/m (Jorio et al, 2009). However, the only process that can be
adapted to the textile industry at the moment is the solution spinning.
Melt-spinning has been considered for the production of conductive filaments,

however, lower conductivity has been achieved - such as 0.08 S/cm-5wt%CNT
(Hooshmand et al, 2011), 0.16S/cm-7.5wt%CNT (Soroudi and Skrifvars, 2010), R=
~12 ohms-4wt%CNT (Cayla et al, 2012), 0.01S/cm-7wt%CNT (Mazinani et al,
2010) - compared to the above methods. In most cases, commercially available
CNT masterbatches are used for the blend. The load of CNT is limited to lower
concentrations due to the poor mechanical properties and difficult processing
conditions at higher loads (Wang and Xiao, 2012), (Straat et al, 2012).
68
3 Phase 1: Characterization of EMS fabrics obtained
from the market
Phase 1 evaluates and compares the EM shielding of a diverse range of

conductive fabrics from the market in order to analyse their suitability for use in
wearable applications. The Shielding Effectiveness (SE) was evaluated in terms of
fabric structures, absorption and reflection behaviours, washing durability and Bra
cup moulding performance. In addition, the results were also compared to
theoretical predictions in order to analyse and understand the shielding behaviour.
The study also evaluated the influence of yarn direction, such as course and wale
directions, as well as the influence of front and back side of a warp knitted fabric
into EM shielding, considering the direction of radiation, magnetic and electric
fields. The stretch of the fabric was also analysed with regards to its impact on EM
shielding.
Experiments were carried out using broad frequency range and the shielding
effectiveness characterization was undertaken by three different methods: coaxial
transmission line method up to 1 GHz, adapted horn-antenna method above 1
GHz, and a set-up was developed for bra cup measurement.
3.1 Materials
The tested fabrics were knitted, woven and nonwoven nylon and polyester fabrics.
These fabrics were coated with metals, conductive polymers, or made by carbon
fibres. The fabrics were obtained from three suppliers: Less EMF Inc., Marktek Inc.
and Hitek Electronic Materials Ltd. These fabrics were chosen as they are
isotropic, have high shielding effectiveness, high flexibility and low mass. The
fabrics and their characteristics are summarised in the Table 7 below, and their
images are presented in Figure 14. It can be observed that the woven fabrics have
69
an orthogonal structure of warp and weft yarns, which is very tight and closed,
whereas the nonwoven fabrics have a loose structure of random fibres, and the
knitted fabrics show the formation of loops and an open mesh structure (mainly
number 6).
Table 7 Details of the commercial fabrics analysed.
Fabric Composition Weight [g/m2] Surf. Resit. [ohm/sq] Thickness [mm]
1- Nonwoven “Bonn” Ag no data 0.30 0.23 - 0.24
2- Woven “Berlin” Pu/Ag, Nylon 60 0.25 0.114
3- Woven “Nora Dell” Ni/ Cu/ Ag, Nylon 95 0.01 0.130
4- Woven “Zell” Tin/ Cu/ Ag, Nylon 72 0.02 0.073
5- Non woven Laminated Carbon fibre 34 3.00 0.640
6- Knit Ag, Nylon 40 0.50 no data
7- Woven “Zelt” Tin/ Cu, Nylon 72 0.09 0.064
8- Woven“Flectron” Cu, Nylon 68 - 91 0.10 0.152
9- Stretch Knit Ag, Nylon/Spandex 130 1.00 0.500
10- Non woven "SPB15" Ag, Nylon 62 0.50 0.240
11- Knit "STUL35" Ag, Nylon 35 3.00 0.250
12- Non woven "C10004012T" Carbon fibre 12 7.00 - 13.00 0.150
13- EeonTex Mesh Polypyrrole, PES 72 440.00 no data
14- Woven "TCS72T" Tin/Cu/Ag, Nylon 72 0.02 0.076
15- Woven "SBRM48" Ag, Nylon 48 0.30 0.114
16- Woven "CSR68" Cu/Ag, Nylon 68 0.02 0.076
17- Eeontex Woven Polypyrrole, PES 223 50 +- 10 0.500
18- Eeontex Nonwoven Polypyrrole, PES No data 15 0.600
19- Shieldit Super Ni/ Cu, PES 230 No data 0.170
70
13
1 mm
2
Figure 14 Images of the commercial fabrics used for the experiments. Size of the fabrics is 1mm in
the pictures (apart from fabric 13). Fabric 11 is similar to 6 (not shown) and a picture of fabric 18
was not possible.
The optical microscope images also revealed that almost all of the woven fabrics
used were metal plated coated after their construction, which produced a
conductive path on the surface of the fabric (Figure 15). The surface coating was
very homogenous; however, the internal crossing points between warp and weft
yarns were not coated. With this type of coating, any change in the structure such
71
as stretch and friction could cause damage to the conductive path of the surface.
Figure 15 Images of fabric number 3 (left) and 4 (right), revealing the internal structure after yarns
have been removed.
3.2 Methodology
3.2.1 Shielding Effectiveness under 1 GHz
The method used was the ASTM D 4935-99 “coaxial transmission line method for
planar materials”, this is the most common standard used for fabrics. The shielding
effectiveness measurements are carried out for frequencies ranging from 30 MHz
to 1.5 GHz. The measurement device consists of a network analyser, which is
capable of measuring incident, transmitted and reflected powers; and a sample
holder.
The shielding effectiveness is determined by comparing the difference in

attenuation of a reference sample to the test sample, taking into account the
incident and transmitted powers. The measurement procedure consists of a
reference calibration, where a reference sample is placed in the sample holder in
order to compensate coupling capacitance, and then the actual sample is placed
in the holder and measured. The reference sample is in the form of a 33-mm circle
inside a 133/76-mm ring, whereas the load sample is a disc of 133 mm. This
method can be applied assuming the measurements obtained pertain to the far-
field and the thickness of the tested materials cannot exceed 1/100 of the
wavelength in open space (astm.org). Fig. 16 illustrates the experimental set up.
72
This is a transmission line method, which uses a network analyser, coax cables and a
sample holder;
The fabrics were tested in a flat, original condition, with the same direction and side in
relation to the sample holder;
The shielding effectiveness is determined by comparing the difference in attenuation of a
reference sample to the test sample, taking into account the incident and transmitted
powers.
- Network Analyser: Agilent 8753 ES Reference
Sample Holder sample
Load sample
- Dynamic range: 100 dB
- Uncertainty: +- 2dB
Transmitted
power
Incident Reflected
power power
Sample Holder
Coax cables Vertical cross
section 6
Figure 16 Details of the measurement set-up, under 1 GHz.
3.2.2 Shielding Effectiveness above 1 GHz
The EM Shielding measurements from 1 GHz to 6 GHz were important to evaluate

the shielding effectiveness of frequencies related to the “Smart Bra” application.
This method is a non-standard method devised by Marvin A. C. and co-workers at
the University of York (Marvin et al, 2009). It involves the utilization of a network
analyser, a sample fixture, and horn antennas. The shielding effectiveness is
determined by comparing the differences in attenuation with and without the test
sample, taking into account the incident and transmission powers. A network
analyser was used for the measurements, and the dynamic range was found to be
around 80 dB, which is the maximum attenuation detected by the system. The
measurements pertain to the far field, as the distance between the radiation
source and the shield is higher than (λ/2π). Figure 17 illustrates the experimental
set-up.
73
Figure 17 Details of the measurement set-up, above 1 GHz.
3.3 Results and Discussion
3.3.1 EM shielding results
The two methods used for measurements above and below 1 GHz showed similar
results. The fabrics maintained basically the same SE at both low and high
frequencies. The SE results of less than 1 GHz are found in Fig. 19, whereas
results from 2 GHz to 6 GHz are depicted in Fig. 18.
EM shielding from 2 to 6 GHz

-100
4- Woven- Tin/Cu/Ag, 72 g/m2
16- Woven- Cu/Ag, 68 g/m2
Shielding effectiveness [dB]
-80
2-Woven- Pu/Ag, 60 g/m2
-60 10- Nonwoven- Ag, 62 g/m2
1- Nonwoven- Ag
15- Woven- Ag, 48 g/m2
-40
9-Knit- Ag, 130 g/m2
5- Nonwoven- Carbon, 34 g/m2
-20 11- Knit-Ag, 35 g/m3

18- Nonwoven- Ppy
17- Woven- Ppy, 223 g/m2
0
2 3 4 5 6
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 18 SE results of commercial fabrics from 2 to 6 GHz.
74
EM shielding under 1GHz
-110
3- Woven- Ni/Cu/Ag, 95 g/m2
16- Woven- Cu/Ag, 68 g/m2

-100
-90 7- Woven- Tin/Cu, 72 g/m2

Shielding Effectiveness [dB]
-80
19- Woven- Ni/Cu, 230 g/m2
2- Woven- Pu/Ag, 60 g/m2

-70
8- Woven- Cu, 80 g/m2
-60 10- Nonwoven- Ag, 62 g/m2
15- Woven- Ag, 48 g/m2

-50 1- Nonwoven- Ag
11- Knit- Ag, 35 g/m2

-40
9- Knit- Ag, 130 g/m2
6- Knit- Ag, 40 g/m2

-30
5- Nonwoven- Carbon, 34 g/m2
-20 18- Nonwoven- Ppy
12- Nonwoven- Carbon, 12g/m2

-10
17- Woven- Ppy, 223 g/m2
13- Mesh- Ppy, 72 g/m2

0
100 Log- Frequency [MHz] 1000
Figure 19 SE results of commercial fabrics under 1 GHz.
The SE results showed that metal platted woven fabrics have the highest SE,
usually > 70 dB. Woven fabrics have a very closed and tight structure, thus having
very little space between the yarns, and a very flat and homogenous surface. Metal
coated nonwovens have SE about 50-60 dB, whereas carbon fibre nonwovens
have SE < 40dB. The nonwoven structure is usually very light and loose; therefore,
having greater space openness between fibres. Metal coated knitted fabrics have
lower SE, about 40 dB, due to the open space structure and flexibility of the fabric,
therefore, allowing EM radiation to pass through the structure at shorter
wavelengths.
75
All the polypyrrole (Ppy) coated fabrics tested showed a SE ≤ 20 dB, which is more
due to the poor conductivity of polypyrrole rather than the fabric’s structure itself.
The polypyrrole coated mesh tested (fabric number 13) showed the lowest SE,
which is also related to the highly open structure. All conductive coated fabrics
showed similar behaviour within the frequency range tested, possibly because of
their homogeneity and isotropic structure.
3.3.2 Absorption and reflection behaviours of EM shielding
The percentage of transmission (T), reflection (R) and absorption (A) were
calculated using equations 15, 16 and 21. Conductive materials have different
absorption and reflection behaviours, metals shield mainly by reflection; whereas
carbon materials and conductive polymers possess good absorption properties.
This trend was also observed in the results obtained.
Knitted fabrics, carbon fibre nonwovens, and polypyrrole coated fabrics showed
higher absorbance (Figure 20); however, it was not a standard behaviour for all the
fabrics analysed and it highly fluctuated within the frequency spectrum tested. The
reflection (Return Loss) of most of the fabrics varied from 1.5 dB to 2.5 dB, which
meant the fabrics reflected between 55% and 75% of the incident radiation, thus,
absorbing between 25% and 45% of the incident radiation. The transmitted
radiation through the fabric was less than 1% in almost all the cases. Figure 19
also shows no correlation between ‘Total SE’ and absorption or reflection.
The fabrics tested were relatively thin, and most of them had very low resistivity,
which meant that the obtained absorption percentage was likely to be due to
multiple reflections within the internal fibres rather than actual absorbance. Figure
21 shows the high resonance of the absorption behaviour along the frequency
range tested, and the trend lines illustrate the absorption tendency as the
frequency reaches 1 GHz. An increase of 20% of the absorption was observed in
most cases, which is expected theoretically as most of the fabrics are electrically
thick, that is, the thickness of the fabric is higher than the skin depth. This
76
generates absorption, which increases relative to higher frequency.
EM Shielding behaviour
Absorbance % Reflection % Transmission % SE total (dB)
Shielding Effectiveness (dB)

100% 100
80% 80
42 55
61 64 65 65 66 71 72 73 75 75 75 76 76 76 76
60% 60
40% 40
51 45
20% 38 35 35 35 34 20
29 28 27 25 25 25 24 24 24 24
0% 0
Figure 20 EM shielding behaviour of commercial fabrics, average from 30-1000MHz.
Absorption shielding behaviour in relation to frequency

60
Linear (17- Woven- Ppy, 223 g/m2)
Linear (9- Knit- Ag nylon/spandex, 130 g/m2)
50 Linear (18- Nonwoven- Ppy)
Shielding effectiveness (%)
Linear (12- Nonwoven- Carbon Fibre, 12g/m2)

Linear (6- Knit- Ag plated nylon, 40 g/m2)
40 Linear (1- Nonwoven "Bonn"- Ag)
Linear (2- Woven "Berlin"- Pu/Ag, 60 g/m2)
Linear (3- Woven "Nora dell"- Ni/Cu/Ag, 95 g/m2)
30 Linear (4- Woven "Zell"- Tin/Cu/Ag, 72 g/m2)
Linear (5- Nonwoven- Carbon fibre 34 g/m2)
Linear (7- Woven "Zelt"- Tin/Cu, 72 g/m2)
20
Linear (10- Nonwoven- Ag, 62 g/m2)
Linear (11- Knit- Ag, 35 g/m2 )
Linear (14- Woven- Tin/Cu/Ag, 72 g/m2)
10
Linear (15- Woven- Ag, 48 g/m2)
Linear (16- Woven- Cu/Ag, 68 g/m2)
0 Linear (19- Woven- Ni/Cu, 230 g/m2)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 21 Relationship between absorption and frequency of commercial fabrics.
77
3.3.3 Durability of EM shielding after washing
Washing tests were undertaken in order to evaluate the durability of SE. The
washing cycles were performed using a home washing machine at two conditions:
A- 5 cycles of 45 minutes at room temperature with washing powder, and hang
dried also at room temperature after each cycle; B- 1 cycle of 90 minutes at 40 0C
with washing powder, and hang dried at room temperature.
Condition “A” was performed in all of the fabrics, whereas, condition “B” was
performed only in fabrics having different metallic coatings. Ag and Ni coatings
were not visually damaged after washing treatments. Cu and Tin coatings were
highly damaged after hot washing, as well as the polypyrrole coating. The
damaged surface of fabrics number 14 and 16 after hot washing can be observed
in Fig. 22.
Figure 22 Left: Fabric number 14 after hot washing; Right: Fabric number 16 after hot washing.
The SE after washings was not significantly affected in fabrics coated with Ag. On
the other hand, the SE after washings was reduced for fabrics coated with Sn, Cu
and Ni: ± 15 dB less after cold washes and ± 30 dB less after hot washing. It was
not a drastic reduction in performance as the fabrics have very high SE and 30 dB
less represents ± 0.01 % less in fabrics with > 99.9% of attenuation. The results of
washing treatments are presented in figure 23. Ag coated fabrics number 1, 2, 6, 9,
10, 11 and 15 showed marginal reductions. On the other hand, fabrics number 3,
78
4, 7, 8, 14, 16 and 19 had a significant reduction, mainly after hot washing
treatments. In these figures, the green lines represent the original fabric, the blue
lines are for the washing condition “A”, and the red lines represent washing
condition “B”.
2- Woven- Pu/Ag, 60 3- Woven- Ni/Cu/Ag, 4- Woven- Tin/Cu/Ag,

1- Nonwoven- Ag 72 g/m2
g/m2 95 g/m2
-100 -100 -110 -100
-80 -80 -90 -80
-60 -60 -70 -60
-40 -40 -50
-40
-20 -20 -30
-20
0 -10
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
0 500 1000 1500
7- Woven- Tin/Cu, 72 8- Woven- Cu, 80

6- Knit- Ag, 40 g/m2 9- Knit- Ag, 130 g/m2
g/m2 g/m2
-100 -100 -100 -100
-80 -80 -80 -80
-60 -60 -60 -60
-40 -40 -40 -40
-20 -20 -20 -20
0 0 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
10- Nonwoven- Ag, 62 14- Woven- Tin/Cu/Ag, 15- Woven- Ag, 48

11- Knit- Ag, 35 g/m2
g/m2 72 g/m2 g/m2
-100 -100 -100 -100
-80 -80 -80 -80
-60 -60 -60 -60
-40 -40 -40 -40
-20 -20 -20 -20
0 0 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
16- Woven- Cu/Ag, 68 17- Woven- Ppy, 19- Woven- Ni/Cu, 230
g/m2 223g/m2 18- Nonwoven- Ppy
g/m2
-100 -100 -100 -100
-80 -80 -80 -80
-60 -60 -60 -60
-40 -40 -40 -40
-20 -20 -20 -20
0 0 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Figure 23 EM shielding results of commercial fabrics after washing treatments. Vertical axis
represents Shielding Effectiveness (dB) and horizontal is the frequency (MHz). Green line is the
original fabric; blue line is cold washing; red line is hot washing.
79
The SE values after washings were highly reduced with Ppy coated fabrics
(number 17 and 18), ±10 dB less, which represents a reduction of ± 20% in
attenuation. Fabrics made of carbon fibres were not possible to wash because of
their very light and fragile structure. These fabrics were not coated, instead, the
carbon fibres itself were used as component within the structure. Therefore, the SE
behaviour believed not to have been affected after the washing treatments.
3.3.4 EM shielding in relation to thickness of fabrics
In the case of the two carbon fibre nonwovens tested, the results showed that a
thicker and heavier fabric had higher SE (± 10 dB on ± 20 g/m2 of higher mass).
On the other hand, the different Ag coated knitted fabrics tested did not show a
significant change in SE because of the mass. In addition, similar woven fabrics
tested did not show the same SE results. In this case, the differences in shielding
effectiveness may be attributed to the different weight % of metals used as well as
the openness of the structure.
Chosen fabrics were tested in double layers in order to understand the impact of
thickness in SE and absorbance (Figure 24). Despite the increase in SE decibels
for all fabrics tested, any appreciable increase in percentage was only observed for
fabrics number 13 and 17, due to their lower shielding as single layer (Table 8).
The SE values of knitted fabrics (number 11) increased around 10 dB; on
nonwoven fabrics (numbers 12 and 10) around 10 dB and 20 dB respectively; on
woven fabrics (number 8 and 15) about 10 dB; and on the low SE fabrics coated
with polypyrrole (number 13 and 17) increased about 2 dB and 5 dB.
The results obtained as double layer were much higher than the theoretically
predicted (using equation 5), for instance, fabrics 8, 10 and 15 were expected to
increase only 6, 2, and 3 dB respectively, and fabrics 11, 12 and 17 were not
expected to increase at all, as they are electrically thin (thickness smaller than skin
depth), and any alteration in thickness is theoretically only related to the absorption
behaviour. Therefore, it can be concluded that the fabric thickness has a significant
80
impact on SE, which is higher than the theoretically predicted. These results may
be ascribed to the lower free-space in the structure, thereby altering dielectric
properties and affecting impedance mismatch; as well as to the positive influence
of multiple-reflection in the absorption results.
Table 8 EM shielding results of single and double fabrics, at 1GHz.
Experimental Results [dB] Theoretical results [dB]

Fabric Single Double Single % Double % single double
8 70 80 99.99999 99.999999 73 79
10 57 80 99.9999 99.999999 54 56
15 57 70 99.9999 99.99999 58 61
11 41 45 99.99 99.997 37 37 (t< )
12 21 30 99 99.9 26 26 (t< )
17 12 17 94 98 14 14 (t< )
12- Nonwoven- Carbon, 12 8- Woven- Cu, 80 g/m2 10- Nonwoven- Ag, 62 g/m2
g/m2
-100 -100 -100
-80 -80 -80
-60 -60 -60
-40 -40 -40
-20 -20 -20
0 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
17- Woven- Ppy, 223 g/m2 11- Knit- Ag, 35 g/m2 15- Woven- Ag, 48 g/m2
-100 -100 -100
Double layer
-80 -80 -80
Original
-60 -60 -60
-40 -40 -40
-20 -20 -20
0 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Figure 24 EM results of commercial fabrics tested in single and double layers. Vertical axis
represents Shielding Effectiveness (dB) and horizontal is the frequency (MHz)
3.3.5 EM shielding results in relation to different faces and directions of

warp knitted fabric
The fabric used for this analysis was fabric number 11, which is a warp knitted
fabric, coated with silver, 35 g/m² weight, and 0.250 mm thickness. Knitted fabrics
81
have anisotropic shielding behaviour; therefore, several measurements were
undertaken so as to understand this characteristic. The horn-antenna method used
was important to have separate electric and magnetic fields so that it would be
possible to analyse the influence of the fields in relation to the fabric.
It was found that the fabric crosswise direction parallel to magnetic field has slightly
more SE than warp direction (lengthwise) parallel to magnetic field (around 5-10
dB). Front side towards the incident field has higher SE in the crosswise direction,
whereas, basically the same value in the warp direction. This change is not
relevant considering the high SE of this fabric (SE = 40 dB = 99, 99 %), however, it
could be relevant in the case of lower shielding fabrics. The results are represented
in Fig. 25.
EM shielding of knitted fabric in relation to direction and side

-50
SE (dB)
-45
-40
-35
-30
2 3 4 5 6
Frequency (GHz)
Warp direction parallel to magnetic field, Front side towards incident radiation
Warp direction parallel to magnetic field, Back side towards incident radiation
Weft direction parallel to magnetic field, Back side towards incident radiation
Weft direction parallel to magnetic field, Front side towards incident radiation
Figure 25 EM shielding of Warp Knitted fabric from 2 to 6 GHz, in different directions.
The yarn directions and sides of the warp knitted fabric tested can be observed in
the following images, as well as the horn antenna position in relation to the fabric
(Figures 26,27).
82
Figure 26 EM shielding comparison between different faces and directions, showing increasing
results from left to right.
Crosswise
Horn Antenna Fabric direction
Electric Field Incident radiation
Magnetic Field
Figure 27 Direction of the highest EM shielding obtained. Front side facing incident radiation and
yarn running direction parallel to Electric field, whereas the weft direction is parallel to Magnetic
field.
The tests were also performed using the ASTM D 4935-99 method. However, there
was no influence of sides and direction in the SE results, probably due to the fact
that the coaxial sample holder does not separate magnetic and electric field as
horn antennas; in coaxial disposition both fields polarise in all directions, averaging
up the results.
The resistivity results confirmed the EM shielding results. The warp direction,
where there is yarn continuity along the fabric, has lower resistivity (1.3 Ω/sq),
which means higher conductivity and then higher EM shielding if parallel to the
electric field. And the weft direction, where the yarns contact each other by
entanglements/loops, has higher resistivity (2.0Ω/sq). In the resistivity
measurements there were no differences in relation to back and front side of the
fabric.
83
3.3.6 EM shielding in relation to stretch on warp knitted fabric
The influence of elongation in SE is an issue to be considered for knitted fabrics as

it can vary significantly. Woven and nonwoven fabrics in contrast do not offer high
elongation capabilities; therefore, it was also analysed in the case of the knitted
fabric number 11, using the horn-antenna method. This fabric stretches only in the
weft direction; therefore, when subjected to maximum elongation in both directions
simultaneously (simulating the highest openness achievable), the number of wales
reduced (3 wales/cm), whereas the number of courses increased (2 courses/cm),
as illustrated in figure 28.
When the fabric was in the warp direction parallel to the electric field the average
SE decreased after stretch from 43 dB to 36 dB due to the lower yarn density in
that direction; however, when the fabric was in the warp direction parallel to the
magnetic field the SE increases after stretch from 39 dB to 44 dB. This effect is
due to the changes in yarn density and orientation after stretch. The changes in
openness or mass are not the main cause of this effect as they did not change
considerably. It could be concluded that the behaviour was still anisotropic after
elongation and even though the difference was as high as 7dB, it did not impact on
the shielding as the SE of this fabric is ±40 dB (99, 99%); however, it would be
relevant in the case of a lower shielding knitted fabric.
Original fabric: Stretched Fabric:
13 wales/ cm 10 wales/ cm
12 courses/ cm 14 courses/ cm
Figure 28 Warp knitted structure before and after stretch. Fabric is 1 cm square in the images.
84
3.3.7 Theoretical EM shielding prediction
The theoretically predicted results at 1 GHz were calculated, using equations 7a, 8a
and 9a, considering the Plane Wave Shielding Theory. The comparative results are
depicted in Figure 29, in terms of total shielding, absorption and reflection; and a
detailed analysis in given in Table 9, including conductivity, skin depth, thickness
and impedance. It was observed that the ‘total SE’ obtained theoretically is
relatively similar to the experimental, apart from some fabrics, which showed
higher differences (1, 2, 6, 7, 14). However, the absorption and reflection vary
drastically; the experimental absorption is much higher than predicted by theory
and the experimental reflection was much lower. The multiple-reflection
mechanism does not play any significant role as the thickness of most of the
fabrics is higher or similar to the skin depth.
This difference in absorption and reflection can be attributed to the irregular and
porous structure of fabrics, which allows penetration and diffraction of the radiation
inside the structure, hence reducing the primary reflectance of the fabric’s surface,
which is assigned to impedance mismatch. On the other hand, it is clear that the
absorption behaviour measured experimentally is not only related to the intrinsic
absorption properties of the materials, but it is also a consequence of internal
reflections of the higher interface area of fabrics when compared to the
homogenous layer assumed by the EM shielding theory.
85
EM Shielding Results- Theoretical X Experimental at 1GHz
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
SE Total - Theoretical SE Total- Experimental Absorption- Experimental

Absorption - Theoretical Reflection - Experimental Reflection - Theoretical
Figure 29 EM shielding results of commercial fabrics- Theoretical versus Experimental at 1GHz
Conduc- Skin Thick- Imped- Experimental Theoretical

Sample tivity Depth ness ance
(S.m) (mm) (mm) (Ω)
1- Nonwoven- Ag 14493 0.13 0.23 0.5 51 4 47 60 45 15 -0.3
2- Woven- Pu/Ag, 60 g/m2 35088 0.08 0.11 0.3 77 4 73 60 49 12 -0.6
3- Woven- Ni/Cu/Ag, 95 g/m2 769231 0.02 0.13 0.1 99 3 96 125 62 62 0.0
4- Woven- Tin/Cu/Ag, 72 g/m2 684932 0.02 0.07 0.1 88 3 85 95 62 33 0.0
5- Nonwoven- Carbon, 34 g/m2 521 0.70 0.64 2.8 33 4 29 37 31 8 -1.5
6- Knit- Ag, 40 g/m2 8000 0.18 0.25 0.7 38 3 35 54 43 12 -0.5
7- Woven- Tin/Cu, 72 g/m2 173611 0.04 0.06 0.2 88 4 84 70 56 15 -0.3
8- Woven- Cu, 80 g/m2 65789 0.06 0.15 0.2 70 - - 73 52 21 -0.1
9- Knit- Ag, 130 g/m2 2000 0.36 0.50 1.4 40 3 37 48 37 12 -0.5
10- Nonwoven- Ag, 62 g/m2 8333 0.17 0.24 0.7 57 4 53 54 43 12 -0.6
11- Knit- Ag, 35 g/m2 1333 0.44 0.25 1.7 41 4 37 37 35 5 -3.2
12- Nonwoven- Carbon, 12g/m2 667 0.62 0.15 2.4 21 3 18 26 32 2 -7.9
13- EeonTex Mesh 5 7.47 0.50 29.5 3 - - 3 11 1 -8.9
14- Woven- Tin/Cu/Ag, 72 g/m2 657895 0.02 0.08 0.1 83 4 79 95 62 34 0.0
15- Woven- Ag, 48 g/m2 29240 0.09 0.11 0.4 57 4 53 58 48 11 -0.8
16- Woven- Cu/Ag, 68 g/m2 657895 0.02 0.08 0.1 92 4 88 95 62 34 0.0
17- Woven- Ppy, 223 g/m2 40 2.52 0.50 9.9 12 2 10 14 20 2 -8.1
18- Nonwoven- Ppy 111 1.51 0.60 6.0 23 3 20 23 24 3 -4.8
19- Woven- Ni/Cu, 230 g/m2 58824 0.07 0.17 0.3 80 4 77 74 51 23 0.0
86
3.3.8 Conclusions
All fabrics tested exhibited more than 99% electromagnetic shielding capabilities,
apart from fabrics 13 and 17, which meant that they block the radiation almost
totally up to 6 GHz. Most fabrics tested blocked the radiation after 5 cold and 1 hot
washing treatment; however, the metal coating properties start to deteriorate due
to the damage caused during the washing cycles. Ag coated fabrics were the only
ones that were not damaged after hot washing.
The experiments to understand the influence of face, direction and stretch were
carried out. The results showed the changes in SE values due to different sides
and direction were high, but these were not important considering the high SE of
this fabric (± 40 dB). For example a change of 10dB more or less would represent
only 0.009% change of the SE percentage. The influence of the stretch on the
fabric was also high and anisotropic, but was found to be insignificant as well. It
could be concluded that knitted fabric does have an isotropic behaviour due to
specific yarn orientation, and in the case of lower EM shielding fabric this
difference could be relevant, however, it is not relevant for the present study.
The experimental results were found to be very different from the theorectically
predicted values in terms of absorption and reflection, despite being relatively
similar in terms of total shielding. This difference can be explained by the irregular
and porous structure of fabrics, thereby contradicting the homogenous and flat
layer assumed by the EM shielding Theory.
87
3.4 Development and EMS measurement of bra cups
The development and characterisation of Bra Cups were undertaken in order to

investigate the performance of the fabrics under the moulding process. A set up
for electromagnetic (EM) shielding measurements of bra cups was also devised as
the current methodologies only measure flat fabrics. The measurements were
carried out at 2.45 GHz, which is the frequency of the patch antennae used for the
experiments.
3.4.1 Materials
Several fabrics were tested according to SE and their durability after washing
treatments was determined as described in the previous section. The most suitable
fabrics were then chosen for the Bra Cup evaluation. Different types of fabrics were
tested including; knitted, woven, nonwoven, fabrics coated with Ag and those made
of carbon fibres. The selected fabrics and their characteristics are summarised in
Table 10.
Table 10 List of fabrics used for Bra moulding
Weight Thickness
Fabric Material
[g/m2] [mm]
1 Nonwoven “Bonn” Ag na 0.235
2 Stretch Knit Ag 130 0.500
3 Nonwoven "SPB15" Ag 62 0.240
4 Knit "STUL35" Ag 35 0.250
5 Nonwoven Carbon 12 0.150
6 Woven "SBRM48" Ag 48 0.114
3.4.2 Bra cup moulding process
The conductive fabrics were moulded into a bra cup shape under high temperature
(200ºC) and high pressure for thirty seconds. A laboratory scale moulding machine
was used. The moulded fabrics were sewn onto a foam cup as illustrated in Figure
30 below.
88
Figure 30. Images of the Bra Cups obtained.
3.4.3 Shielding effectiveness set up
The EM shielding measurement of the developed Bra Cups was tested using an
adapted shielding enclosure method, which makes use of a transmitting antenna
inside and the receiving antenna outside of the enclosure. This set up was
developed in order to measure small and semi-sphere fabric structures, due to the
lack of standardised available methods. The measurements were carried out at
around 2.45 GHz, in far-field conditions, using a small patch transmitting and
receiving antenna and a set up including a network analyser. Copper tape was
used around the sample edge in order to attach the Bra Cup together with the
shielding base to avoid diffraction or leakage. The SE was determined by
comparing the difference in attenuation with and without the test sample, taking
into account the incident and transmitted powers. The experimental methodology
set up is illustrated in Figure 31.
89
Coaxial Cable-Transmitted Radiation
Receiving Antenna (A)
Bra Cup
5.6 cm
Network Analyser
Shielding Base
Transmitting Antenna (B)
Coaxial Cable- Emitted Radiation
Figure 31 Diagram of the EM shielding measurement set up of Bra

Cups.
The shielding base is a highly conductive fabric, with almost 100 dB of SE. The
base is important to obtain the shielding enclosure by connecting it with the Bra
Cup so as to measure only the transmittance of the radiation through the Bra Cup.
The transmitting antenna is attached to the base through a small aperture, which is
also properly sealed. The SE is determined by comparing the difference in
attenuation with and without the test sample, taking into account the incident and
transmitted powers. The Figure 32 illustrates the set up with and without the test
sample.
Figure 32. Images of the set up without sample (right) and with sample (left).
Small Patch Antennas for ISM (Industry, Scientific & Medical) application were
used for the experiments. The centre frequency of the antennae is 2.45 GHz, and
90
the bandwidth is 120 MHz. The size is 28 mm and it is a square shape. The patch
antennae were soldered to N-type female connectors so as to connect directly to
the network analyser via an N-type cable (Figure 33).
Figure 33. Patch antenna soldered to N-type connector. Front/patch side (right), and back/ground
side (left).
The return loss of the patch antennae was measured using a network analyser in
order to ascertain the efficacy of the soldering and evaluate the difference between
the antennae (Figure 34). The results show good antenna performance, in which
>98% of the generated radiation is emitted by the antenna at ~ 2.45GHz. The
antenna “B” was set as transmitting antenna and antenna “A” as receiving antenna.
Patch Antenna
0
Return Loss [dB]
-5
-10
-15 A B
-20
-25
2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 34 Return Loss results of the patch antennas “A” and “B”.
In order to perform the measurements, a set up calibration was done without the
test sample to obtain the background loss/noise floor and the dynamic range of the
system. The calibration was then set to zero so as only the Shielding Effectiveness
of the test samples were considered (figure 35). The calibration results showed
that the dynamic range of the set up, from 2.1 GHz to 3 GHz, was 70-90 dB. It
meant it was possible to measure SE up to 70-90 dB, which was a good dynamic
91
range. The frequency range considered for the Bra Cup measurements, taking into
account a dynamic range higher than 85 dB and the centre frequency of the
antenna was from 2.30 GHz to 2.56 GHz.
Set Up -Calibration
-100
-80
SE [dB]
-60
-40
-20
0
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 35 SE results of the Set up Calibration.
3.4.4 Moulding process performance of the conductive fabrics
Some fabrics were subjected to high tension and temperature of the moulding
process, which caused permanent alterations in the structure of the fabrics, thus
enabling them to be shaped in the form of semi-spheres. The summary of
performance results are given in Table 11 below.
Table 11 Moulding process results
Performance during Visual changes after moulding

Fabric
moulding process process
1- Nonwoven “Bonn” Ok Lighter and thinner structure
Colour and yarn density changed,

2- Stretch Knit Ok
higher openness among yarns
3- Nonwoven “SPB15" Ok Much lighter, thinner, colour changed
Not possible as the fabric

4- Knit "STUL35" -
bursts
Not possible as the fabric
5- Carbon Nonwoven -
bursts
Bra cup not very deep Slightly higher openness among
6- Woven "SBRM48"
because of the low stretch yarns
92
Fabrics number “4” and “5” did not withstand the moulding process owing to the
low mass of the structure, which caused the fabric to burst. Therefore, fabric
number “5” was not used for the SE tests as it was not possible to either sew, stick
or mould onto the foam cup due to the fragility and low mass of the fabric. Fabric
number “4” was sewn onto the foam cup instead in order to test SE. Fabric number
“6” is a woven fabric; it means the structure does not have high elongation as a
knitted fabric; therefore, the structure did not follow the movement required by the
process and the resulting shape was not deep enough. The nonwoven fabrics “1”
and “3” and the stretch knitted fabric “2” exhibited good moulding performance,
mainly the last one owing to the inherent stretch of the fabric. However, the fabrics
resulted with loss mass, higher openness among yarns and with the silver colour
changed into goldish in fabrics number “2” and “3”. Fabric 2 is shown in Figure 36,
whereas the moulded cup made of fabric 3 is shown in Figure 37.
1 mm 1 mm
Figure 36 Fabric number “2”. Left: fabric before moulding (29 wales/cm, 27 courses/cm). Right:
fabric after moulding (20 wales/cm; 18 courses/cm) and goldish colour.
93
15 cm
Figure 37 Fabric number “3” shows the difference in transparency between moulded area (lighter
circle, centre area) and no moulded area (surrounding area).
3.4.5 EM shielding results of conductive Bra cups
The results showed SE values higher than 20 dB for all of the Bra Cups, which
means they all block more than 99% of the emitted radiation. Fabric number “1”
showed the highest result (~35dB at 2.45 GHz), followed by fabrics number “4”, “6”,
“3” and “2”, respectively (Figure 38). The peaks observed in the graph of fabric
number “1” and “2” are related to resonance and leakage due to the conductive
sealing of the enclosure.
Bra Cups EM shielding results

-60
6- SBRM48 2- Stretch Knit 4- Knit
3- SPB15 1- BONN
-50
SE [dB]
-40
-30
-20
-10
2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 38 SE results for various Bra Cups.
94
3.4.6 Interference of the moulding process into EM shielding results
In order to understand the influence of the moulding process and shape, a

comparison was made with the SE results of the same conductive fabrics in a flat
and original condition, using the same set up as shown in Figure 39. In this case, a
piece of paper was used to avoid the direct contact of the transmitting patch
antenna (underneath) with the conductive fabric, which can cause error in the
results.
Figure 39 Set up for measurement of flat/original fabrics.
It was observed that the moulding process decreased the SE results obtained for
the fabrics; mainly in the fabrics number “2” and “3” (Figure 40). In these fabrics the
structure was lighter and thinner after moulding, thus allowing more free space in
the structure. In the fabric number “4”, there was no apreciable difference because
the fabric was sewn onto the foam without moulding. Fabrics number “1” and “6”
did not show drastic structural change after moulding. The semi-sphere shape of
the cup also influenced the SE results. It could be observed clearly in fabric
number “4”, as it was not moulded.
95
1- Bonn- Flat X Moulded 2- Stretch Knit- Flat X Moulded 3- SPB15- Flat X Moulded
-65 -65 -65
-55 -55 -55
-45 -45 -45
SE [dB]
SE [dB]
SE [dB]
-35 -35 -35
-25 -25 -25
-15 -15 -15

2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54 2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54 2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54
Frequency [GHz] Frequency [GHz] Frequency [GHz]
4- Knit- Flat X Sewn 6- SBRM48- Flat X Moulded

-65 -65
Flat Fabric
-55 -55
Bra Cup
-45 -45
SE [dB]
SE [dB]
-35 -35
-25 -25
-15 -15
2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54 2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54
Frequency [GHz] Frequency [GHz]
Figure 40 SE results of Bra Cups versus flat fabrics.
3.4.7 Interference of conductive sealing and leakage into EM shielding

results
An appropriate sealing with a conductive tape round the edge of the bra cup onto
the conductive base was found to be very important to avoid leakage and
diffraction out of the enclosure. This leakage decreased the SE results at about 10-
20 dB, therefore, the sealing was important to increase the dynamic range of the
set up (Figure 41). Copper tape was used for sealing. According to the EM
shielding Theory, aperture higher than 1/20th of the wavelength can cause
considerable leakage. In this case, the aperture was ± 2 mm; however, it was long
enough (± 1 cm) to cause considerable leakage and resonance. The free-space
wavelength at 2.5 GHz is 12cm.
96
The influence of copper tape sealing
-60
-50
-40
SE [dB]
-30
-20
-10
2.30 2.34 2.38 2.42 2.46 2.50 2.54
Frequency [GHz]
6-SBRM48 no tape 2-Stretch Knit no tape 4-Knit no tape

3-SPB15 no tape 1-BONN no tape 6- SBRM48
2- Stretch Knit 4- Knit 3- SPB15
1- BONN
Figure 41 SE results of Bra Cups with sealing tape (full line) and without tape (dotted line).
3.4.8 Flat fabrics SE results under the patch antenna and horn
antenna methods
The results obtained for the same flat fabrics using the two methodologies
employed for the SE measurements showed that the method developed for Bra
cup measurements showed slightly lower SE at 2.45 GHz (~5dB) than the Horn-
antenna method. It is likely to be related to the different dynamic ranges of both
methods, the influence of leakage and resonance (Figure 42).
Flat Fabric - Patch Antenna Set-up Flat Fabric - Horn Antenna Set-up
-65 -65
-55 -55
-45 -45
SE [dB]
SE [dB]
-35 -35
-25 -25
-15 -15
2.30 2.36 2.42 2.48 2.54 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency [GHz] Frequency [GHz]
4- Knit- flat 6- SBRM48- flat
3- SPB15- flat 1- BONN- flat
2- Stretch Knit- flat
Figure 42 Results of flat fabrics from the developed set-up (left).Results of flat fabrics from the
standard ASTM method (right)
97
3.4.9 Conclusions
The results showed SE values higher than 20 dB for all of the Bra Cups, which
mean they all block more than 99% of the emitted radiation. Fabric number
“5”could not be moulded due to high fragility and low mass of the structure. Fabric
number “1” showed the best results in terms of SE and moulding performance, with
~35dB at 2.45 GHz and no significant structure modification after moulding
process; it was then followed by fabrics number “4”, “6”, “3” and “2”, respectively.
However, fabrics number “6” did not show good moulding performance due to the
lack of fabric elongation as it is a woven fabric, thus it would not be suitable for Bra
Cups. Fabric number “4” did not withstand moulding pressure and temperature and
was sewn into the foam cup without moulding; the high elongation of this fabric
allowed the sewing into a semi-spherical shape without forming pleats.
The moulding stress suffered by the structure of the fabrics influenced the SE
results, decreasing it at around 5-20 dB in comparison with flat and non moulded
fabrics. This decrease was due to the changes in the structure of the fabrics such
as higher openness between yarns or fibres and lower mass. The semi-sphere
shape of the cup also influenced the SE results, changing the curve profile, as
observed in fabric number “4”, which was sewn into the foam cup without being
moulded. However, in order to understand the exact influence of the shape on the
SE performance further tests would need to be carried out and a perfect sealing
would need to be ensured in order to minimise resonance.
In summary, the best conductive fabrics for the production of EM shielding

moulded Bra cups, considering good moulding performance and SE results, are
fabrics number “1”, “4”, “2” and “3”, respectively. Taking into consideration these
results, fabric number “4” would need to be sewn into Bra cup foam without being
moulded. In addition, the set up devised for the Bra Cup SE measurements can be
considered valid and comparable to the Horn-antenna methodology.
98
4 Experiments Phase 2: Development of novel EM
shielding fabrics
This chapter explains and evaluates the development of EM shielding fabrics

attempted by knife-over-roll, padding coating and melt-spinning techniques. These
techniques were chosen as their potential had not been previously explored for
EM shielding purposes. The results were analysed using electromagnetic shielding
and surface resistivity standard methodologies; microscopy techniques;
thermogravimetric analysis; Raman spectroscopy; BET surface area and energy
dispersive X-ray.
4.1 Fabric knife-over-roll and padding coating approaches

using conductive fillers
The coating experiments were performed on nonwoven and knitted fabrics and the
conductive materials used were carbon nanotubes, silver nanoparticles, nickel
coated carbon fibre filler and conductive polymer (polypyrrole). The synergy
among the conductive materials, the percolation threshold, the EM Shielding
behaviour, the surface resistivity and the quantity of conductive materials used in
the experiments are carefully studied. The coating recipes were developed and
applied on the fabrics using a multi-layer approach.
The conductive fillers were applied on fabrics using two textile coating processes:
the knife-over-roll coating, and the padding coating. The coating recipes containing
these fillers were developed using polyacrylate binders, thickeners and surfactants.
Homogenous and well dispersed recipes were obtained with the use of stirrer and
ultrasonication. The recipes were developed using low concentration of conductive
fillers in order to obtain an optimal dispersion and appropriate viscosity for the
coating applications.
99
A multi-layer approach was used for the knife-over-roll coating to gradually achieve
the percolation threshold and maximum conductivity, as well as to maintain a good
dispersion and homogeneity of the application. This approach was also used in
order to understand the relationship among quantity of conductive material, surface
resistivity and EM shielding.
Contrary to the conventional composite materials, the use of the conductive filler in
the present study is not homogenously dispersed throughout the substrate
structure (fabric), but rather concentrated on the surface, with limited penetration
due to the irregular fabric structure and consequently generating a thin, irregular,
and porous coating of a high CNT concentration. Therefore, the quantity was
represented by surface density (g/m²) instead of the weight percentage of the
composite (wt%) commonly found in the literature. And the quantity (g/m2) relates
to the actual amount of filler used in the application, considering the weight of the
coated fabric, subtracting the weight of the original fabric and the solid content of
the binders, thickeners and surfactants used.
4.1.1 Materials
Novel conductive materials were used in the experiments. They were chosen
because of their novel properties in terms of size, geometry and composition.
Carbon nanotubes, in special, have not been previously studied for the production
of EM shielding fabric composites. These materials were tested individually and in
combinations to explore their synergy. Table 12 lists the products used.
Table 12 Conductive materials used
Silver particles (Ag)

Nickel coated Carbon Fibre filler (Ni/CF)
Multi-Wall Carbon Nanotube (CNT)
Polypyrrole particles (PPy)
Polyaniline particles(Pani)
100
The Multi-Wall Carbon Nanotube is a “highly conductive carbon nanotube”
purchased from Nanostructured & Amorphous Materials, Inc. This CNT has purity
of 95%; outside diameter 50-100 nm; inside diameter 5-10 nm; length 5-10 um;
true density 1.8 g/cm3 (at 20 °C); amorphous carbon <3% and ash content <1wt%.
The production method employed is catalytic CVD. Figure 43 illustrates the
structure of the CNT powder as received.
Figure 43 Structure of Pristine CNT powder, as received.
The silver nanoparticle was purchased from Mknano, which has 99.9% purity and
particle size < 90 nm. The Nickel coated Carbon Fibre filler (Ni/CF) was obtained
from Sulzer Metco (E-Fill 2901). This product has density of 3.8 g/cm3 (67Ni/33C
wt%), diameters in the range 6-8 um and length 100-500 um.
The polypyrrole (PPy) and polyaniline (Pani) are intrinsically conductive polymers
obtained from Eeonyx Corporation. The polypyrrole used were Eeonomer® 200F
(particle size avg. 40 nm, apparent density 0.03 g/cm3, and surface area 570 m²/g)
and Eeonomer WPPY (polypyrrole dispersed in water, 6% solids). The polyaniline
used was Eonomer® 1002, which is a polyaniline coated nylon powder (particle
size ~ 5 microns, surface are 10 m2/g).
The fabrics used in the experiments were knitted (single jersey, cotton, 154 g/m2)
and nonwoven (polyester, 75 g/m2) types. Figure 44 and 45 illustrate the structures
101
of the fabrics at different magnifications.
1 mm 1 mm
Figure 44 Non coated nonwoven fabric (left); Non coated knitted fabric (right)
Figure 45 Non coated polyester fibre (nonwoven, left); Non coated cotton fibre (knit, right).
The chemical auxiliaries (binders, thickeners and surfactant) were obtained from
BASF AG, whereas the PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone) was purchased from Sigma
102
Aldrich Co. LLC. The products and recipes used are summarised in Tables 13, 14,
15 and 16 below.
Table 13 Chemical auxiliaries used
Aqueous dispersion of Polyacrylate Binder (40% solids)

Aqueous dispersion of Polyacrylate Thickener (30% solids)
Non-ionic Surfactant
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) (100% solids)
Table 14. Wet recipes for knife-over-roll coating
Quantity CNT Ag Ni/CF PPy Pani

3%wt 5%wt 5%wt 3%wt 5%wt 5
Binder 40g /kg - 30g/kg 30g/kg 30g/kg

Thickener ~1 g/kg ~5 g/kg ~5 g/kg ~5g/kg ~5g/kg
PVP 3g/L 2g/L - - -
Surfactant 2g/L - 1.5g/L - 1.5g/L
Table 15. Wet recipe for padding coating
CNT
Quantity
0.5%wt
Binder 25g /kg
PVP 1g/L
Surfactant 0.5g/L
Table 16 Dry content of conductive filler
% Solids on Dry Coating

CNT 60
Ppy 70
Ni/CF 70
Ag 93
The binder used in these experiments has the sole purpose of adhering the
conductive fillers to the fabric structure. Therefore, small quantities of the binder
were used. The sequence used to produce the recipes was: first water; second
surfactants; third conductive fillers (added slowly); fourth binder; and fifth thickener.
103
A stirrer device and an ultrasonic bath were used to achieve a homogeneous
dispersion, in short treatments of ~10 min. The viscosity of ~3000 cp was obtained
in the recipes. The Figure 46 below illustrates the appearance of the produced
recipes.
Ppy 3wt% CNT 3wt%
Ag 5wt% Ni/CF 5wt%
Figure 46 Images of the prepared coating recipes: Ppy, CNT, Ag, Ni/CF.
4.1.2 Methodology
Conductive fillers were dispersed in an aqueous solution containing binder,
thickener, and surfactants and this solution was applied on the surface of fabrics by
knife-over-roll coating and padding coating. Further details about the coating
techniques used; recipe preparation; EM shielding and resistivity methods; and
characterisation methodologies are given below.
104
4.1.2.1 Textile Coating Methodologies
a) Knife Coating and the multi-layer approach
A laboratory coating machine (Mathis Type SV) was used for the application of the
developed recipes on the fabrics (figure 47 and 48). This process allows a very thin
layer to be applied on one side of the fabric. In this process, a knife (also called
blade) carries the coating paste along the fabric, and its height and velocity
determine the quantity and thickness applied on the fabric. It is called knife-over-
roll process as a roll supports the fabric and defines the distance in relation to the
knife. A multi-layer approach was used, that is, the coating was applied up to five
consecutive layers, with increasing knife height, allowing a thicker layer to be
obtained in every step. After each layer, the fabric was dried and thermofixed. The
knife heights used for the applications from first to fourth layer were respectively
0.05, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 mm (nonwoven) and 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 (knit).
Figure 47 Laboratory coating machine (Mathis Type SV).
105
Figure 48 Knife-over-roll coating Diagram.
b) Padding Coating
A laboratory padding device was used for this application (figure 49). The fabric
was immersed in the coating recipe, situated in between the rollers, as it passed
through them under pressure. In this process, the coating recipe is applied
throughout the fabric homogeneously, and the pressure between the rollers
determines the quantity of product left on the fabric. Up to seven consecutive steps
were considered, in order to gradually increase the quantity of conductive filler
applied in the fabric and, hence, achieve the maximum conductivity. After each
step, the fabric was dried and thermofixed in a stenter frame.
Figure 49 Laboratory padding coating machine (left). Padding coating diagram (right).
106
4.1.2.2 Shielding Effectiveness and surface sesistivity methods
The standard method ASTM D 4935 was used. The fabrics were tested in a flat
configuration, with the same direction and side in relation to the sample holder, that
is, the coated side of the fabric facing the incident radiation. The shielding
effectiveness was determined by comparing the difference in attenuation of a
reference sample to the test sample, taking into account the incident and
transmitted radiations.
The standard test method for surface resistivity used in this study is the AATCC
Test Method 76-2011, for the measurement of the “Electrical Surface Resistivity of
Fabrics” (aatcc.org). In this method, the surface resistivity is calculated by using
the measured electrical resistance between superficially positioned parallel
electrodes or concentric rings, and it is reported in ohms per square (Ohm/sq). This
method measures the resistance of a material to the flow of current between two
electrodes, and is independent of its dimensional units. Therefore, surface
resistivity is determined by the ratio of voltage drop per unit length to the surface
current per unit width. It is a property of a material and remains constant regardless
of the method and configuration of the electrodes used. For the present study, the
concentric ring electrodes were used instead of the parallel plate electrodes. These
electrodes were chosen because they do not require specific size or direction of
specimens, as both fabric length and width direction are measured simultaneously,
so it is appropriate for the measurements of isotropic samples. The formula used
for the calculation of the surface resistivity in ohms per square using concentric
rings is (Eq. 19), where R= resistivity in ohms per square; O= measured resistance
in ohms; Ro= outer electrode radius; Ri= inner electrode radius.
R= 2.73 (O)/ (log Ro/Ri) (22)
107
4.1.2.3 Characterisation Methodologies
Details about the characterisation techniques used in this section are provided
below:
Micro-Raman characterization: An optical micro-Raman Renishaw spectrometer

was used. The laser used was 514.3 nm (green laser) and maximum power 9.3
mW. The measurements were performed at room temperature, with diameter of
measurement around 2 μm and magnification 50x.
TGA characterization: TGA/DTA Instrument 2960 SDT V3.0F was used for the
tests. The gas used was air, the heating rate was 10°C/min, and the sample size
was around 2.5-3.0 mg.
BET Surface analysis: This test was performed in a Micromeritics TriStar 3000 and
Micromeritics ASAP 2020. The gas used was nitrogen (Molecular Cross-Sectional
Area 0.1620 nm²) and the samples were degassed at room temperature for two
hours.
FESEM characterization: Ultra High Resolution Zeiss SUPRA 40VP was used and
the images were taken at voltage of ~1kV, In-lens detector and Secondary
Electrons (SE) Detector.
SEM/EDX characterization: A Hitachi S-3400 N SEM was used, with a connected

EDX (Oxford Instruments X-Max 20mm²). Most images were taken at voltage of ~
5kV, Secondary Electrons (SE) Detector.
4.1.3 Results of the knife coating application on nonwoven fabric
The five conductive materials were tested separately in order to investigate their
performance. They were applied using the knife coating technique on nonwoven
fabric. An increasing number of layers were applied until the resistivity reached its
minimum. The results of resistivity [Ω/sq], shielding effectiveness [%] and quantity
108
used [g/m²] are shown in Fig. 50. The PANI application is not shown in the graph
as the conductivity obtained was not sufficiently high to generate EM shielding.
The fabric coated with Ag achieved the highest EM shielding, followed by CNT,
Ni/CF and Ppy, respectively. The applications with Ag and Ni/CF required higher
amounts of product to achieve percolation threshold, whereas CNT and Ppy
achieved percolation threshold with very low amount of the product and gradually
had the resistivity improved according to higher quantity of product used. Details of
the individual applications are provided in the following sections.
Applications in Nonwoven - knife coating

Maximum results achieved
100
Shielding Effectiveness %
80
60
40
20
0
200 600 1000
Frequency MHz
Ag = 7 Ω/sq = 97 g/m²
CNT = 100 Ω/sq = 36 g/m²
Ni/CF = 10 Ω/sq = 83 g/m²
Ppy = 3.2 KΩ/sq = 10 g/m²
Figure 50. EM shielding results of Knife coating on nonwoven fabric.
4.1.3.1 Polypyrrole nanoparticles (Ppy)
The coating recipe for the Ppy was developed with 3%wt and with the use of binder
and thickener. A mixture of the PPy powder and Ppy water dispersion products
was used for the recipe. The percolation threshold was achieved after the
application of the first layer, with very low amount of PPy (0.3 g/m²). However, the
initial resistivity was very poor (200KΩ/sq). After the application of the successive
layers, the resistivity and EM shielding increased according to the quantity of Ppy,
109
achieving its maximum after the application of the third layer (3.2KΩ/sq, ± 12% SE,
10g/m²). The fourth layer did not show improvement in relation to the third layer,
even though the amount applied was significantly high (29 g/m²). The maximum
EM Shielding achieved was very low comparing to the other products tested.
The SEM images below illustrate the surface of the four layers. A cracked
morphology was obtained, mainly in the fourth layer. The cracking could have
influenced the low resistivity, due to more free space and less connectivity of the
coating and may be the reason for not generating a higher EM Shielding in the
fourth layer, compared to the third layer.
1st layer 2nd layer

La
layeryer
3rd layer 4th layer
Figure 51 Polypyrrole knife coated nonwoven fabric (from 1 to 4 layers).
Figure 52 illustrates the homogenous microscopic dispersion of the polypyrrole

particles within the polymeric binder in the 4 th layer; whereas Figure 53 shows the
coating of the first layer, where the percolation threshold was obtained. It can be
110
observed that the individual filaments were coated, even though the coating was
slightly discontinuous.
Figure 52 Polypyrrole coated nonwoven fabric (4th layer).
Figure 53 Polypyrrole coated filaments in nonwoven fabric (1st layer).
4.1.3.2 Nickel coated carbon fibre filler (Ni/CF)
The coating recipe for the Ni/CF was initially developed with 3%wt, and with the
use of binder, thickener and surfactant; however, the percolation threshold was not
obtained. A recipe containing 5%wt of Ni/CF was needed to achieve percolation.
The dispersion and suspension of the particles was obtained with the use of
111
surfactant and with the viscosity needed for the application.
The percolation threshold was achieved only after the application of the fourth
layer, with 56 g/m², however the resistivity was very unstable and ranged from 10-
400 Ω/sq, so the fifth layer was also applied and the resulting resistivity was again
very unstable and not much better than the fourth layer. The SE at the fifth layer
was ± 90% SE at 83 g/m2.
The behaviour was similar to the Ag application, in which the resistivity was not
proportional to the quantity of Ni/CF used, and the percolation was only achieved
with high loading of the filler. The SEM images below (Figure 54) show the coated
surface of the fabric, from the first to the fifth layer. A macroscopic network-like
structure is visible due to the shape and size of the Ni/CF filler. This structure
provided unstable results, which is likely to be associated with the sensibility of the
conductive pathway generated by the filler.
Figure 54 Ni/CF coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer).
112
1st layer 2nd layer
La
layeryer
rd th
3 layer 4 layer
Figure 55 Ni/CF coated nonwoven fabric, from 1st to 4th layer.
4.1.3.3 Silver nanoparticles (Ag)
The coating recipe for the Ag was initially developed with 3%wt, and with the use of
binder, thickener and PVP; however, the percolation was not obtained. A
successful application was only achieved with a recipe containing 5%wt and
without binder. The percolation was achieved only after the application of the fourth
layer, with 97 g/m² of Ag, resulting in 7 Ω/sq and 99.99% of EM Shielding. In this
case, as opposite to CNT, the resistivity did not change according to the quantity of
Ag, the percolation was rather obtained only after a high amount of Ag. The SEM
image below shows the coating obtained. It can be observed that the coating is
irregular, porous and the silver particles are aggregated in larger clusters, which is
likely to be related to the lack of a polymeric matrix, as the binder would have
reduced the re-aggregation of the particles during the drying process by fixing them
within the polymer.
113
th
Figure 56 Ag coated Nonwoven fabric (4 layer).
4.1.3.4 Polyaniline microparticles (Pani)
The coating recipe for Pani was produced with 5%wt, and with the use of binder,
thickener and surfactant. A good dispersion of this product was difficult to be
obtained, and the solution was also sieved before applied to eliminate the higher
clusters. However, agglomerates were still present on the coating. Five layers were
applied and the resulting quantity used was 50 g/m2. After the 5th layer, the
resistivity obtained was still very high 400KΩ/sq; Therefore, it could be concluded
that the Pani coated nylon particles tested was not successful in producing high
conductive fabrics, despite the high load used and the good connectivity obtained
in the coating morphology (figure 57).
114
Figure 57 Pani coated Nonwoven fabric (5th layer).
4.1.3.5 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT)
The coating recipe for the CNT was developed with 3%wt, and with the use of
binder, thickener and surfactants. The use of PVP (10wt% of CNT) and non-ionic
surfactant were important to obtain a good dispersion, as well as the
ultrasonication treatment. A very small quantity of thickener was needed as the
3%wt of CNT already results in a viscous solution.
Figure 58 reveals the EM shielding results, the 1st layer (3g/m2) did not show
conductivity, and the percolation threshold was obtained in the 2 nd layer (6.4g/m²),
what means the minimum quantity of CNT to achieve percolation was 3g/m² < x ≤
6.4g/m². After the application of the successive layers, the surface resistivity
reduced and EM Shielding increased in relation to the load of CNT, achieving its
limit at the 5th layer (100Ω sq, 12.2dB/ 94% SE, 36.3g/m²).
115
CNT applied to Nonwoven - knife coating
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 600 1000
Frequency MHz
5th layer = 100 Ω/sq = 36 g/m²

4th layer = 200 Ω/sq = 19 g/m²
3rd layer = 1KΩ/sq = 7 g/m²
2nd layer = 100 KΩ/sq = 6 g/m²
1st layer = ∞ Ω/sq = 3 g/m²
Figure 58 EM shielding results of nonwoven fabrics.
4.1.3.5.1 Macroscopic characterisation
The surface of the nonwoven fabric was gradually covered with CNT, from the 1 st
to the 5th layer of application (figure 59 and 60). Layers 1 to 3 produced CNTs
coated on the filaments mainly, whereas in layers 4 and 5 the higher EM shielding
resulted from a more complete coverage of the surface, thereby increasing the
thickness and load of CNTs. The macroscopic morphology of the 5th layer was a
sponge-like structure, with a very porous morphology, likely to be caused by the
coating methodology and the irregular surface of the fabrics, allowing the CNTs to
move freely within the aqueous solution during the drying stage, accommodating
and concentrating together, according to the fabric structure.
116
Figure 59 Macroscopic 3D network of CNT coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer). A sponge-like,
irregular and porous morphology is observed.
1st layer 2nd layer

La
layeryer
3rd layer 4th layer
Figure 60 CNT coated nonwoven fabric (from 1st to 4th layer), showing the gradual coverage of
CNT on the surface of the fabric.
117
4.1.3.5.2 Microscopic characterisation
The microscopic morphology of the coated fabric (2nd layer) was analyzed by SEM
and Optical Microscope in order to investigate the percolation threshold obtained.
Figure 61 and 62 illustrates the homogenous coating within the filaments, whereas
Figure 63 is a close-up of a coated filament, where CNTs are homogenously
adhered to the surface of the filament by the binder. A high concentration is
observed, what contributed to the connectivity of the individual CNTs, hence
generating conductivity.
The microscopic morphology of the 5 th layer (nonwoven) and 4th layer (knit) were
also analyzed. Three-dimensional (3D) network morphology was observed, where
the CNTs were randomly arranged, individually separated, well connected, mostly
exposed and visible. Within the 3D network, regions have been identified where
CNTs are non-embedded, partially embedded and highly embedded by the binder;
the partially embedded regions formed the predominant part. Depending on the
region, the CNTs are more or less curvy. Figures 64 and 65 show the 3D structure
of the coating, where a mesh of interconnected CNTs can be visualised within the
structure. Figure 66/ 67/ 68 illustrate the 3D network formed by relatively straight
CNTs in partially embedded regions.
Figure 68 is a high magnification view of the partially embedded CNTs, and figure
69 shows the pristine CNTs, as received from the supplier. The figure 69 confirms
the range of outer diameter (50-100nm) of the pristine CNT as informed by the
supplier, and also illustrates the non-aggregated and non-entangled disposition of
the CNT powder, as received (the length is 5-10μm). Figure 68 shows CNTs with
slightly higher diameter, associated with the individual coating, and the binder
connecting the nanotubes is also visible.
118
Figure 61 Pristine Nonwoven fabric (a); CNT Coated nonwoven fabric, 2nd layer (b). Homogenous
coating is observed, turning the transparent filaments into a metal-like colour.
Figure 62 CNT coated filaments (2nd layer). Homogenous coating of the filaments is observed,
which resulted in the percolation threshold.
119
nd
Figure 63 CNT coated filament (2 layer), where Percolation threshold was obtained. The CNTs
are randomly and individually adhered to the surface by the binder.
120
Figure 66 CNT coated fabric, surface of the 5th layer. CNTs are randomly arranged, individually
separated, well connected, and mostly exposed, forming a microscopic 3D network.
121
122
th
Figure 69 Image of network formed by CNTs (5 coating layer), individually coated and separated,
randomly arranged, well connected and partially embedded by the coating
Figure 70 Image of pristine CNT, as received powder, showing CNTs not agglomerated or
entangled, with diameter 50- 100 nm, length 5-10 μm and aspect ratio 100.
123
4.1.4 Results of the factorial experiment 2⁴ (Ppy + Ni/CF + Ag + CNT)
A factorial experiment was performed with the four products (CNT, Ni/CF, Ag, Ppy)
in order to investigate the synergy and effects of these combinations on the EM
Shielding. A matrix of ‘+’ and ‘-’ signs was constructed in order to facilitate the
determination of the coefficients needed for the calculation of the factor effects,
according to Yates’ Order. The ‘+’ means the filler was used, whereas the ‘-’ means
the filler was not used, and the signs are multiplied to obtain the combinations. The
factorial effects are displayed in the columns headers and the combination
treatments in the rows headers (table 18). The full effect formula is derived from
the matrix by considering the signs under the chosen effect and assigning them to
the combinations on the left, then the EM shielding result of each combination is
replaced in the formula to obtain the factor Effect. The following equation provides
an example of how the formula was derived for A (CNT). Likewise, the effect of the
other products was calculated:
CNT = A = [-(1) + a - b + ab - c + ac - bc + abc – d + ad – bd + abd – cd + acd –bcd + abcd] / 8 (23)
The main effects and the dual effects were analysed, that is, the individual effect of
the products, and the effect of combinations of 2. The results (table 17)
demonstrate that the CNT effect is the strongest amongst the four products (46.6),
which means the EM shielding results were highly influenced by the quantity of
CNT used. In fact, by considering the figure 71, the highest values were achieved
with combinations contained CNT, and the CNT + Ni/CF, CNT + Ppy and CNT +
Ag were the highest ones.
Table 17 Effect results of the factorial experiment
A B C D AB AC AD BC BD CD
CNT Ppy Ni/CF Ag CNT+ Ppy CNT+ Ni/CF CNT + Ag Ppy + Ni/CF Ppy + Ag Ni/CF + Ag
46.6 -1.1 7.4 0.6 0.9 -13.1 -6.9 12.1 1.4 -29.6
124
Table 18 Matrix of the Factorial Experiment
Average SE %
abcd
abd
acd
bcd
abc
ab
ad
bd
cd
ac
bc
a
b
d
c
200-1000 MHz
(1) - - + - + + - - + + - + - - + 0
a + - - - - + + - - + + + + - - 94
b - + - - + - + - + - + + - + - 12
ab + + + - - - - - - - - + + + + 97
c - - + + - - + - + + - - + + - 89
ac + - - + + - - - - + + - - + + 99
bc - + - + - + - - + - + - + - + 69
abc + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - 94
d - - + - + + - + - - + - + + - 99.99
ad + - - - - + + + + - - - - + + 96
bd - + - - + - - + - + - - + - + 32
abd + + + - - - - + + + + - - - - 96
cd - - + + - - + + - - + + - - + 0
acd + - - + + - - + + - - + + - - 83
bcd - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - 68
abcd + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 84
Factorial Experiment with CNT, Ni/CF, Ag and PPy - Nonwoven fabric -

knife coating
Ag
100
CNT + Ni/CF
CNT + PPY
80 CNT + Ag
CNT + PPY + Ag
CNT
60 CNT + PPY + NI/CF
Ni/CF
CNT + Ni/CF + Ag + PPY

40
CNT + Ni/CF + Ag
PPY + Ni/CF
20 PPY + Ni/CF + Ag
PPY + Ag
PPY
0 Ni/CF + Ag
200 600 1000
Frequency MHz
Figure 71 EM Shielding Results of the Factorial experiments containing CNT, Ag, Ppy and Ni/CF.
125
The combined recipes were prepared mixing the individual recipes proportionally,
in volume, such as: 2 combinations (50% / 50%); 3 combinations (33.3% / 33.3% /
33.3%); and 4 combination (25% / 25% / 25% / 25%). These combinations were
applied on nonwoven fabrics, using the knife coating technique, and the multi-layer
approach.
In order to analyse the results, it is important to consider the actual amount (g/m²)
of products used in the applications. Therefore, table 19 summarizes these
quantities, as well as the results of Resistivity and Shielding Effectiveness. The
quantity (g/m2) shown in this study relates to the actual amount of conductive filler
used in the application, considering the weight of the coated fabric, subtracting the
weight of the original fabric and the solid weight of the binders, thickeners and
surfactants used.
It is possible to observe that the application with the highest SE% and the lowest
amount used was obtained with CNT + Ppy (97.29%SE, 28 g/m²), likely to be
related to the fact that both products have nanoscale properties, thus achieving a
denser and more complete conductive network; and also to the fact that both have
similar EM Shielding behaviour, achieving percolation with very low quantity. It is
also possible to conclude that CNT has a good synergy with the other products. A
higher SE is achieved with lower amounts of CNT when combined with other
products.
CNT also assisted to increase the SE of the other products and was fundamental
to achieve percolation with less product in the case of Ag and Ni/CF, otherwise
only achieved with high load. In addition, CNT provided the stability and durability
that Ag and Ni/CF applications did not have by themselves.
Combination of Ni/CF, Ppy and Ag did not produce very good EM shielding results,
and Ni/CF and Ag together did not produce percolation at all. However Ppy
enhanced the shielding behaviour of Ni/CF when both were mixed, and a relatively
higher shielding was obtained with very low filler load, which may be attributed to
126
the fact that Ppy provided a more complete, stable and reliable network for the
connectivity of NI/CF particles. The positive synergy was also identified by the
effect result of Ppy + NI/CF (12.1).
Table 19 Details of the Factorial Experiment.
Resistivity SE % Ag CNT Ni/CF Ppy

ohms.sq average g/m² g/m² g/m² g/m²
Ag 7 99.99% 97 - - -
CNT+Ni/CF 46 99% - 26 44 -
CNT+Ppy 79 97% - 14 - 14
CNT+Ag 79 96% 31 19 - -
CNT+Ppy+Ag 72 96% 25 15 - 15
CNT 100 94% - 36 - -
CNT+Ppy+Ni/CF 125 94% - 13 21 13
Ni/CF unstable 89% - - 83 -
CNT+Ni/CF+Ag +Ppy 249 84% 17 10 17 10
CNT+Ni/CF+Ag 184 83% 18 11 18 -
Ppy+Ni/CF 853 69% - - 14 14
Ppy+Ni/CF+Ag 722 68% 22 - 22 13
Ppy+Ag 1509 32% 32 - - 19
Ppy 3280 12% - - - 10
Ni/CF+Ag na na 38 - 38 -
The following SEM images illustrate the surface of the fabric coated with CNT + Ag
CNT + Ppy and CNT + Ni/CF. A flatter and less porous/sponge-like structure is
observed, which means there is less free space within the coating, what could be
the cause of the higher SE, in addition to the higher conductive capabilities of
metals (Ag and Ni). In the CNT + Ni/CF picture, a network of Ni/CF is visible within
the CNT coating.
127
Figure 72 CNT + Ag coated nonwoven fabric.
Figure 73 CNT + Ni/CF coated nonwoven fabric.
128
Figure 74 CNT + Ppy coated nonwoven fabric.
Figure 75 Microscopic images of CNT + Ppy coated Nonwoven (left); and CNT + Ag coated
Nonwoven (right).
Regarding the thickness of the conductive coatings obtained (not the overall
thickness); it could be observed that it varied from 100μm to 200μm (figure 76).
The CNT application was the thickest, what can be ascribed to the sponge-like
morphology. The combinations showed a flatter surface; and the cracked
morphology of Ppy is also visible in the cross section image of the coating.
129
Pristine Nonwoven Ag Nonwoven CNT + Ag Nonwoven CNT + Ni/CF Nonwoven
Thickness ~200 μm Thickness ~100 μm Thickness ~100 μm Thickness ~100 μm
CNT + Ppy Nonwoven Ni/CF Nonwoven Ppy Nonwoven

Thickness ~100 μm Thickness ~150 μm Thickness ~100 μm
CNT Nonwoven
Thickness ~200 μm
Figure 76 Cross section optical images of the coated nonwoven fabrics, showing the thickness of
coating.
130
4.1.5 Results of the knife coating application on knitted fabric
According to the results obtained in the previous sections, the four conductive
materials and the most relevant combinations were chosen to be investigated and
applied on knitted fabrics, using the knife coating technique. The two combinations
chosen were CNT + Ag and CNT + Ni/CF because of their good performance in
the factorial experiments. The results related to Resistivity [Ω/sq], Shielding
Effectiveness [%] and quantity used [g/m²] are presented in figure 77. The
combinations CNT + Ag and CNT + Ni/CF achieved the highest SE results (both ±
98%), followed by CNT (±96% SE), Ppy (±45%), Ni/CF (±26%) and Ag (±16%),
respectively. The Ag and Ni/CF applications showed very unstable resistivity,
which resulted in low EM shielding. This behaviour could be attributed to the fact
that the surface of the knitted fabric is more irregular and porous hence making it
difficult to achieve the connectivity for Ag and Ni/CF. On the other hand, the
irregular surface of knitted fabric enhanced the EM shielding of Ppy and CNT,
which achieved slightly higher SE as compared to nonwoven applications. In the
case of CNT coating, four layers were applied and the percolation was achieved in
the 1st layer. For Ppy coating, three layers were applied and the percolation was
achieved also in the first layer.
Applications on Knitted fabric - knife coating
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 600 1000
Frequency MHz
CNT + Ag = 39 Ω/sq = Ag 58 g/m², CNT 35 g/m²
CNT + Ni/CF = 46 Ω/sq = Ni 42 g/m², CNT 25 g/m²
CNT = 70 Ω/sq = 30 g/m²
Ppy = 1.2 KΩ/sq = 33 g/m²
Ni/CF = unstable Ω/sq = 63 g/m²
Ag = unstable Ω/sq = 93 g/m²
Figure 77 EM shielding results of coated knitted fabrics.
131
The following SEM images revealed the same morphology obtained from the
nonwoven applications, which is an irregular, sponge-like and porous structure of
the CNT application; and a flatter and slightly less porous structure for the
combinations.
Figure 78 Image of CNT coated knitted fabric 4th layer. A sponge-like, irregular and porous
morphology is observed.
Figure 79 CNT + Ag coated knitted fabric (left); CNT + Ni/CF coated knitted fabric (right).
132
The thickness of the conductive coatings applied on knitted fabrics is shown below.
It varied slightly according to the filler. It can be observed that Ag did not form a
coating layer; this may be the reason for not achieving percolation, as the particles
penetrated inside the knitted structure instead of forming a continuous layer.
Pristine Knit Ni/CF Knit Ag Knit

Thickness ~350 μm Thickness ~150 μm No layer
Ppy Knit CNT + Ag Knit CNT + Ni/CF Knit

Thickness ~150 μm Thickness ~200 μm Thickness ~150 μm
CNT + Ppy Knit CNT Knit

Thickness ~150 μm Thickness ~200μm
Figure 80 Cross section optical images of the coated knitted fabrics, showing the thickness of
coating.
133
4.1.6 Energy dispersive X-ray characterisation
EDX characterization was performed for the qualitative and quantitative elemental
analysis of the coated fabrics. The elements identified by the EDX were carbon,
oxygen, nickel and silver (Kα= 0.2774keV, Kα= 0.5949keV, Lα= 0.851, Lα= 2.984,
respectively). The hydrogen, even though present in the samples, was not
detected due to its low atomic number (1). Figure 81 shows the EDX results for the
nonwoven coated fabrics, whereas Figure 82 shows analysis of the knitted coated
fabrics.
The carbon and oxygen peaks observed in the pristine nonwoven fabric relate to
the polyester molecule (C10H8O4)n of the nonwoven fabric and the cellulosic
molecule (C6H10O5)n of the pristine knitted fabric. The quantitative results (atomic
weight %) obtained for the pristine knitted fabric show a perfect correlation with the
theoretical atomic weight ratio between carbon and oxygen, whereas the
quantitative results of the pristine nonwoven are slightly different from the
theoretical values (C = 65%, O = 35%), which is attributed to the polymeric
materials incorporated in this fabric during their manufacturing process, such as
the binding agents.
The carbon intensity (cts) and quantitative percentage increased significantly for
the coated fabrics due to the presence of CNTs, Ppy and polymeric materials. The
peaks related to the quantities of Ni and Ag used in the coatings were observed
and the presence of oxygen was noticed for all samples due to the polymeric
materials added to the coating solution. These results appear to be not related to
the pristine fabrics, since the EDX analyses the surface only and the surfaces of
these fabrics are completely covered by the coating. However, due to the porosity
and 3D network morphology of the coating, the pristine fabric could have made
small contribution to the values obtained by EDX analysis.
It can be observed that the carbon intensity (cts) detected in the nonwoven
applications is higher than the knitted applications, this may be attributed to the
fact that the coating penetrated more in the knitted structure rather than the
134
nonwoven structure, hence the higher concentration of the filler on the surface of
the nonwoven fabric may have been detected by EDX. The quantitative results are
relatively similar when comparing the same filler coating on both fabrics, which is
expected as the same coating recipe was applied on both fabric; however, these
results could have also been influenced by the morphology and penetration of the
coating.
a b c d e
C 61% C 82% C 75% C 72% C 73%

O 39% O 18% O 9% O 22% O 8%
Ni 16 % S 6% Ni 19%
f g
C 6% C 47%
O 8% O 17%
Ag 86% Ag 36%
Figure 81 EDX results of pristine nonwoven fabric (a); CNT coated nonwoven (b); Ni/CF coated
nonwoven (c), Ppy coated nonwoven (d); CNT + Ni/CF coated nonwoven (e); Ag coated nonwoven
(f); CNT + Ag coated nonwoven (g).
135
a b c d
C 61%
C 47% C 89% C 50% C 66% O 39%
O 53% O 11% O 12% O 8%
Ag 38% Ni 26%
Figure 82 EDX results of the pristine Knitted fabric (a); CNT coated knit (b); CNT + Ag coated knit
(c) and CNT + Ni/CF coated knit (d).
4.1.7 Thermogravimetric analysis of CNT coated fabrics
The purity and percentage of CNTs and the decomposition behaviour of the coated
and pristine fabrics were studied using thermogravimetric ananysis (TGA).
According to the derivative thermogravimetric ananysis (DTGA) peaks, the pristine
CNT has a very sharp single peak at 634°C, where the maximum rate of
decomposition occurs. However, the decomposition takes place from 520°C to
670°C and a 3%wt residue was observed at 673°C, which indicates high CNT
purity (Figure 84). The pristine knitted fabric exhibits two peaks - a sharp peak at
345°C and a minor peak at 483°C- with 0.42%wt residue left at 504°C. This two-
stage decomposition behaviour is a typical characteristic of cotton fabrics (Figure
85). The pristine nonwoven fabric has three minor peaks at 238°C, 305°C and
412°C, and a principal sharp peak at 478°C, with 1.8% wt residue at 536°C. This
decomposition trend is related to polyester fabric (Figure 84).
Figure 83 illustrates the TGA curves obtained for the coated nonwoven fabric (5
layers). It shows a new major peak at ~566°C, which is created by the CNT,
however shifted down from the original peak 636°C. The weight loss % at this peak
increases according to the increasing number of layers (from 1 to 5 respectively <
2wt%, 4.6wt%, 6.2wt%, 13.3wt% and 17.1wt%). However, another major peak is
also created (at 364°C) and the original peaks for the pristine nonwoven are
136
slightly shifted. This behaviour is likely to be due to the presence of the polymeric
materials in the coating. Therefore, these changes suggest that part of the CNT
may also have decomposed. This assumption is also reinforced by the fact that the
theoretical calculation of CNT %wt is higher (from 1 to 5 respectively 3.8wt%,
7.2wt%, 8.5wt%, 18.7wt%, 26.7wt %).
The TGA of coated knitted fabric (Figure 85, 4th layer only) show that a new peak
is created at ~610°C due to the CNT, which represents a weight loss of 9.4wt%.
This value is again lower than the CNT loading theoretically calculated (14.6wt%).
CNT Coated Nonwoven Fabric - 1st to 5th Layer

100
80 CNT
Fabric + CNT 5
Weight [%]
60 Fabric + CNT 4
Fabric + CNT 3
40 Fabric + CNT 2
Fabric + CNT 1
20 Fabric
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature [°C]
Figure 83 TGA Analysis of CNT coated Nonwoven fabrics, from 1st to 5th Layer, showing the
increase in weight % due to the CNT content.
Pristine Nonwoven Pristine CNT

100 12.0 100 1.2
DTA (°C/mg) - DTG(%/°C)
10.0 1.0
Weight % 80 Weight
80
8.0 DTA
DTA 0.8
Weight (%)
Weight (%)
60 DTG 6.0 60 DTG

0.6
4.0
0.4
40 40
2.0
0.2
0.0
20 20
0.0
-2.0
0 -4.0 0 -0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
137
Coated Nonwoven - 1th Layer
100 3.5

Weight
80 DTA
DTG 2.5
Weight (%)
60
1.5
40
0.5
20
0 -0.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature (°C)
Coated Nonwoven - 2th Layer Coated Nonwoven - 3th Layer
100 2.5 100 2.5

Weight Weigh
DTA 2.0 t 2.0
80 80 DTA
DTG
Weight (%)
1.5 Weight (%) 1.5

60 60
1.0 1.0
40 40
0.5 0.5
20 20
0.0 0.0
0 -0.5 0 -0.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Coated Nonwoven - 4th Layer Coated Nonwoven - 5th Layer
100 2.5 100 2.5

Weight Weight
2.0 DTA 2.0
80 DTA 80
DTG DTG
Weight (%)
Weight (%)
1.5 1.5
60 60
1.0 1.0
40 40
0.5 0.5
20 20
0.0 0.0
0 -0.5 0 -0.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 84 TGA, DTG and DTA Analysis of CNT coated Nonwoven fabrics (from 1st to 5th Layer),
pristine nonwoven and pristine CNT.
138
Pristine Knitted Fabric Coated Knit - 4th Layer
100 6.0 100 4.0

Weight Weight
5.0
80 80 DTA 3.0
DTA
4.0
Weight (%)
DTG
Weight (%)
DTG
60 3.0 60 2.0
40 2.0
40 1.0
1.0
20 20 0.0
0.0
0 -1.0 0 -1.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 85 TGA, DTG and DTA Analysis of CNT coated Knitted fabric (4th Layer), and pristine
knitted fabric.
4.1.8 Raman spectroscopy of CNT coated fabrics
The Raman spectroscopy characterisation was undertaken on the CNT coated

fabrics. The Raman spectra and intensity ratio of the D and G Bands were
considered in order to investigate the quality and modifications of the CNTs, in bulk
measurements (Harris, 2009) (Dresselhaus et al, 2005). The mean and standard
deviation of the ratio Id/Ig were calculated, and the band frequencies identified
(Figure 86). Overall the ratio Id/Ig increased from 0.39 (pristine CNT, curve a) to
0.47 (CNT coated fabric, curves b,c,d), resulting mainly from changes in the D-
Band, which suggests a slightly higher level of graphitic disorder on the sidewalls.
This change is relatively low, indicating that the CNT structure was not significantly
disrupted by the non-covalent functionalisation and coating methodology used.
This outcome is important for maintaining the CNT conductive properties.
The D and G-Band frequencies increased slightly. The standard deviation of the
Id/Ig of coated fabric (0.074) is higher than pristine CNT (0.055), which resulted
from tested regions where the CNTs were more or less embedded by the binder.
Curves b, c, d are examples of these regions. A higher concentration of binder is
visible in curve d, with a higher peak at ~ 3000 cm and a very low but observable
peak at ~1000 cm ¹. These peaks are related to the spectra of the binder (Figure
87).
139
The Radial Breathing Mode (RBM) at ~ 200 cm ¹ was not detected, which is a
characteristic of MWCNT and is an expected outcome. A single G-Band peak was
observed (instead of two normally found in SWCNT), which confirms the use of
MWCNT and illustrates its similarity with 2D graphite material (Dresselhaus et al,
2005). The D-band second-order harmonic (G’-band) at ~ 2698 cm ¹ is also
present in all curves obtained. The quality of the pristine CNT was confirmed by the
relatively low Id/Ig ratio. The high conductivity of this pristine MWCNT is indeed
related to the high purity and uniformity of the material.
MWCNT Coated Fabric

Mean: Id/Ig = 0.47, SD= 0.074
Mean D-Band: 1355 cm ̄ ¹
Mean G-Band: 1583 cm ̄ ¹
Intensity (a.u.)
Pristine MWCNT
Mean: Id/Ig = 0.39, SD= 0.055
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Raman Shift (cm ̄ ¹)

Figure 86 Raman spectroscopy of the pristine CNT and coated nonwoven fabric (5th layer).
Intensity (a.u.)
0 1000 2000 3000

Figure 87 Raman spectroscopy of the polymeric binder.
140
4.1.9 Absorption and reflection behaviours of EM shielding
The reflected radiation (also known as Return Loss, Reflection Loss or S11
parameter in two-port network theory) was measured from the last layer of the
most relevant nonwoven and knitted structures and the Transmission (T),
Reflection (R) and absorption (A) percentages were calculated according to Eq. 16,
16 and 21.
Conductive materials have different absorption and reflection behaviours: metals

are known for having high reflectivity due to the high conductivity; whereas carbon
materials and conductive polymers are associated with higher absorption
behaviour. This characteristic was also evident from the results illustrated in Figure
88, where CNT showed high absorption behaviour (average 42%, max 50%) and
the Ag showed very high reflection behaviour (average 96%). Ni/CF also showed
high absorption behaviour due to the ferromagnetic properties of the nickel and the
presence of carbon fibre. However, the absorption behaviour, even though
characteristic of carbon materials, should be negligible in electrically thin shields,
which is the case of all fabrics tested. Therefore, resistive dissipation due to
thickness is not a likely reason for the high absorption measured. This absorption
may be related to some other phenomenon and this study will attempt to
investigate this behaviour by characterizing and quantifying the morphology of the
coatings obtained by BET Surface Area Analysis.
A reduction in absorption was observed (Figure 88) for the combinations of CNT
with Ag, Ppy and Ni/CF, which is expected when CNT is combined with Ag, due to
its reflective properties. A reduction in absorption is not expected when CNT is
combined with Ppy or Ni/CF. Therefore, the lower absorption behaviour of CNT +
Ni/CF and CNT + Ppy may be related to the fact that the coating morphology is
denser and the resulting surface is flatter. This will allow less internal reflection
compared to the sponge-like morphology of the CNT itself, where more internal
reflections and hence absorptions are likely to happen. In addition, the lower
porosity also changes the dielectric properties of the composite, thus, contributing
to a higher impedance mismatch in relation to the free-space impedance of the
141
wave. It could also be observed that the lower the resistivity the higher the
reflectivity and total shielding, this is expected according to EM shielding Theory.
Figure 89 shows the absorption behaviour in relation to the frequency, as well as

the linear trend lines. It can be concluded that there is no clear correlation of
absorption and frequency and the linear trend lines remain relatively constant. This
relationship with frequency is theoretically expected in electrically thin materials.
The high fluctuation of the results (Figure 89) may be explained by the resonant
behaviour of the internal reflections. Knitted fabric showed even higher fluctuation,
likely to be related to the higher thickness of this fabric. At 1GHz the knitted fabrics
reached 50% of absorbance, which is very high value for a coating of 200um
thickness. Ni/CF NW showed peaks of almost 60% absorbance.
EM Shielding behaviour -Average from 200MHz to1GHz

% Absorption % Reflection % Transmission Se total dB
Reflection dB Absorption dB Resistivity (Ω/sq)
100% 4 4 3 2 1 120
6

11
100
80%
Resistivity (Ω/sq)
38 52 54 57 63 65 80
60% 75
96 60
40%
40
51
20% 42 42 39 34 33 20
23
0% 4 0
Figure 88 EM shielding behaviour of the most relevant coated fabrics.
142
Absorption shielding behaviour in relation to frequency
60
50
Shielding effectiveness (%)
Linear (Ni/CF NW)
Linear (CNT NW)

40 Linear (CNT + Ag NW)
Linear (CNT + Ppy NW)

30
Linear (CNT + Ni/CF NW)
20 Linear (AG NW)
Linear (CNT knit)

10 Linear (CNT + Ag knit)
0
200 400 600 800 1000
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 89 Relationship between absorbance and frequency of the most relevant coated fabrics.
4.1.10 BET surface area characterisation
BET Surface Area Analysis was undertaken in order to investigate the three-
dimensional (3D) surface area of the microporous structures. This test measures
the molar quantity of nitrogen taken up by the sample at constant temperature
(77.35 K) as a function of relative gas pressure. A high surface area was expected
for fabrics with high absorption, whereas a lower surface area was expected for
fabrics with lower absorption, which would be assigned to the level of multiple
internal reflections within the network. As expected, the 3D surface areas of the
CNT coated fabrics and combinations were found to be considerably high, whereas
the Ag and Ni/CF coated fabrics was found to be very low. In addition, the surface
area analysis on the Ni NW and Ag NW coatings failed, probably due to the very
low surface area of these samples (<1 m2/g) that could not be measured accurately
using nitrogen as the adsorptive gas. For such low surface area materials, argon or
krypton are used instead of nitrogen, as these gases have lower saturation
pressure and the volume adsorbed by the sample can be more accurately
determined.
Table 20 reveals the 3D specific surface area (m² /g) measured by the BET
143
technique, whereas the 2D surface area (m² /g) was calculated from the
dimensions of the fabrics. The ratio of 3D/2D surface area was considered in order
to compare both pristine and coated fabrics. The 2D area remained the same
before and after the coatings and between the fabrics, however the fabric mass is
different.
It could be observed that the 3D/2D ratio was highly increased due to the presence
of CNT in relation to the pristine fabrics. The results show that values higher than
1000 m2 were measured for CNT + Ppy NW and CNT + Ag Knit. This means that 1
m² of these fabrics have >1000 m² of three-dimensional surface area, which is
immensely higher than the pristine fabric. This kind of increase in surface area was
not obtained for Ag and Ni/CF coated fabrics. A discussion in terms of correlations
among surface area, EM shielding behaviour and filler content is presented later in
section 6.3.
The specific surface area of pristine CNT powder (~48m² /g) was compared with
the quantity of CNTs used per m² of the knitted fabric (30g/m2) and its measured
3D surface (925). It was found that ~65% of the pristine CNT surface area is
actually exposed, which means the CNTs were indeed only partially embedded
within the coating.
The samples were degassed at room temperature for two hours in order to have
minimal effect on the coating morphology due to the thermoplastic character of the
polymeric binder. The low temperature and time profile of the degassing step can
be considered effective, since the mass loss of the samples were around 2-3%,
which means the impurities were removed successfully. The BET surface area
results obtained can be considered the minimum values, as the surface area tends
to increase with longer degassing time and higher temperature. Figure 90 shows
the BET analysis results, which show linear trend lines are obtained and all
correlation coefficients were found to be higher than 0.99, which means the tests
were reliable (Webb and Orr, 1997).
144
Table 20 BET Specific Surface Area Analysis
Fabric mass Surface Area (m²/g)

Samples
2
(g/m ) 2D 3D Ratio 3D/2D
Pristine Nonwoven (NW) 75 0.013 0.793 61
Pristine Knit (K) 154 0.007 0.888 127
Pristine CNT powder - - 47.535 -
CNT NW 136 0.007 5.653 808
CNT K 204 0.005 4.623 925
Ag NW 179 0.0056 <1 -
CNT + Ni/CF NW 169 0.0059 4.716 799
CNT + Ag K 279 0.0036 4.275 1188
CNT + Ag NW 143 0.007 3.441 492
CNT + Ppy NW 120 0.0083 12.225 1473
Ni/CF NW 194 0.0052 <1 -
BET Surface Area Report - Results
BET Surface Area Slope Y-Intercept 1.6

( m²/g) (g/cm³ ) (g/cm³)
Pristine Nonwoven 0.7927 4.73 0.76
Pristine Knit 0.8884 4.22 0.68

1.2
CNT+AG NW 3.4409 1.24 0.03
1/[Q(Po/P - 1)]
CNT+AG Knit 4.2746 0.99 0.03
CNT Knit 4.6233 0.91 0.04 0.8

CNT+Ni/CF NW 4.7160 0.84 0.03
CNT NW 5.6529 0.74 0.03

0.4
CNT+PpY NW 12.225 0.36 0.001
Pristine CNT 47.535 0.09 0.001
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Relative Pressure (P/Po)
Figure 90 BET Surface Area Results on Pristine and coated fabrics.
The isotherm plot and pore size distribution were analysed only for the pristine bulk
CNT in order to understand its properties (Figure 91). A dual-stage adsorption
isotherm was observed. The first stage was observed up to relative pressure of
0.8; where the curve rises moderately, showing a surface monolayer adsorption
process (Type II). The second stage (Type IV) takes place between relative
presure of 0.85 and 1. Volume of the adsorbed nitrogen sharply increases from 50
145
cm3/g to 300 cm3/g. A hysteresis loop was obtained, which is likely to be related to
capillarity condensation and this behaviour is typical of macroporous materials. A
wide pore size distribution was observed, with peak at ~50 nm, which means the
inner cavity of MWCNTs (< 5nm) was not detected. This may be due to the
possibility that all the impurities and moisture in the inner hollow cavity were not
eliminated, since the CNTs were degassed at room temperature or due to closure
of the tips (ends) of CNTs. Therefore, the hysteresis could be attributed to the
pores at ~ 50nm; this pore size is likely to be related to the aggregated pores
formed by the CNTs as a bulk powder. Similar findings have been reported by
Yang et al ( 2001).
The aggregated mesopores (~50 nm) are likely to be present in the CNT coated
fabrics due to the exposed 3D network formed, which is similar to the pristine CNTs
as powder (see Figures 69 and 70). Therefore, this capillarity effect and hysteresis
are likely to be found on the developed fabrics, thus leading to gas adsorption
properties due to the aggregated pores of the bulk structure rather than the inner
CNT cavity. This is an interesting finding, which requires futher investigation in
relation to the coating morphology obtained.
Pristine CNT Isotherm plot Pristine CNT - BJH Desorption Pore

Distribution
0.9
Quantity Adsorbed (cm³/g STP)
300.0
CNT - Adsorption
Pore Volume (cm³/g)
CNT - Desorption 0.6

200.0
0.3
100.0
0.0 0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 10 100 1,000
Relative Pressure (P/Po) Log- Pore Diameter (Å)
Figure 91 Pristine CNT Pore Size Distribution - Adsorption/Desorption Isotherm.
146
4.1.11 Porosity analysis
A simple yet effective methodology was devised for the analysis of porosity. The
fabrics were placed 1 cm in front of a strong light source (light bulb 11W) and a
picture was taken to reveal their relative porosity. According to Figure 92, it can be
seen that all fabrics have similar level of porosity, apart from CNT+Ag Knit and
CNT + Ni/CF NW, which block the light almost totally. These two combinations
showed also higher total SE and reflection, which can be ascribed to the less free-
space in the structure, lower resistivity and higher impedance mismatch. The Ag
coated nonwoven showed the highest SE and reflection behaviour, however, in this
case the porosity cannot be directly compared to the other carbon-related coatings.
This is due to the presence of silver, which allows higher transmittance of light
even if the fabric is completely covered, because of its intrinsic properties and
colour. The high porosity is believed to reduce the overall EM shielding, while
increasing the absorbance behaviour. This finding is also confirmed by the results
of a study carried out by Thomassin et al when they compared foamed and solid
versions of the same CNT nanocomposite (Thomassin et al, 2012).
Ni/CF Nonwoven 83 g/m2 CNT Nonwoven 36 g/m2

Thickness ~150 μm Thickness ~200 μm
147
CNT Knit 30 g/m2 CNT + Ag Nonwoven 50 g/m2
CNT Knit 30 g/m2 CNT + Ag Nonwoven 50 g/m2

CNT + Ppy Nonwoven 28 g/m2 CNT + Ag Knit 93 g/m2

CNT + Ni/CF Nonwoven 70 g/m2 Ag Nonwoven 97 g/m2

Figure 92 Pictures of coated fabrics, showing the porosity against a background light. Fabrics are 4
cm wide in the images.
148
4.1.12 Theoretical EM shielding prediction
The Shielding Effectiveness (SE) measurements were performed at Far-Field

(Coaxial Transmission line method) by using Plane Wave Shielding Theory and
Single Layer Shield concept. According to this theory, the coated fabrics are
electronically thin, as the coating thickness (100-200μm) is smaller than the skin
depth. For the theoretical calculations, the magnetic permeability of the coated
fabrics was considered = (non-magnetic), the frequency was 1GHz and the
electrical conductivity was devised from the surface resistivity by obtaining the
volume resistivity according to equation 2.
According to the Plane Wave Shielding Theory, when the shield is thin ( the
absorption is neglected and the multiple reflection is considered. Equations 5, 7a,
8a, 9a were used for the theoretical calculation of total EM shielding, and shielding
due to reflection, absorption and multi-reflection. The MathCad software was used
for the calculations. Appendix A illustrates the formulae and constants input for the
software. The theoretical results obtained at 1GHz for nonwoven and knitted
samples, as well as the experimental results are given in Table 21and its
relationship with the conductive filler (g/m2) is illustrated in Figure 93. The
theoretical was found to be close to the experimental; however, the was
much higher, the was considerably lower and was negative, i.e. reduced
shielding effectiveness. The negligible absorbance was theoretically predicted, and
the high reflection was corrected with the multiple reflection term, which is always
negative. The experimental reflection measured is believed to include the multiple
reflection effect (Al-Saleh and Sundararaj, 2009). Therefore, the theoretical results
matched the experimental values only in terms of total shielding and there is a
significant difference in terms of absorption and reflection.
149
Condu Skin Thick Imped Experimental Theoretical

Sample ctivity Depth ness ance
(S.m) (mm) (μm) (Ω)
Ag NW 1429 0.42 ~100 1.7 39.3 11.5 27.8 31.8 35.2 2.1 -5.4
CNT + Ni/CF NW 217 1.08 ~100 4.3 19.3 6.8 12.5 16.3 27.1 0.8 -11.6
CNT + Ni/CF K 145 1.32 ~150 5.2 16.7 - - 16.3 25.4 1 -10
CNT + Ppy + Ag NW 139 1.35 ~100 5.3 12.9 - - 13 25.2 0.6 -12.8
CNT + Ag K 128 1.41 ~200 5.5 16.2 2.8 13.4 17.6 24.9 1.2 -8.5
CNT + Ag NW 127 1.42 ~100 5.6 12.9 3.7 9.2 12.4 24.8 0.6 -13
CNT + Ppy NW 127 1.42 ~100 5.6 14.1 4.4 9.7 12.4 24.8 0.6 -13
Ni/CF NW 120 2.14 ~150 8.4 9.2 1.9 7.3 9.6 21.4 0.6 -12.4
CNT+ Ppy+ Ni/CF NW 80 1.78 ~100 7.0 11.3 - - 9.3 22.9 0.5 -14.1
CNT K 69 1.91 ~200 7.5 12.4 2.6 9.8 13 22.3 0.9 -10.2
CNT + Ppy K 56 2.12 ~150 8.4 11.3 - - 9.6 21.4 0.6 -12.4
CNT + Ni/CF + Ag NW 54 2.16 ~100 8.5 7.3 - - 7.1 21.2 0.4 -14.6
CNT NW 50 2.25 ~200 8.9 11.3 3.2 8.1 10.8 20.9 0.8 -10.9
All NW 40 2.51 ~100 9.9 7.5 - - 5.6 20 0.4 -14.7
Ppy + Ni/CF + Ag NW 14 4.28 ~100 16.9 5.0 - - 2.2 15.7 0.2 -13.7
Ppy + Ni/CF NW 12 4.65 ~100 18.4 5.0 - - 1.9 15.1 0.2 -13.4
Ppy + Ag NW 7 6.18 ~100 24.4 1.6 - - 1.1 13 0.1 -12.1
Ppy K 6 6.75 ~150 26.7 2.0 - - 1.5 12.5 0.2 -11.2
Ppy NW 3 9.12 ~100 36.0 0.8 - - 0.5 9.9 0.1 -9.5
Ni/CF K NA - ~150 - 1.0 - - - - - -
Ni/Cf + Ag NW NA - ~100 - - - - - - - -
Ag K NA - - - 0.5 - - - - - -
Theoretical and Experimental EM shielding results at 1GHz

40
CNT
99.99%
Ag
35
Ni/CF Theoretical
Ppy Experimental
30 CNT + Ni/CF 99.9%
CNT + Ag
CNT + Ppy
25
Ppy + Ni/CF
Ppy + Ag
20 Ni/CF+ Ag 99%
CNT + Ppy + Ag
Shielding
15
10 90%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Quantity of Conductive Filler (g/m²)
Figure 93 Theoretical and Experimental EM shielding results of coated fabrics.
150
A comparison was also undertaken between the theoretical and experimental
results, in the case of CNT coated Knitted fabric, considering the whole frequency
range tested. It was observed that the resonance obtained experimentally for
reflection and absorption was not expected theoretically in terms of percentage.
Both results show constant SE and absorption/reflection decibels, which is in
agreement with the electrically thin characteristic of the samples (Figure 94).
Experimental results of CNT Coated Theoretical prediction of CNT

Knited Fabric Knitted fabric
100
Shielding Effectiveness (dB and %)
100
Shielding Effectivenes (dB and %)

80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
200 400 600 800 1000 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (GHz)
ReflectiondB Absorbance dB Reflection dB Multiple-reflection dB
SE Total dB R% Absorbance dB SE total dB
A% SE % R% MR %
A% SE total %
Figure 94 Comparison of Experimental and theoretical results for CNT coated Knitted fabric along
the frequency range.
There is a controversy in literature related to multiple reflections of CNT EM

shielding composites. The multiple-reflection is reported to be enhanced by
materials with high surface or interface areas (e.g. porous materials or composites
containing fillers with large surface area) (Chung, 2001). In the present study,
these re-reflections may occur in the boundaries air-to-polymer, air-to-CNT and
also polymer-to-CNT. This means that every change in medium generates a
transmitted and reflected wave, due to impedance mismatch. Therefore, an
extremely high number of re-reflections are expected to take place inside this
shield and part of it is reflected back to the radiation source, transmitted or
attenuated inside the shield. Theoretically, the multiple-reflection is a correction
term mainly used in electrically thin shields and it reduces the overall shielding. Al-
Saleh and Sundararaj (2009) have argued the applicability of this concept for CNT
composites, inferring that “…There is an optimum surface area/diameter ratio and
151
spacing between external surfaces at which the advantage of the higher surface
area overcomes the negative influence of the multiple-reflection on the overall EMI
SE”. In addition, several researchers have concluded that multiple reflections
indeed increase shielding by absorption (Pande et al, 2009) (Das et al, 2009).
Thomassin et al (2012) demonstrated that a foamed CNT composite has a much
higher absorption (90%) compared to the solid version of the same CNT composite
(50%). The higher absorbance of the foamed composite in their study can be
ascribed to the much higher surface area of the foam morphology and consequent
multiple reflection effect.
The structure obtained in this study, in the case of CNT coated fabrics, cannot be
compared to a typical electromagnetic absorber. Apart from the obvious
differences in thickness, conventional absorbers are obtained with dielectric or
magnetic materials, applied as specific shapes (e.g. pyramids) or graded dielectric
multi-layers, where the radiation is gradually attenuated by the increasing
conductivity of the layers, thereby avoiding reflections from impedance mismatch.
Therefore, matching the free space impedance of the wave at the boundary of the
shield is paramount for absorbers to allow the radiation to penetrate in the shield
without reflection and then the increasing conductivity of the shield attenuates the
radiation due to resistive loss, turning the energy into heat. A CNT foam absorber
has been reported by Huynen et al (2008), using graded multi-layers of increasing
conductivity, resulting in shielding effectiveness of 15-25dB (at X-Band, 3 cm
thickness), with predominant absorption behaviour. In this case a low dielectric
constant was obtained due to the high porosity of the foam. Hence, the only
similarity between conventional absorbers and the CNT coated fabric in the
present study is the high amount of free-space in the porous morphology, which is
likely to reduce the dielectric constant of the composite, thus being closer to free
space impedance.
In summary, the shielding mechanisms related to CNT nanocomposites are

complex and there is no current EM shielding theory applicable. Plane Wave
Theory has been widely used in literature for prediction of CNT composite films
(Zhang et al, 2007), (Jin et al, 2011), (Li et al, 2008), (Jou et al, 2006), (Al-Saleh
and Sundararaj, 2009), (Das et al, 2009) and (Saini et al, 2009), with limited
152
success. These models assume the shield is flat, homogenous and made of good
conductor. CNT composites are heterogeneous and not good conductors. Previous
studies have found loss tangent ( from 0 to 5 at X and Ku-Band (Liu et al,
2007), (Huang et al, 2007), (Gupta et al, 2001) and (Saini et al, 2009), which
classifies CNT composites as poor conductors (Kaiser, 2006). Furthermore, the
fabrics are not electromagnetically flat as the smallest radius of curvature on the
surface is smaller than the free-space wavelength (30cm at 1GHz) (Kaiser, 2006).
Considering this it is not a classical composite and it is electrically thin ( .A
probable mechanism can be inferred for the EM absorption obtained, which can be
ascribed to the multiple internal scattering of the wave due to the high surface
area, thereby randomly redirecting the incident wave throughout the composite and
increasing its pathway, as illustrated in Figure 95, where this diffuse scattering
mechanism is represented at the macroscopic and microscopic levels. The
attenuation happens by resistive dissipation due to the extremely high number of
CNTs in the pathway of the radiation.
Figure 95 Diagram of the incident, reflected and transmitted radiation at microscopic (left) and
macroscopic (right) representations of the coating boundary. The microscopic network illustrates
the individual CNTs of figure 69; the macroscopic structure illustrates the irregular surface of the
coating of figure 59. The diffraction of the primary wave is shown only.
153
4.1.13 Durability of EM shielding after washing
A washing treatment was undertaken in order to evaluate the durability of the EM

shielding. The CNT + Ni/CF coated on knitted fabric were chosen for the test. The
washing cycle was performed using a home washing machine at room temperature
for 120 minutes, with washing powder, and the fabric was hung dried also at room
temperature. The SE after one washing cycle was reduced by 5-10%, from
average SE of 95% to 87%; resistivity 100 Ω.sq to 170 Ω.sq and weight ~50g/m2 to
40 ~g/m2. This was not a strong reduction in EM shielding; however, depending on
the application, it would need to be optimised with the right amount of binder to
improve the durability, or laminated by a protective layer to reduce damage during
washing. The SEM images below (Figure 96) illustrate the morphology before and
after washing treatment where reduction of mass and higher porosity can be
observed.
Figure 96 SEM images of CNT + Ni/CF coated Knitted fabric before washing treatment (left); and
after washing treatment (right).
154
4.1.14 Results for CNT padding application
Only the CNT formulation was applied by the padding coating technique. A recipe
was developed containing 0.5%wt of CNT, binder and the surfactant. In this
process, a lower amount of CNT was used so as to maintain the water-like
viscosity required for this application. The Ag and the Ni/CF were not used due to
the difficulty in achieving a homogeneous dispersion within the low viscosity of the
solution.
The CNT was applied only in knitted fabric, and up to seven steps of application
were repeated. The final application achieved resistivity of 10KΩ/sq, 4.8 g/m² and
~15%SE (green line, Figure 98), which is very low compared to the knife coating
application. This fabric was tested also in doubled-layer form (yellow line) and SE
was nearly doubled (28%SE), indicating that SE related to thickness. However, the
SE performance of the pad coated fabric was still very poor EM.
The CNT coated fabric was then sewn in a 1cm² mesh, using a conductive thread
(silver plated nylon, Resistance :< 1000K Ω/10 cm), as illustrated in Figure 97. The
resulting fabric (red line) was compared with the mesh without the CNT (purple
line), and an improvement of ± 10% pp SE was observed, mainly in the lower
frequencies. It showed that the CNT has a positive synergy when applied with a
conductive mesh, and therefore could be a useful method for achieving and
tailoring the desired conductivity and EM shielding effect. A mesh of 0.5 cm
square was also sewn in a non-coated knitted fabric for comparison and an
increase of 10-20% of SE was obtained in relation to the 1 cm square mesh,
mainly at lower frequencies. Figure 97 illustrates the appearance of some of the
fabrics obtained.
155
2
Figure 97 Left: CNT coated knitted fabric, by padding technique, with conductive mesh (1 cm ).
2
Right: conductive mesh (1cm ) sewed on knitted fabric.
Applications on Knitted fabric - padding coating

100
80
60
40
20
0
200 600 1000
Frequency MHz
Non coated fabric - with conductive mesh - 0.5 cm²

CNT coated fabric - with conductive mesh - 1cm²
Non coated fabric - with conductive mesh - 1cm²
CNT coated fabric - double fabric
CNT coated fabric - single fabric
Figure 98 EM Shielding results of padding coating and sewn mesh.
The surface morphology of the CNT coated knitted fabric was studied by SEM and
a homogenous coating was observed (Figure 99). The higher magnification SEM
micrographs show that the CNTs were individually adhered to the fibres, partially
embedded by the coating and mostly aligned along the fibre (Figure 100). A
network is also formed in areas of higher CNTs concentration.
156
Figure 99 Macroscopic image of the CNT coated knitted fabric, padding technique.
157
Figure 100 Microscopic images of the CNT coated fibres, padding technique.
The results of EDX analysis show that an increase in carbon intensity and
quantitative percentage was obtained in comparison with the pristine knitted
fabrics. However, this was less significant than the knife-over-roll application, which
is an expected outcome, considering the lower loading of CNT in the padding
application (Figure 101).
C 47% C 61%
O 53% O 39%
Figure 101 EDX results of the non coated Knitted fabric (left) and CNT coated knit using the
padding technique (right).
158
4.1.15 Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to investigate conductive materials as textile

coatings for EM shielding applications. Mainly CNTs were used as conductive
materials, separately and in combination with other conductive materials, and
applied to textile substrates using current textile coating techniques.
According to the results obtained most of the knife coated fabrics produced with
CNT and its combinations with other additives achieved EM shielding ≥ 95%. The
nonwoven fabric coated with Ag achieved the highest value of 99.99%, however a
high loading of the additive was required (97 g/m² of Ag). The coating with the
lowest loading (28 g/m²) that resulted in the highest SE (97%) was CNT+ Ppy. The
pad coating technique did not achieve satisfactory SE results due to the lower
loading capability of CNTs. However, the results show that synergy with different
mesh structures can be advantageous for some shielding applications.
The factorial experiments showed that CNT was the most effective conductive
material for achieving high EM shielding results and exhibited good synergy with
Ag, Ni/CF and Ppy for enhancing the shielding effect. CNT improved the
percolation of metals (Ag and Ni/CF) and also improved their stability. The coatings
obtained using Ag and Ni/CF alone were very unstable and only achieved
percolation with a high loading of the product. In contrast, CNT and Ppy achieved
percolation threshold with very low loading of the materials and the conductivity of
the coating gradually increased with an increase in amount of the conductive
material.
The characterisations undertaken were relevant to understand the microscopic and

macroscopic structures, which have not been obtained or explored previously for
EM shielding purposes. In the specific case of the CNT coated fabrics by knife
application, the EM shielding obtained was very high (14dB/ 96%), particularly
taking into consideration the lower radiation spectrum tested (200- 1000 MHz), and
the very thin, lightweight, and porous coatings obtained (~ 200 μm). The EM
159
shielding and unusually high absorption behaviour (max. 50%) can be attributed to
the extremely high specific surface area of the coatings (~925m² per two-
dimensional m² area of substrate) and their heterogeneous morphology (CNT +
binder + air), which enhanced the multiple interface reflections. Similarly, high
absorption behaviour has only been reported for CNT composites or foam CNT
composites at X-band and Ku-Band, ~2 mm thickness, as presented in Table 6.
The theoretical calculations and predictions were relevant to understand the

characteristics of EM shielding fabrics and compare with EM shielding Theory. It
could be observed that fabrics behave differently from the Plane Wave EM Theory
with regards to absorption and reflection mechanisms; however, the total shielding
was found to be very similar to the predicted values.
Regarding the methodology, the knife coating technique was successful in

obtaining a thin layer (100-200 um), hence generating a breathable and light-
weight coating on one side of the fabric only. The multi-layer approach was
important to understand the percolation behaviour of the products and the
relationship between resistivity and loading. The knife coating recipes developed
containing 3 or 5 %wt of the conductive material were appropriate to achieve a
good dispersion and viscosity needed for the knife coating technique. The use of
binder was found to influence the conductivity of the coating, as observed for the
Ag application, which only achieved percolation in the absence of the binder.
The EM shielding fabrics developed in this study are very promising for producing
high absorption shields at lower thicknesses (< 2mm), while being lightweight,
flexible and porous. These coated fabrics can meet the growing demand for EM
shielding flexible materials where absorption is the primary mechanism. However,
the washing durability of the coated fabrics prepared in this study must be
improved if it is a basic requirement in the desired application.
160
4.2 Fibre melt-extrusion approach using conductive fillers
An attempt was made to develop EMS fabrics by using highly conductive filaments
produced by melt-spinning process. The conducting filaments obtained were not
suitable for producing EM shielding structures. Therefore, the results presented in
this chapter are intended to be useful indicators for further research work on the
topic, highlighting the difficulties faced by this approach and proposing alternative
ways to overcome the problems encountered.
4.2.1 Materials
The materials used in this study include: carbon nanotube (CNT) powder; CNT
masterbatch, nickel coated carbon fibre filler and polypyrrole (ppy) as conductive
materials. The polymeric matrix used for the nanocomposite was polypropylene
(PP). The materials used in this part of the study were the same as those used in
section 4.1, except the CNT masterbatch (Graphistrength® C M14-25), which was
obtained from Arkema. This materbatch contains 25 wt% of CNT in a
polypropylene matrix. Figure 102 shows the images of CNT masterbatch and
polypropylene chips used.
Figure 102 Image of the materials: CNT Master-batch chip (left) and Polypropylene chip (right).
4.2.2 Methodology
A laboratory twin screw co-rotative extruder was used for blending of the
conductive fillers and the thermoplastic polymer and production of the chips from
161
the blends. Pilot melt-spinning machine was employed for the extrusion of the
conductive filaments from the nanocomposite chips. The experiments carried out
and performance results are summarised in the Table 22 below:
Table 22 Melt-Spinning experiment results
Quantity Blending process Spinning process

Test Blends
used [%wt] Performance Performance
CNT powder 1%
Possible to blend, although not Possible to spin, but
NiCF filler 5%
1 homogenously dispersed very brittle
Polyprolylene Matrix 94%
CNT Masterbatch (25%) 50% Possible to spin, but

Possible to blend
2 Polyprolylene Matrix 50% very brittle
CNT Masterbatch (25%) 75% Not possible to blend, too

NA
3 Polyprolylene Matrix 25% fragile
CNT Masterbatch (25%) 48.5%

Not possible to blend, too
Polypyrrole 3% NA
4 fragile
Polyprolylene Matrix 48.5%
Possible to spin, but
5 CNT Masterbatch (25%) 100% NA
very brittle and viscous
4.2.2.1 Blending extrusion step
A co-rotating twin screw extruder (Prism Eurolab) was used to blend the
conductive fillers and masterbatch with the polypropylene matrix. The parameters
used - temperature, pressure, torque and rpm - in the extrusion process are
illustrated in the diagram below (Figure 103).
Figure 103 Parameters of the twin screw blending extruder.
162
The following images illustrate and describe in detail the equipment used for the
melt blending experiments. The material is extruded as a strand of around 3 mm of
diameter. The strand passes through a cooling water bath and it is then cut into
chips (figure 105).
Extruded strand
(before chopping)
Cooling water bath
Figure 104 Images of the twin screw blending extruder.
163
Figure 105 Image of the produced chip containing 50% CNT MasterBatch and 50% Polypropylene
(Test 2).
A number of tests were carried out using the twin melt blender (Table 22). In a
preliminary test (Test 1), the conductive fillers were coated on the polypropylene
chips (with the use of acetone) so as to improve dispersion and increase the
amount of filler in the blend. However, this procedure was not successful as the
fillers remained deposited at the bottom of the equipment as shown in Figure 106.
Therefore, it was not possible to increase the quantity of filler used, and the actual
amount of filler blended was not possible to quantify. Hence, it was decided to use
the commercial CNT mastebatch (Graphistrength® C M14-25) for the following
experiments instead of the CNT powder.
Figure 106 Images of the CNT coated polypropylene chips (left), and the CNT residue at the end of
the process.
It was not possible to produce chip blends from Test 3 and 4 as the extruded
strand was very fragile, thus romping continuously.
164
4.2.2.2 Melt-spinning process
A multi-filament die (spinneret) was used in the pilot melt-spinning machine

(Figure 107) for the preparation of conductive filaments. The temperatures used
for the process were: barrel 1 and 2 (190°C); and barrel 3, adaptor and die
(200°C).
Filaments
Figure 107 Pilot Melt-spinning equipment.
Test number 5 was carried out with 100% of the CNT masterbatch. It was possible
to produce the conductive filaments however the process was extremely difficult
due to the very high viscosity of the masterbatch. The filaments obtained were
very brittle, and the winding was also compromised and as a result no drawing
ratio was applied to the filaments.
4.2.3 Results and Discussion
The results obtained from the chracterisation of the filaments prepared are
summarised in Table 23. Tests 3 and 4 were not useful in producing filaments, and
test 1 produced filaments with no conductivity at all; therefore just the filaments
produced by test 2 and 5 will be considered for further characterisation. In general,
the tensile strength of the filaments in test 1, 2, and 5 was very poor. The filaments
165
were obtained with ~0.4 mm of diameter and it could be observed that the range of
resistivity measured was very high, especially in test 2. The resistivity was also
unstable, irregular and varied according to the pressure applied by the electrodes
used.
Table 23 Melt-spinning filaments obtained
Quantity Tensile Strength Resistivity

Test Blends
used [%wt] (Filament) [ohm/cm]
CNT powder 1%
Not
NiCF filler 5% Poor
1 measurable
Polyprolylene Matrix 94%
CNT Masterbatch (CNT MB) 50%

2 Very Poor 5000 to 10000
Polyprolylene Matrix (PP) 50%
5 CNT Masterbatch 100% Extremely Poor 400
Further investigation was carried out to understand the relationship between

diameter of the filament and resistivity (Figure 108). It may be concluded that the
higher the diameter the higher of resistivity of the filament, which is an indication
that at higher diameters the filament morphology was even more irregular. The
diameter 0.4 mm showed the best regularity and the lower diameter (0.2) revealed
slightly higher resistivity and irregularity. In this case it is likely to be related to the
irregular microscopic CNT dispersion, whereas at higher diameters the irregularity
is possibly related to the macroscopic dispersion.
Diameter: 0.2mm Diameter: 0.4mm Diameter: 1.1 mm Diameter: 1.7 mm

Resistivity Resistivity Resistivity Resistivity
15-30 Kohm/cm 5-10 Kohm/cm 15 - 50 Kohm/cm 15 –100 Kohm/cm
Figure 108 Filament diameters obtained and the resistivity. CNT MB 50%/ 50% PP Filament.
166
The filaments obtained in Test 2 and 5 were further characterised using SEM,
EDX, and Raman spectroscopy. The main findings are are discussed in the
following sections.
4.2.3.1 Scanning electron microscope and optical microscope
The images illustrated in Figures 109 and 113 show the macroscopic cross section
of the filaments, while the images presented in Figures 110, 111, 112, 114, 115
reveal the microscopic structures of the filaments. It can be observed that the
macroscopic CNT dispersion of the filament obtained in Test 5 is more regular and
homogenous than the filament from Test 2, which shows a bi-phasic structure with
separate polymer and CNT clusters. This difference is also observed in the
microscopic dispersion, where the CNT clusters are more visible in the filament
obtained from Test 2 than those obtained fromTest 5. The CNT clusters in Test 2
appear to generate a porous and amorphous morphology as they prevent the
cohesiveness of the polymer, whereas in Test 5, the CNTs are imbedded in the
polymer matrix, hence a denser structure is formed. CNT has been reported to
decrease the crystallinity content and polymer chain orientation of the melt-spun
filament due to nucleating effect (Mazinani et al, 2010), which may have given rise
to the irregular morphology observed in the filaments obtained in Test 2.
This irregular morphology is a likely reason for the poor tensile strength and
cohesiveness of the structure and much lower conductivity of Test 2 filaments. It
could also be observed that the surface of the filament is flatter and dense (Figure
116), in contrast with the porous and irregular morphology of the interior of the
filament. This is an indication of higher concentration of polymer on the surface,
whereas the CNTs are mainly deposited inside the filament structure. This could
well be the reason for the reduced conductivity of the surface of the filament.
167
Figure 109 Macroscopic image of the filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNTMB/PP),
showing the irregular morphology.
Figure 110 Filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNTMB/PP), showing the CNT
agglomerates within the polymer, and a bi-phasic structure.
168
Figure 111 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNTMB/PP),
showing the CNT agglomerates and a porous morphology inside the filament.
Figure 112 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of the Test 2 (50/50 CNT MB/PP),
showing the individual CNT clusters, preventing a cohesive polymeric structure.
169
Figure 113 Macroscopic image of the filament cross section of Test 5 (100% CNT MB),
showing a very regular morphology.
Figure 114 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of Test 5 (100% CNT MB),
showing a more homogenous morphology.
170
Figure 115 Microscopic image of the filament cross section of Test 5 (100% CNT MB),
showing the regular dispersion of individual CNTs.
Figure 116 Images of the surface of the filaments produced by Test 5 (left); and Test 2 (right). A
flatter and more regular morphology is observed, showing higher concentration of polymer.
Fractured cross section of the chips were also analysed using the SEM (Figures
117 and 118) )in order to investigate the characteristics of the CNT before melt-
spinning. It could be observed that the CNTs were better dispersed and
connected, showing a more homogenous structure. The concentration of CNTs is
visually higher in the 100% masterbatch, as expected, which has 25wt% of CNT,
171
whereas the blend 50/50 CNTMB/PP has 12.5wt% CNT. According to the
information provided by supplier, the CNTs are short (~ 3 microns length)
structures. A comparison of the SEM analysis of the masterbatch chips and
filaments extruded show that the CNT dispersion in the filament is less
homogeneous than in the chips, particularly in the case of test 2.
Figure 117 fractured cross section of 100% CNT MB chip, showing the homogenous CNT network.
Figure 118 Fractured cross section of the 50/50 CNT MB/PP chips produced, showing embedded
CNTs and homogenous morphology.
172
The filaments obtained from Test 2 and Test 5 were also analysed under the
optical microscope and an interesting difference was observed between these
filaments. Test 2 showed some irregularity in the centre of the filament, which
could possibly be due to the preferential distribution of CNT inside the filament
(Figure 119). A similar phenomenon was observed with the masterbatch chips
prepared (Figure 105), where the formation of a hollow structure was seen. This
feature is likely to be originated from differences in rheology, polymeric structures
and the formation of gases during the extrusion process. However, further
characterisation would be needed to explain this phenomenon fully. On the other
hand, the filaments produced entirely from the commercial masterbatch did not
show this type of irregularity (Figure 120).
Figure 119 Optical images of the filament in test 2 (CNT MB + PP), showing the preferential
distribution of the CNTs. Filaments have diameter of 0.4mm.
Figure 120 Optical images of the filament in test 5 (100% CNT MB), showing the homogenous
distribution of the CNTs inside the structure.
4.2.3.2 Energy Dispersive X-ray
The EDX analysis was undertaken in order to identify the intensity of CNT at
different positions of the filament and the chips produced, so as to analyse
filament homogeneity. According to the results presented in Table 24, it is possible
to conclude that the dispersion/homogeneity of the filaments obtained from Test 2
is inferior to the filaments obtained from Test 5. This is represented by the higher
173
standard deviation for the Test 2 samples in Table 24. This observation is in
agreement with the SEM images discussed previously.
It was also possible to observe that the carbon intensity (cts) is lower in the
filament when compared to the chips of the same material, this may be related to
the fact that the CNTs are concentrated more inside of the filament rather than on
the surface, as observed in the microscopy images. This characteristic may not be
so intense in the chip structure, due to the higher size. The results also show more
regularity in the filament (lower standard deviation), in the case of test 2; however,
this can be ascribed to the surface only, as the SEM images revealed a more
irregular morphology inside the filament when comparing to the chip in Test 2.
Table 24 Melt-spinning Filament EDX Characterisation
EDX Carbon Peak EDX Carbon Peak

Quantity
Test Blends CHIP FILAMENT
[%wt]
Mean Standard Mean Standard
(cts) Deviation (cts) Deviation
- PP Matrix 100% 459 3 - -
CNT MB 50%
2 3209 362 2465 155
PP Matrix 50%
5 CNT MB 100% 3942 73 2981 88
4.2.3.3 Raman spectroscopy
The Raman spectroscopy was performed on random regions of the filament in

order to assess regularity of the blend, and understand the characteristics of the
CNTs used. Test 2 (red line in figure 121) reveals the inhomogeneous character of
the filament, showing different peak levels at ~ 3000cm-1, which is related to the
quantity of polymer present in the filament. The blue line represents the filament
produced from 100% CNT masterbatch (test 5). The results show that the CNT
present in the masterbatch is a multi-walled CNT, owing to the absence of the
radial breathing mode. It could also be observed that the level of graphitic disorder
in the sidewalls of the CNTs is very high, which is represented by the high ratio of
the D-Band and G- Band (>1). The graphitic disorder is related to defects in the
structure, which reduces the conductive capabilities of CNTs; therefore, the CNT
174
used in the masterbatch is likely to be a semi-conducting type.
Filament 50% CNT MB - 50% PP

Mean: Id/Ig = 1.16, SD= 0.03
Intensity (a.u.)
Filament 100% CNT MB

Mean: Id/Ig = 1.08, SD= 0.07
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Figure 121 Raman spectroscopy of the filaments obtained.
4.2.4 Conclusion
An attempt was made to produce conductive filaments using carbon nanotubes

that could be used for EM shielding. The results obtained were unsatisfactory,
even though the conductivity was relatively high; the tensile strength was
extremely poor. This can be attributed to the high loading of CNTs used (>10wt%),
thereby resulting in a fragile morphological structure. The high loading required
can be assigned to the short length of this type of CNT (~ 3 micron), hence
requiring more quantity to achieve high conductivity and to form a conductive
network. The Raman characterisation also revealed that the level of deficiency on
the sidewalls of the CNTs was very high, which suggests the conductive properties
of the pristine CNTs may have been compromised, thus, not generating a highly
conductive composite. In addition, the melt-spinning process and the blend
extrusion step are also believed to reduce the conductive properties of CNTs by
damaging the CNT structure due to the intensive mechanical stresses generated
during these processes.
175
Moreover, the processability was also unsatisfactory due to the very high viscosity
of the blend, thereby requiring high pressure and lower velocity to be able to
extrude filaments. The winding was also compromised owing to the brittle
character of the filaments. In general, the conditions employed in these processes
would not be acceptable for the industrial scale production of the filaments.
The characterisation undertaken revealed poor dispersion and inhomogeneous

morphology with the formation of CNTs clusters and a bi-phasic structure in Test 2
(blend of CNT masterbatch and PP), whereas test 5 (only CNT masterbatch)
showed more regularity in the filament structure. It has been reported that
achieveing a balance between electrical conductivity and mechanical properties is
a real challenge due to the influence of high CNT loading on the morphology and
the effect of draw ratio on the filaments (mazinani et al, 2010), (Cayla et al, 2012),
(Hooshmand et al 2011).
In order to produce commercially viable conductive filaments using CNT

nanocomposites, it is suggested to use longer CNTs with higher aspect ratio in
order to reduce the amount of filler needed. Furthermore, CNTs with lower degree
of deficiency would be required to obtain higher conductive capabilities. The CNT
dispersion would also need to be optimised in order to improve tensile strength,
connectivity and cohesiveness. However; the melt-spinning approach has not
demonstrated to be a potential method to produce conductive filaments for EM
shielding applications. Alternative approaches such as wet-spinning (solution
spinning) and coagulation techniques should be investigated in order to obtain
higher concentration of CNTs, hence high EM shielding efficiency.
176
5 Experiments- Phase 3: Smart Bra case-study
This section is related to a case-study on the Smart Bra application, therefore an

overview of Bra design and the other important issues related to Bra are
discussed. A brief background to the development of Smart Bra is given and the
requirements in relation to textiles structures/materials and consumer points of
view are presented. A consumer survey was undertaken and the results are also
discussed. Therefore, this section provides valuable information to be considered
for the design of the Smart Bra, such as style, colour, type, as well as the choice of
the type of EM shielding fabric to be used. Consequently, two EM shielding Bra
designs are proposed.
5.1 Bra design background
Design and pattern making for bras is one the most specialized and difficult areas
of garment technology due to the complexity involving the shape, the
measurements, the size and purpose of the bras. In addition, obtaining a perfect fit
is a challenge as the breast size and shape vary widely among women and it is
also asymmetric. There is no standard methodology to produce a bra, which is
normally based on trial and error and market research. Bras serve a variety of
purposes, such as enhancing shape and cleavage, enlarging, minimizing,
restraining movement, facilitating nursing and for prosthesis purposes. However,
the main fuctions of the bras are to cover, support and protect the breast. Different
aspects such as the parts of a bra, the main types, the fabrics used, the stretching
properties and the moulding process will be discussed in the following sections. It
is important to understand the functions, parts and characteristics of a bra in order
to develop an EM shielding bra design. (Yu et al, 2006)
177
5.1.1 Parts of the bra
The parts of a bra can be divided into: cups, band and frame, straps, bridge,
sliders, rings and clip fasteners, bra pad and pad enhancers, underwire and
channel. The Figure 122 below illustrates and explains the various parts.
Parts of the BRA

 Bra band and frame: The part  Bridge: piece of fabric that
 Bra Cups: the part of the of the Bra that goes around the separates the breasts one
Bra that holds the breast wearer ribcage and into which from another, it lies flat on the
the cups are sewn. It is usually chest wall
made of a different fabric than
the cup
 Bra straps: strips of elastic or
fabric that go over the shoulders  Sliders, rings, clip fasteners:
it is used to fasten and adjust
the Bra
 Underwire: it is used to
support the bra cups. It can
be made of wire or plastic
 Channel: it is the tube into

which the underwire is  Bra Pad and Pad enhancers:
threaded to support; give stability; boost
and push up the breast ( made
from foam, silicone, oil, air etc)
46
Figure 122 Illustration and explanation of Bra parts
5.1.2 Types of bra
There are several types of bras such as full or half cup bra, seamless bra, padded
or unpadded Bra, underwired bra, sports bra, soft bras, etc. Figure 123 illustrates
the main types and explains their functionality (Johnson, 2005).
178
 Triangle Bra: the only support  Frame Bra: it contains the
Types of Bra in this bra style comes from frame, which gives support to
how snugly the wearer can tie the cup, it can be wired or not.
Full cup  Half cup Triangle the strings
Triangle
 Bra: the only support  Frame Bra:Bra:
Bra: the only support  Frame it containsthe the
TypesofofBra
Types Bra
whole breast half breast in this in this
bra bra
stylestyle
comes comesfromfrom frame,
frame, which
it contains
which
gives gives support
support to to
coverage coverage howhow snuglysnugly
the the
wearerwearercan can
tie tie the cup,
the cup, it canit can be wired
be wired or not. or not.
 Full cupcup  HalfHalf
Full cupcup the the strings
strings  Frameless Bra: it has no
whole
whole breast halfhalf
breast breastbreast  Sports Bra/top: bigger and frame under the cups, only the
coverage
coverage coverage
coverage designed to provide extra band and the bridge. This Bra
support  Frameless must
Frameless Bra: have
Bra:
it hasunder
it has
no no wires
 Sports Sports Bra/top:
Bra/top: bigger
bigger andand frame
frame under under the cups,
the cups, onlyonlythe the
 Padded cup: to stabilize and designed designed to provide
to provide extraextra bandband
and and the bridge.
the bridge. ThisThisBra Bra
strengthen the cup, it is a heat- support
support mustmust
havehaveunder under
wires wires
set mouldable foam.
Padded cup: to stabilize Mastectomy Bra: contain  Push up bra: it is intended to
 Padded cup: to stabilize andand 
push up the breast and it has
strengthen the cup,
strengthen the cup, it is a heat- it is a heat- inner pockets to hold an
set set mouldable
mouldable foam. foam. artificial breast or prosthesis  Pushpad up bra:
 Seamless cup: the cup is a Mastectomy Mastectomy Bra:Bra: contain
contain  Push up bra: it is it is intended
intended to to
moulded fabric, there is no inner inner
pocketspockets to hold
to hold an an pushpush up breast
up the the breast and andit has it has
seams. artificial
artificial breast
breast or prosthesis
or prosthesis pad pad
 Seamless
Seamless cup: cup:the thecupcup is ais a
moulded
moulded fabric,
fabric, there there
is no is no  Strapless Bra: no straps, the
seams.
seams.  Nursing Bra/Drop cup: it cup is supported by the band
contains two cup layers toallow and underwire
 Seamed cup: it contains 2 or Strapless Bra:Bra:
Strapless no straps,
no straps, the the
the feeding of a baby without cup cup is supported
is supported by the by band
the band
3 sewn parts, it is used for Nursing
 Nursing removingBra/Drop
Bra/Drop cup: cup:
the layersit
whole to it
Bra. Just
fabricscup:without stretch 2(i.e. contains
contains thetwo two
cupcup
outer layers
cup to allow
layer allow and and
is removed
underwire
underwire
 Seamed
Seamed cup: it it contains
contains 2 or or the feeding
the feeding of a of a
baby baby without
without
diagonal,
3 sewn parts, horizontal, vertical) and the inner layer maintain the  Convertible Bra: can be used
3 sewn parts, it isitused
is used for for removing
removing the the
whole whole Bra.
Bra.hole Just
Juston
fabrics
fabrics without
without stretchstretch(i.e.(i.e. the the
outer support,
outer
cupcup with
layer is a
layer is removed
removed the with or without straps
diagonal,
diagonal, horizontal,
horizontal, vertical)
vertical) andandthenipple.
the
innerinner
layer layer maintain
maintain the the  Convertible
Convertible Bra:Bra: can canbe usedbe used
support,
support, withwith
a holea hole on the
on the
nipple.
nipple. withwith or without
or without strapsstraps
 Adhesive Bra: the cup is
attached to the skin through
 adhesives,
Adhesive
Adhesive Bra: thethere
Bra: the
cupcup is no
is is frame
andtostraps.
attached
attached to the
the skinskin through
through 47
adhesives,
adhesives, therethereis no is frame
no frame
andand
straps.
straps. 47 47
Figure 123 Illustration and explanation of types of Bras
5.1.3 Characteristics of the bra’s fabric
The bra fabric can be knitted or woven structures. The knitted fabrics are more
commonly use for the production of bras because of their higher stretch compared
to the woven fabric. Furthermore, the knitted fabric provides better comfort,
support and coverage. Bras made of woven fabrics need to compensate the lack
of stretch in order to obtain better comfort. The weft knitted fabrics normally used
are either single-knit (jersey) or double-knit (interlock) structures. On the other
hand the warp knitted fabrics are satin, tricot (includes all types of warp kitting
produced on tricot warp kitting machine) and Raschel (a two-needle warp knitting
system).
Combinations of fabrics used in the manufacture of bras. For eaxample the band
fabrics normally have 30 to 70 % stretch in one or both directions and the cup
fabrics tend to have 25 to 40 % stretch, typically in one direction. Bras can also be
made of multilayered fabrics so as to match different properties and stretch
179
requirements. The density of wales and courses is usually high, with low yarn
fineness to obtain a lightweight and closed structure. The typical fibres used are:
cotton, it provides good breathability and comfort; nylon (polyamide), it is very
comfortable and the most common fibre used; and polyester, which are more
common for the cups as it can cause sweating if used in the band because of its
low breathability (Johnson, 2005).
It is important to note that the fabric characteristics above mentioned are required
for a conventional bra type (e.g. soft bra), and normally change according to the
bra type. Bras that are padded, cup moulded and underwired tend not to be much
related to fabric stretch in the cups, considering that the bra cup is firm, stable and
used to encapsulate the breast
5.1.4 How fabric stretch affects bra properties
The percentage of stretch, fabric orientation and direction of pull are very
important parameters to consider in a bra construction, as the breast moves in the
direction of the pull. Fabrics can have stretch in one-way (lengthwise or crosswise)
or in both of these directions. A perfect combination of stretch percentage and pull
direction is necessary to produce any specific kind of bra, such as for push-up bra,
minimiser bra, sports sra etc. The lower cup is the most critical as it holds the
weight of the breast. The directions of pull are summarised in Figure 124 below.
Figure 124 Illustration and explanation of fabric pull and its effect on Bras
180
5.1.5 Sports bra design
There are basically two concepts for a sports bra. The first one is based on
compression of the breast and the second based on encapsulation of the breast.
They are designed to restrict breast movement during exercise thereby reducing
discomfort and pain. The compression approach flattens the breast against the
chest wall, whereas the encapsulation type separate and support the breasts
individually using moulded bra cups and underwire. In a sports bra, the control of
elasticity is very important and the vertical elasticity is kept to a minimum in order
to limit vertical breast movement. Wider straps are also normally used in order to
distribute the force on the shoulders. (Yu et al, 2006). The encapsulation concept
is the most suitable for the Smart Bra application.
5.2 Bra fitting
Bra fitting is a very important issue to be considered for the Smart Bra application.
Fit is defined as the ability to be the right shape and size, according to Oxford
Dictionary. The use of wrong bra causes discomfort, posture or skin problems,
back pain. The bra will also not support, protect or be effective. In the case of the
Smart Bra, a poor bra fit could greatly affect the accuracy of the breast
temperature measurements.
According to general fitting guidance, the underband should be comfortable and

horizontal, not too tight or riding up at the back. The underwire should lie flat
against the rib cage. The breast should be enclosed in the cups smoothly. The
shoulder straps should not dig in or slide off easily, straps should support only
20% of the weight, whereas 80% should be supported by the underband. The bra
should not move easily during the daily activities. The images below (Figure 125)
illustrate some examples of commonly poor bra fit (infopoll.com)
181
Rides up in the Too tight Too loose Bust spilling out of Bust spilling out of Bust spilling out of
back the bottom of the the top of the cups the sides of the
cups cups
Cups puckering or too Does not lay flat at the Does not lay flat at the top
loose bottom
Figure 125 Examples of poor Bra fit
5.3 Bra statistics
According to a Rigby & Peller survey of 2011, it has been reported that 80% of
women in the UK are wearing the wrong sized bra; 34% have not bought a new
bra in the past 12 months, more than two-thirds (71%) have been up to five
different sizes in adulthood and 43% have never been professionally measured for
their underwear (Belfasttelegraph.co.uk). This is a cause of concern, considering
that It is advisable to replace the bra every 6 months, especially the bras that are
used frequently as the support can degrade and the elasticity is gradually lost. In
addition, there might be fluctuations of weigth that can lead to increase or
reduction of breast size, therefore, requiring a change of bra size as well.
A bra survey undertaken by Beckmann in 2009 (dr-beckmann.co.uk) concluded

that women wear bras on average 7 times before washing them, which is
equivalent to washing every 2 months. The most popular colour of bra is white
(55%), followed by coloured (27%) and then black (18%). The average number of
bras owned by UK women is 15.6. The UK has a total bra value (15 bras per
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women x £15 per bra) of £39Billion. Every year women in the UK buy an average
of 4 bras and spend an average of £2,700 on bras in a lifetime (aged 20-65).
An extensive report on bra and pants has been published by Mintel in 2005. The
main useful findings of this study are that the underwired bra (with pad) accounts
for more than 2/3 of the total bras used; the drivers for bra sales are fashion trends
(i.e. visible bras, glamour, exotic, functional Bras), fast moving trends (i.e.
disposable fashion) and ever-lower price trends. It has also been reported that
women tend to spend up to £50 on bras (45.2% less than £20; and 40.8%
between £20 and £50); however, there is a trend to spend less. Despite being
published in 2005, these finding are still valid for the present day. The current
publications of Mintel on lingeries in UK may provide more up-to-date information.
5.4 Smart Bra background
The Smart Bra is a bra that detects earlier signals of abnormality in the breast,
preceding the physical appearance of the cancer, which is then commonly
detected by ultrasound, mammography and palpation. It has been developed by
Professor Elias Siores at the Institute of Materials Research and Innovation,
University of Bolton, England. The Smart Bra works by detecting abnormally higher
temperatures in the breast tissue, which are associated to higher metabolic activity
and vascular circulation generated by pre-cancerous tissue. This information is
detected and processed by microwave radiometry technique, which is a non-
invasive system that encompasses a microwave antenna able to detect very small
EM signals naturally emitted by the breast tissue at microwave frequencies (3 to 5
GHz). The antenna has high sensitivity to be able to detect very small signals
therefore it is susceptible to external EM interference. The EM fibrous structures in
this study are aimed to protect the Smart Bra from radiation that could interfere in
the microwave radiometry system.
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5.5 Interference phenomenon
Electromagnetic interference is the degradation in the performance of a device

caused by an electromagnetic disturbance. The mechanisms of EM interference
can be classified as radiation; conduction or a mixture of both. Therefore, in the
Smart Bra case, not only the microwave antenna needs to be protected from
radiated disturbance (mainly 3-5 GHz), but also the whole microwave circuitry
embedded in the bra must be protected so that no broadband interference is
picked up by conduction on the electric system. The interference can also be
divided into narrowband noise, when the interference spectrum is narrower than
the receiver bandwidth; or broadband, when the interference bandwidth is larger
than that of the receiver (Kodali, 1996). The interference in the Smart Bra can
originate from different sources as the Smart Bra is expected to be worn
everywhere, so the tolerable limit in which the intensity of the EM radiation does
not cause interference in the bra needs to be investigated, as well as the
disturbance characteristics generated from different sources and frequencies.
Therefore, in this study, the frequency range considered was 200 MHz to 6GHz,
and in some cases only 200MHz to 1GHz due to the experimental constraints (e.g.
sample size limitation). This frequency range includes sources such as television
broadcasting, FM radio, cellular, radar, satellites, microwave radio, digital sound
broadcasting, global positioning system, distance measuring equipment, and
terminal collision avoidance system (Houlden and Chatterton, 1996). The EM
interference will be blocked by an EM shielding fabric and the level of shielding
required depends on the interference characteristics.
In general, ~20 dB is a common value considered for commercial applications;

however, it highly depends of the requirements of the application, as unnecessarily
higher level of shielding is not desirable in terms of cost, weight, and so on. A
textile standard has been developed in Taiwan for accreditation and certification of
EM shielding fabrics within the functional and technical textiles industry
(ftts.org.tw). This standard classifies the shielding capability according to a scale
from 1 to 5, and considers also washing durability. In this standard, the grade 3
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‘good’ is assigned to values between 10 and 20dB (90-99%, Class 2- general
use). This standard is enclosed in this thesis (Appendix D).
5.6 Smart Bra textile requirements
According to the technology used in the Smart Bra and the normal bra
characteristics, it is possible to conclude that the most suitable bra cup for the
Smart Bra is the full cup, padded/moulded and underwired. This type of bra covers
the whole breast, which is important for the Smart Bra so that it is able to detect
signal throughout the breast tissue. The padded/moulded bra cup
encapsulates/distributes the breast symmetrically as a semi-circle, separating them
and providing a stable, firm, rigid and reliable structure for the antenna system, as
the antenna will not bend or move easily. The underwire helps to support and lift-
up the breast improving symmetry and distribution. A bra that provides very good
support is required for the effective functionality of the Smart Bra, as it avoids
excessive breast movement. The moulded cup is also a seamless cup, which is an
advantage to avoid radiation leakage. Comfort and fit are also required. The Bra
needs to fit the breast perfectly and be lightweight, soft, breathable, and
comfortable. Figure 126 illustrates unpadded (soft bra) and padded/moulded and
underwired bra, showing the better distribution of the breast in relation to the chest
wall.
Figure 126 Visual comparison between soft unpadded Bra and underwired padded Bra
Regarding quality/durability requirements, there is no standard quality

methodologies for bras, however, it is normally related to the physical changes
after washing cycles, durability of the sewing and bra accessories. Pilling and
abrasion tests can also be performed and specific tests are also carried out
185
depending on the application, for instance the level of breast movement can be
measured for sports bra applications. In the case of the Smart Bra, a relevant test
to consider would be durability of the shielding property after washing.
Stretching is not a requirement for the bra itself as the fabric will not elongate, it will
be rather fixed in a stable foam cup in a multi-layer structure. However, a certain
level of flexibility is required for the cup moulding process, as the fabric is moulded
under pressure and high temperature into a cup shape, thus, a high level of stress
is applied to the fabric. Abrasion was also not evaluated as the fabric is likely to be
an intermediate layer, hence, attached/fixed by outer and inner layers and
consequently not in contact with skin or outer garments, where the friction forces
are mainly operative.
5.7 Smart Bra consumer survey
5.7.1 Survey introduction
This research survey had the objective to collect empirical evidence to be used for
the conceptualisation of a design for the Smart Bra and for the use of the EM
shielding fabrics investigated and produced. The collected information includes
colour, style, look, type of bra, factors affecting the purchase decision, frequency
of use, source of purchase, etc. The following factors were investigated in terms of
a “Normal bra” and “Smart Bra”: aesthetic/ appearance; comfort/ fit; brand/ store;
price; quality/ durability and functionality.
This research survey was focused on the age of the respondents, as age is
strongly related to Breast Cancer incidence. According to the NHS Breast Cancer
Screening Programme, the incidence of breast cancer is “extremely rare in women
in their teens or early twenties and uncommon in women under 35”. Furthermore,
8 out of 10 breast cancers are found in women aged 50 and over
(cancerscreening.nhs.uk). Therefore, this survey was focused in women over 20
years of age, including higher ages. A Sample size of 100 women was considered.
186
The survey was initially designed to be representative of the Population Statistics
of Greater Manchester 2010 (ons.gov.uk, 2012); however, due to the difficulty in
interviewing higher ages (>60), it was not possible; even though, a good age range
distribution was obtained. The demographic results are presented in Appendix C.
A Self-administered paper questionnaire was used. The questionnaire included 14

questions; 3 questions using a scale from 1 to 5 (according to Likert scale method)
and 11 multiple choice/close-ended questions. The questionnaire was designed
with the objective to be as simple and inclusive as possible, so that it could be
easily answered by the broad age range required. With the intent to simplify the
questionnaire, the use of multi-item scale was not considered, that is, the variables
were asked only once. Therefore, in order to check reliability and validity of the
scale, a test-retest method was used during the Pilot Test, where 10 respondents
answered the questionnaire twice. The results were statistically analysed by T-
Test method and no statistical difference was obtained (see appendix C for further
details). Therefore, the questionnaire can be considered reliable, valid and
reproducible. Other methods for calculating the reliability were not applicable due
to the nature of the questionnaire. A copy of the questionnaire used can be found
in Appendix C.
The sample was a ‘convenience sample’, that is, respondents that met the criteria
and were willing and available to respond the survey were included. The response
rate was high, as most of the approached respondents were interested and willing
to take part. The survey was undertaken at Manchester Piccadilly Train Station,
and respondents were approached in the waiting and sitting areas.
5.7.2 Results
The overall results are summarised in Figure 127. As for the scale questions, the
response on the decision to buy the Smart Bra was very positive (4.2 on a scale
from 1 to 5). The results show that the factors affecting the purchase decision
between buying a ‘Normal Bra’ and a ‘Smart Bra’ are different. In some cases
aesthetic/appearance, comfort/fit and price revealed a statistically significant
187
difference between a Normal Bra and a Smart Bra, according to independent-
samples T-test results comparing each factor (results are provided in appendix C).
Comfort/fit, aesthetic/appearance and price factors are expected to be less
important than a Normal Bra; the brand/store factor is equally the least important
on both cases; the quality/durability and functionality factors are statistically
similar. Therefore, the order of importance for the Smart Bra is: 1- Functionality
(4.5); 2- Comfort (4.3); 3-Quality (3.6); 4-Aesthetic (3.3); 5- Price (2.9); and 6-
Brand (2.3), and the ‘very important’ factors (scale > 4) are Functionality and
Comfort/Fit.
Regarding the multi-choice questions, 63% expect to pay between £20 and £40;
61% expect a durable Smart Bra, whereas 34% would rather buy a Convertible
bra. The expected ‘look’ is divided between basic (59%) and sexy (33%); 70%
would buy from a fashion store; 39% would prefer black colour and 37% white;
63% expect to wear everywhere. The frequency of use was divided into ‘almost
everyday’ (46%) and ‘once/month’ (49%). Full cup, padded, underwired bra is by
far the preferred style (74%); and 80% would expect a professional bra fitting.
Response on the decision to buy the Smart Bra
Would you buy

4.2
the Smart Bra?
1 2 3 4 5
Definitely NO Neither YES YES Definitely
NO nor NO YES
Importance of Factors when buying a Normal or Smart Bra

Smart Bra Normal Bra
4.5
Functionality 4.3
4.3
Comfort/ Fit 4.6
3.6
Quality/Durability 3.7
3.3
Aesthetic/Appearance 3.9
2.9
Price 3.3
2.3
Brand/ Store 2.5
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Slightly Moderately Very Extremely
important Important Important Important Important
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How much would you expect Which type of Smart Bra
How would you like the
to pay for the Smart Bra? would you be more likely
to buy? Smart Bra to look like?
11% 5% 7%
26%
34%
33%
59%
63% 61%
Less than £20 Convertible Smart Bra Basic Sexy

Between £20 and £40 Durable Smart Bra
Sporty Novelty
More than £40 Disposable Smart Bra
Where would you expect to Which colour of Smart Bra Where would you expect to
buy the Smart Bra? would you be more likely to wear the Smart Bra?
choose from?
8% 2%
14%
16% 39% 35%
16%
63%
70%
37%
Black
From a Fashion Store Everywhere
White/ Ivory/ Cream
From a Drug Store Natural/ Skin tone Not everywhere
From NHS (e.g. GP, Hospital) Other On a medical consultation
How often would you expect Which style of Smart Bra would Would you expect to
to wear the Smart Bra? you be more likely to buy? have a professional Bra
Fitting?
5%
15%
20%
46%
11%
49%
74% 80%
Almost everyday
Full cup, padded, underwired
Very often: e.g. once/month
Sport/ Top style YES NO
Not very often: e.g. once very 6 months or
Soft cup, unpadded, full cup, unwired
less
Figure 127 Smart Bra Customer survey results
5.8 EMS Bra design discussion
According to consumer survey results, to current bra statistics and the textile
requirements for the Smart Bra, two EM shielding Bras can be proposed: a
‘convertible bra’ and a ‘durable bra’. The characteristics of each, such as
materials, price, colour, design and so forth will be discussed in details in the
following headings.
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5.8.1 Durable EM shielding bra
A durable bra is the preferred choice according to the consumer survey. This bra
would require certain durability, quality and specially comfort; whereas the price
and aesthetic would be less important. Therefore, it needs to be lightweight, soft,
not bulky, and the electronic components would need to be properly imbedded in
the bra, so that the bra can the used as a normal bra almost every day and
anywhere. The price is likely to be higher than £40, which is expected from 26% of
the survey respondents. The durable bra would have a full cup, padded/moulded
and underwired style, likely to be black or white in colour, and possibly with a basic
or sexy look (according to the survey).
The EM shielding fabrics suggested for the durable bra would be the silver platted
nonwoven or knitted fabric. These are the only fabrics that will withstood hot
washing cycles and are suitable in terms of moulding, as woven fabrics did not
mould adequately. The knitted fabric, even though not successfully moulded, could
be sewn instead due to its high elongation. In contrast, the washing durability of the
developed coated fabrics, despite being relatively high, would not be enough and
further optimisation/adaptation would be required, such as a laminated film to
protect the coating or optimisation of the use of the binder to improve
adhesiveness of the filler to the fabric. The developed fabric can also be explored
for the Smart Bra in term of absorption properties; however, the positive or
negative effects of absorption would need to be further investigated. The moulding
properties of the developed coated fabrics were not fully investigated due to the
experimental constraints (sample size limit), however temperature is not expected
to be a problem (observed from TGA results), and the structure, mainly knitted is
expected to provide the necessary flexibility for the process. On the other hand the
knitted fabric can be sewn as a cup shape as well. The developed coated fabrics
could provide ~20dB (99% SE), in the case of combinations of CNT and metals,
and if applied in multi-layer system (section 6.10). However, washing durability
would need to be assured by a protective layer.
190
A bra fitting advice/service would be important for this type of bra, attending the
high requirement of comfort/fit, so that a proper size and shape is assured for the
customer, as 80% of the survey respondents would expect this service to be
available. The durable bra would have to satisfy stricter standards in terms of being
a garment, such as limited use of materials believed to be harmful to the wearer
(e.g. nickel and copper). Ni and Cu have restricted use limits in the textile industry,
according to Oeko-tex Standard 100, which considers 50mg/kg the limit for Cu and
4 mg/kg the limit for Ni, for product class 3 that relates to no skin contact (Oeko-
tex.com). Furthermore, Ni is also restricted by law (EC-Directive 2004/96/EC),
limiting its use if the rate of nickel release in contact with the skin is greater than
0.5 µg/cm²/week. On the other hand, Ag is already widely used in the textile field in
terms of antimicrobial and anti-odour properties and some fabrics have already
been certified by Oeko-tex 100 standard. In addition, there have been no reports
on the restriction of CNT for wearable textiles, and no conclusive health risks have
been associated with CNT so far, apart from the possible lung inflammation due to
CNT inhalation, according to the ‘Risk Management of Carbon Nanotubes’ from
Health and Safety Executive (hse.gov.uk).
5.8.2 Convertible EM shielding bra
A Convertible EM shielding Bra is also proposed in order to fulfil the needs of a

cost-effective version (likely to be < £40), with less quality/durability requirements.
The convertible Bra would include a detachable ‘Antenna Pad’ and ‘Electronic
System’ so that the Bra can also be used as a normal bra. The advantage is that
only one Antenna Pad would be needed and then used in turns on the left and right
breast during the measurements (e.g. once/month). The Antenna Pad and
Electronic System would be protected by the EM shielding fabric, and both would
not be washable. The shielding fabric could be the cheaper options from the
market, for instance the nonwoven fabrics made of carbon fibre or metal, and the
developed coated fabrics could also be used as single/double or multi-layer
systems as long as they suffice the shielding requirements (assumed to be ~20dB).
The developed fabrics could also provide the advantage of being coated in one
191
face only, hence reducing the need of one extra shielding layer.
The Convertible Bra can be sold separately from the Electronic System and
Antenna Pad, so that the electronic attachments are bought by the consumer just
once, and the Convertible Bra however can be replaced as often necessary
according to the changes of breast size during adulthood. This is an advantage in
reducing the price of the Smart Bra and making it more versatile and adaptable to
breast changes. On the other hand, the ‘Durable Bra’ has to be replaced entirely,
making the cost higher for the consumer. Another advantage is that the Antenna
Pad and Electronic System would not be classified as garments, hence not
submitted to strict health regulations and restrictions; it could be rather classified as
accessories.
The Convertible Bra and included accessories (Antenna Pad and Electronic
System) would satisfy the requirement of Comfort/Fit, considered important from
the customer survey, as the Bra would not be heavy, bulky, and would be easily
replaceable if discomfort or fit is an issue. The Bra style would be full cup,
padded/underwired, possibly black in colour, and different Bra looks could be
available (basic or sexy according to survey).
This approach could also be more feasible to implement in the market in the short-
term due to less complexity, and also likely to be accepted by the consumer as
34% would choose a Convertible Bra over a Durable Bra, according to the survey.
192
5.9 Conclusion
This section was a case-study, it has investigated the Bra design background,
Smart Bra textile requirements and a consumer survey has been undertaken to
gather empirical information about consumer expectations in relation to the Smart
Bra. Based on this investigation, two EM shielding Bras were deliberated; the
Convertible Bra and the Durable Bra, and the EM shielding fabrics were
discussed.
The main findings and conclusions from this section are the need of a full cup,
padded//moulded and underwired style to adequately support the breast and
provide a rigid and stable structure for the microwave antenna of the Smart Bra.
This style also represents most of the commercialised Bras on the market, and is a
preferred choice from consumers. The first choices of colour are black and white,
and the look is expected to be ‘basic’ or ‘sexy’. The Smart Bra is expected to be
worn almost every day or once/month, and bought from a fashion store, and Bra
fitting is expected from most of the consumers. Regarding price, most consumers
expect it to be higher than £20, and two thirds expect it to be between £20 and
£40.
From the survey, it was also possible to conclude that the factors affecting the
purchase decision of a Smart Bra are different from a Normal Bra, mainly in terms
of Aesthetics, Comfort and Price, which are expected to be less important. The
most important factors (scale > 4) for the Smart bra are Functionality and
Comfort/Fit.
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6 Final results & discussion
In this section the most important relationships regarding EM shielding will be

explored and results from chapters 3, 4 and 5 will be compared and contrasted.
The significance and validity of the results obtained will be evaluated by comparing
with literature and identifying correlations and predictions. In addition, this section
will also discuss the use of the developed coated fabric in multi-layer systems.
6.1 Correlations among resistivity, SE, reflection and

absorbance
The relationship between surface resistivity and EM shielding behaviour is well

established theoretically, hence, this section aims to elucidate the similarities and
differences between the theory and the experimental results in order to obtain a
correlation. A holistic approach is considered in this analysis, where a wide range
of samples are put together disregarding their individual differences. The rationale
is to understand the behaviour of fabrics as a whole. The averages of the results
obtained in the range of 200 MHz to 1 GHz are considered. The results > 30 Ω/sq
are mostly coated fabrics (electrically thin) developed in this study and the results
< 30 Ω/sq are mostly commercial fabrics (electrically thick).
Figure 128 illustrates the absorption, reflection and total shielding results in terms
of decibels and percentage. The best regression curves are shown as well as their
fitted equation and coefficient of determination, which is the square of Person
correlation (r2). It can be observed that the ‘Total SE’ results correlate very well
with the fitted curve (r2=0.95) and the equation matches perfectly the logarithmic
slope of the theoretical curve (Figure 129, left), however the constant is ~8dB
higher (50.5 instead of 42.5), which may be attributed to the positive influence of
the multiple reflection.
Regarding the absorption and reflection (decibels), an intriguing finding is that the
194
absorption should theoretically be exponential (figure 129, right), however,
experimentally it is logarithmic (r 2=0.93); and reflection should be logarithmic and
the best fit was exponential (even though moderate r 2=0.43). It may be explained
by the fact that even though the fabrics are electrically thin at higher resistivity
values, the absorption is still present, whereas theoretically it should be absent,
hence changing the absorption curve. Whereas the reflection does not change
significantly in relation to resistivity, which may be ascribed to the fact that fabrics
do not have a perfectly flat surface, so this ‘primary’ reflection is not very relevant
as the radiation scatters and penetrates in the shield, generating multiple
reflections.
In terms of percentages, there is no clear correlation with resistivity; it is extremely

dependant on fabric individual properties. However, reflection tends to increase
slightly when resistivity decreases and absorption tends to increase when
resistivity is higher, as theoretically expected. And in general reflection % in higher
than absorption %, apart from high resistivity values, where they tend to be equal.
In summary, surface resistivity can be considered a predictor of the ‘total SE’ and
shielding by absorption, since the correlation was found to be very high. However,
individual fabric differences also play an important role in the results and
absorption has a more significant relationship with resistivity than reflection.
195
Experimental relationship between Surface Resistivity and EM shielding -
Average from 200MHz to 1GHz
100
SE Total dB
y = -8.7ln(x) + 50.5
Shielding Effectiveness (dB and %)
80 R² = 0.9446
Absorption dB
y = -8.8ln(x) + 44.9
60 R² = 0.9347
Reflection dB
40 y = 5.7e-0.007x
R² = 0.4323
20
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Log- Surface Resistivity (Ω/sq)
SE total Reflection Absorption R%
A% Log (SE Total) Exp (R dB) Log (A dB)
Figure 128 Experimental relationship between EM shielding and Surface Resistivity of the overall
samples tested (average from 200 MHz to 1 GHz). The lines represent logarithmic trend lines of
the results.
Correlation between Experimental Theoretical relationship between

and Theoretical equations - Total Reflectance/Absorbance and
100 SE versus Surface Resistivity 200 Surface Resistivity at 1GHz 10
80 180 y = -4.343ln(x) + 174 8

Reflectance (dB)
Absorbance (dB)
Experimental = -8.75ln(x) + 50.5
Total SE (dB)
R² = 1
R² = 1
60 160 6
Theoretical = -8.69ln(x) + 42.5
40 140 y = 65.657x-0.5 4
R² = 1
20 120 2
0 100 0
0.01 1 100 10000 0.01 1 100 10000
Log- Surface Resistivity (Ω/sq) Log- Surface Resistivity (Ω/sq)
Experiment Theoretical Reflection Absorption
Figure 129 Relationship between EM shielding as function of Surface Resistivity in thin shields. Left
graph shows theoretical versus experimental Total SE; Right graph illustrates the theoretical
absorbance and reflection considering thickness 0.2 mm and 1 GHz.
Equation 24 was used for the theoretical calculations (Figure 129 left), which is the
approximated equation for total loss of thin shields as a function of resistivity
(Kaiser, 2006). Equations 7b2 and 8b2 were used for Figure 129 (right).
SE= 42.5 – 20 log R (24)
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6.2 Correlations among resistivity, filler load and SE
This analysis was undertaken only with the developed coated fabrics from chapter
4, as the commercial fabrics are produced by different techniques. According to the
results from the individual applications of CNT, Ag, Ppy and Ni/CF, it can be seen
in Figure 130 (right) that only CNT and Ppy had their resistivity changed gradually
in relation to the quantity of filler. The Ag coated nonwoven achieved percolation
threshold only with very high loading and the resistivity achieved by Ni/CF coated
nonwoven was very unstable, even though changing slightly after the percolation
was reached.
The CNT coated nonwoven sample was further investigated and the regression
curves obtained (Figure 130 left) show that a very high correlation (r2= 0.92) exists
between CNT loading and a logarithmic curve, which means SE can be predicted
by the quantity of CNT using the equation shown in Figure 130 (left). On the other
hand, the correlation obtained for surface resistivity and a fitted power curve was
not as high (r2=0.67).
Relationship between Load filler Relationship between Filler load and

Resistivity and Shielding of CNT Resistivity
1.0E+06 100
Log- Surface Resistivity [( sq)
1.0E+05
Log- Surface Resistivity (Ω/sq)
1.0E+05
80 1.0E+04
SE = 42ln(x) - 53
1.0E+04
R² = 0.9213
SE (%)
60 1.0E+03
1.0E+03
40 1.0E+02
1.0E+02
R= 4E+06x-3.084 20 1.0E+01
1.0E+01
R² = 0.6725
1.0E+00 0 1.0E+00
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
MWCNT (g/m2) Filler Load (g/m²)
Surface Resistivity CNT coated NW PPY coated NW
Shielding Effectiveness Ni/CF coated NW Ag coated NW
Pot (R)
Log (SE) CNT coated knit PPY coated knit
Figure 130 Left: correlation between load, resistivity and SE of CNT coated nonwoven. Right:
Relationship between load and resistivity. The results are the average from 200MHz to 1GHz.
197
6.3 Correlations among surface area, filler, SE and
absorbance
BET surface area analysis was undertaken in order to clarify the relationship
between surface area and multiple-reflection on the developed coated fabrics.
Enhanced surface area would be the cause of the unusual absorption behaviour
experimentally measured, due to the electrically thin character of the samples. The
characterisation was performed only on the highest EM shielding fabrics produced.
The filler density shown in the graph is the surface density of filler (g/m 2) divided
by the coating thickness and the surface area is the total three-dimensional area
per m2 of the fabric. The Ni/CF coated nonwoven was not included in the analysis
as it has ferromagnetic properties; hence the absorption measured is likely to be
related to this property rather than multiple-reflections.
From the correlations illustrated in Figure 131 and detailed in Table 25, it can be
observed that the higher the surface area the higher the absorption, as a good
correlation was obtained (0.6); the higher the filler density the lower the surface
area, as a good correlation was obtained (-0.7); the higher the absorption the
lower the total shielding, as an excellent correlation was obtained (-0.9); a
moderate correlation was derived between Surface Area and Total SE.
Relationship between Surface Area and EM shielding

2500 100
Filler density (g/10dm3) Absorption( %)
2000 80
Surface Area (m²)
1500 60
Total SE (%)
1000 40
500 20
0 0
AG NW CNT + NI/CF CNT + AG K CNT + Ppy NW CNT + AG NW CNT K CNT NW
NW
Surface Area 3D m²/2D m² Absorption % Total SE % Filler Density g/10dm³
Figure 131 Relationship between Surface Area, EM shielding and filler.
198
Table 25 Person Correlations of Surface Area, EM shielding and filler
Person
Surface Area Filler Density Absorption Total SE
Correlation
Surface Area 1 -0.7 0.6 -0.3
Filler Density -0.7 1 -0.9 0.9
Absorption 0.6 -0.9 1 -0.9
Total SE -0.3 0.9 -0.9 1
Therefore, it can be concluded that surface area can predict and characterise the
absorption behaviour of the coated fabrics. Furthermore, the extremely high
surface area owing to CNTs is indeed responsible for the generally high
absorption obtained, which is assigned to multiple-reflection mechanism. It can
also be observed from Figure 131 that the combination of CNT + Ppy achieved the
highest surface area (1473 m2), which may explain the very high EM shielding
obtained considering that only 28g/m2 of the conductive filler was used.
Further empirical information is needed to fully understand this effect and possibly
derive a regression curve. It is also important to notice that ‘CNT K’ and ‘CNT NW’
fabrics were measured in a different equipment, hence the results could have
been slightly affected.
6.4 Correlations between theoretical and experimental SE
The Plane Wave Single Shield Theory was used to verify the experimental results.
The equations and constants considered for the calculations in MathCad software
are found in the appendix A and further details are given in section 2.1.1 and 2.1.2.
Figure 93 and Table 21 show the comparative theoretical and experimental results
obtained for the coated fabrics developed in this study (chapter 4). It can be
concluded that this theory successfully predicts the ‘Total SE’ values, since the
experimental results show excellent correlation (r= 0.98) with the theoretically
predicted results. Furthermore, it is also possible to observe that the experimental
results are marginally higher, on average ~ 1.5 dB, this is a very good correlation
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considering a ~10dB difference reported in some studies of composite films (Zhang
et al, 2007), (Al saleh et al, 2009), (Das et al, 2009). On the other hand, the
reflection and absorption behaviours differ significantly from the theory. Reflection
was found to be much lower and absorption was found to be much higher. The
absorption behaviour contradicts the theory, as it is supposed to be negligible due
to the electrically thin character of these fabrics.
A good correlation was also obtained for the commercial fabrics tested (chapter 3),
(r=0.94) with the ‘Total SE’. However, the difference was on average ~ 7.7dB,
which varied significantly from fabric to fabric and the experimental results were
mostly lower than the theoretical - possibly because of the diverse range of fabrics
tested. The absorption and reflection behaviour of the developed coated fabrics
was found to be different. Figure 29 and Table 9 illustrate the results. The high
resonant characteristics of the absorption and reflection results for both fabrics
may also have contributed to this disparity in relation to the theoretical results, as
the comparison was undertaken at 1 GHz only.
6.5 Relationship between thickness and SE
Theoretically, thickness is only related to the absorption behaviour through

equation 8a. It is not related to reflection and it is only relevant when the thickness
of the shield is higher than the skin depth (electrically thick), otherwise absorption
is negligible and hence thickness is not important in electrically thin shields (Kaiser,
2006). However, it was shown experimentally (Figure 24, Table 8) that when
testing a few commercial fabrics in double layers (including the electrically thin
fabrics), the Total SE increased significantly (~ 10dB), whereas if considering the
theoretical predictions it would have increased only ~ 3dB. Nothing at all was
theoretically expected from fabrics with thickness lower than the skin depth.
Therefore, this significant increase was not related to absorption behaviour only,
but also is influenced by the internal multiple- reflections.
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The relationship between thickness and SE was not studied for the knife coated
fabrics developed in this study. However, a double-layer experiment was
investigated in the case of CNT coated fabrics prepared by the padding technique
and an increase of ~10% SE was observed. Therefore, high increase in SE is also
expected for the CNT coated fabrics if the fabrics are measured in double layers.
6.6 Comparison among knife coating, padding coating, melt-

spinning and other approaches
When comparing the two coating techniques used, the knife coating allows more
product conductive material to be coated and it is concentrated on the surface of
one side of the fabric only. The high viscosity required for the application makes it
possible to use more and heavier conductive fillers. Whereas in the padding
technique, a water-like viscosity needs to be maintained, therefore it limits the
amount and type of the product to be used and the product is applied
homogenously throughout the fabric. This technique is therefore advantageous for
products that achieve percolation with low amount (such as CNT) and not suitable
for products that require high load to achieve percolation and connectivity (such as
metals). Therefore, the knife-over-roll technique proved to be a better approach to
develop EM shielding fabrics. The padding technique may be a promising
approach to develop conductive fabrics for smart textiles applications where very
high conductivity is not required.
Regarding the melt-spinning methodology (chapter 5), an attempt was made to

produce filaments with the use of CNT, however, the result was unsatisfactory, as
the tensile strength of the filament was extremely low, even though it provided
relatively good conductivity. Therefore, it was not possible to produce an EM
shielding fabric using this filament. This method also proved to be a more complex
and time-consuming approach. Section 4.2.4 provides further information about the
problems faced and suggests alternatives to overcome them and produce highly
conductive yarns made of CNTs.
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When comparing to mesh structures, the coating approach has more advantages.
The mesh fabric, such as woven or knitted fabrics having conductive yarns in
different mesh sizes and configurations normally offer anisotropic and lower
shielding behaviour. A longer and more complex supply chain is needed to
produce mesh structures, which are are also not easily related to EM shielding
Mesh Theory, as reported by several studies (Perumalraj et al, 2010) (Chen et al,
2007). This is mainly due to the fact that the yarns at the crossing points are not
perfectly connected. Furthermore, even though a great deal of the research work
published relates to the study of mesh structures, mostly plated coated fabrics are
commercially available, which means the mesh approach is not the most suitable
commercially due to its peculiarities. In addition, it was observed that mesh fabrics
with low yarn diameter do not withstand the bra cup moulding temperature due to
the sensitivity and low mass of the yarn. This observation was made when the
silver platted knitted mesh was moulded (section 3.4.4).
6.7 SE Comparison between commercial fabrics and

developed fabrics
The decision to study novel EM shielding fabrics was based on exploring

approaches and materials that had never been considered before. Therefore,
comparing and contrasting the commercial and fabrics developed in the current
study is important to understand their properties and shielding behaviours. Metal
plated commercial fabrics have extraordinarily high shielding capabilities, hence
the developed fabrics are not aimed to substitute these fabrics, but rather explore
new possibilities and applications.
The commercial fabrics and developed fabrics differ significantly. The commercial
fabrics tested are mainly produced by plating techniques and the use of metals,
additionally, some are produced with carbon fibres and conductive polymers
(polypyrrole). They include knitted, nonwoven and woven fabrics. Whereas the
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developed fabrics were obtained by varying the surface coating composition onto
two different types of fabrics (knit and nonwoven) and the main conducting
materials used were polypyrrole, silver, nickel coated carbon fibre filler and carbon
nanotubes.
Regarding the EM shielding, the commercial and developed fabrics also behave
differently. The commercial fabrics are mostly electrically thick (t> due to their
better resistivity results, whereas developed fabrics are electrically thin (t< owing
to the inferior resistivity results. Therefore, the results for commercial fabrics can
be related to frequency and thickness, whereas the developed fabrics’ results
cannot be related in this manor. The SE results are summarised below:
Average results from commercial fabrics, from 200MHz to 1GHz
 Metal Platted Woven: SE~ 84dB; R~ 4dB/ 75%; A~ 80dB/ 25%

 Metal Platted Nonwoven: SE~54dB; R~ 4dB/ 75%; A~ 50dB/ 25%
 Metal Platted knit: SE~40dB; R~ 3dB/ 65%; A~ 36dB/ 35%
 Nonwoven carbon fibre: SE~27dB; R~ 3dB/ 68%; A~ 24dB/ 32%
 Polypyrrole fabrics: SE~17dB; R~ 2dB/ 50%; A~ 15dB/ 44%
Main results from developed fabrics, average from 200MHz to 1GHz:
 SE results ranged from 10dB to 40dB; from 90% to 99.99%

 Highest application was achieved with Ag coated nonwoven: SE 40dB (93 g/m2)
 Relatively high results were achieved with CNT and Ag or Ni/CF, SE~
17dB/98%
 Highest result/ low filler content was achieved by CNT + PPy, SE~ 14 dB/96%
(28 g/m2).
 The highest absorption results were obtained with CNT (avg. 42%, max. 50%)
and Ni/CF (avg. 51%, max. 60%). These absorptions are unusual considering
the electrically thin character of the coatings.
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The loading of the conductive material used on the commercial fabrics (wt% of
metals) is ~40 wt%, whereas in the CNT coated developed fabrics it is much lower
than this value. For example in the case of CNT coated knitted fabric the loading of
the conductive material was <14wt%. The developed fabrics could be useful as
single or double layer for applications where there is no need for extremely high
EM shielding, especially when absorption behaviour is required in thin, low-cost
and lightweight applications. In addition, the developed fabrics may also find
potential applications when used as multi-layer system, thereby achieving much
higher EM shielding and maintaining the high absorption behaviour, as discussed
in section 6.10.
6.8 Comparison among metals, conductive polymers and

CNT
From the results obtained for the commercial fabrics tested it can be concluded
that metals provide higher shielding, followed by carbon fibre and polypyrrole. It
was also found from the coating experiments that metals reach higher shielding;
however, when it comes to percolation threshold it was observed that the quantity
required for achieving connectivity and percolation was very high due to the
irregular surface and porosity of the fabric. Moreover, the conductivity obtained
was unstable due to the sensitivity of the conductive path. Hence, metals are not
suitable for knife-over-roll methodology; instead, plating techniques should be
adopted for metals, where extraordinarily high shielding can be obtained.
In the coating experiments it has been shown that polypyrrole and CNT achieve
percolation with very low amount of the material and it gradually increases
according to the loading. It is an advantage as the conductivity can be controlled
and tailor-made according to the requirements, thereby optimizing the use of
conductive filler. Metals did not show this property and required considerably
higher loading to reach percolation.
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The factorial experiments performed for investigating the synergy among CNT, Ag,
PPy and NI/CF have shown that CNT is by far the most influential synergistic
material and therefore the most suitable filler for knife-over-roll application. CNT
also shows very good stability and enhanced the stability of the metal coatings by
providing a more consistent network and pathway within the metal filler. Therefore
the synergy between CNT and metals was positive in enhancing the percolation
and achieving higher conductivity. Moreover, the synergy between CNT and Ppy
was found to be very good, as a relatively high shielding was obtained (~97%) with
very low filler loading (28 g/m2). This may be attributed to the nanoscale properties
of both materials, producing a more complete network, and to the 3D surface area,
which was found to be the highest amongst the fabrics produced (1473 m2 total 3D
area per 1m2 of fabric).
6.9 Discussion and EM prediction for multi-layer applications
In this section a potential application for the developed fabrics will be discussed
and a theoretical modelling will be deliberated to illustrate the promising use of
these fabrics in multi-layer systems. It has been reported in the literature (Kaiser,
2006) that a multi-layer system comprising two layers of conductive material
separated by air generates higher shielding than joining two layers of the same
conductive material without space between them because of the resonant effect
generated in the space between the layers. Figure 131 illustrates the multi-layer
system studied, where: is the intrinsic impedance of the CNT fabric layers, is
the intrinsic impedance of free-space, in the intrinsic impedance of the space
between the layers - assumed to be equal to free-space (377 Ω) considering non-
conductive foam or fabric is used as middle layer (dielectric constant equal to free-
space) - and t is the respective thicknesses. The equations used for the
calculations are provided in section 2.1.3 and the MathCad equations and
constants are given in Appendix B (where .
205
Figure 132 Multi-layer diagram suggested for CNT coated EM shielding fabric
Two fabrics were chosen for this analysis; CNT coated knit and CNT +Ni/CF
coated nonwoven. Figure 132 shows the relationship between the space (s) and
EM shielding at 4 GHz (wavelength= 7.5). It can be seen that the SE reaches
38dB in the case of CNT + Ni/CF fabric and 31dB in the CNT knit. The theoretical
results show resonant behaviour and the peak is obtained when the distance (s)
corresponds to odd multiples of quarter wavelength, hence the optimum minimum
distance for 4 GHz is 1.9 cm. The distance (s) can be adapted according to the
required EM shielding needed for the application. In general, commercial
applications require ~20dB (99%), however, it is very dependent on the
application. According to the graph (CNT knit) a distance of 5 mm would provide
20 dB.
The high EM shielding obtained as multi-layer is significantly higher than a double

layer without the space in between, for instance the CNT knit at 4 GHz as double
layer would be 18dB, as a single layer it is 13dB and as a multi-layer it is 31dB,
which means the multi-layer structure is 13dB higher than the double layer without
spacing. Figure 133 shows the relationship between single and double layers.
Figure 134 shows the theoretical relationship between shielding and frequency,
considering a multi-layer system with a space of 5 mm between layers (CNT knit).
It can be observed that single/double ‘total SE’ does not change significantly
according to frequency, on the other hand, high values of ‘total SE can be
achieved in a multi-layer system.
206
It is important to note that this theoretical multi-layer modelling was only
undertaken due to the very good correlation between experimental and theoretical
results in terms of total shielding, therefore, they are likely to predict the practical
results with reasonable accuracy. However, for full validity of this analysis
empirical information would certainly be required. It is also important to remember
that the absorption of ‘CNT knit’ is very high (max. 50%), which means the multi-
layer structure can be a promising shielding system for applications where
absorption is required and can certainly replace thicker and heavier materials
currently used.
EM shielding versus spacing between EM shielding versus spacing between
(CNT +Ni/CF) NW fabric layers at 4 GHz CNT Knitted fabric layers at 4 GHz
50 50

40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
-10 -10
-20 -20
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
Space (m) Space (m)
Reflection Absorption
Reflection Absorption
MR- (CNT + Ni/CF) NW Layer 1 MR- Middle Layer MR- CNT Knit Layer 1 MR- Middle Layer
MR- (CNT+ Ni/CF) NW Layer 2 SE Total MR- CNT Knit Layer 2 SE Total
Figure 133 Theoretical predictions of EM shielding behaviour versus free space between coated
fabrics at 4GHz. A Multi-layer model was used for the prediction.
EM shielding theoretical prediction of Single and Double layers

of CNT Knitted fabric
40
Shielding Effectivenes (dB)
30
20
10
-10
-20
0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (GHz)
Reflection dB Multiple-reflection dB Single layer
Absorbance dB SE total dB Double layer
Figure 134 Theoretical prediction of single and double layers of CNT coated knitted Fabric, from
0.1 to 100 GHz
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Theoretical EM shielding of a Multi-Layer of CNT Knitted
fabric with 5 mm space in between
55

45
35
25
15
-5
-15
0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (GHz)
MR- CNT Knit Layer 1 MR- Middle Layer
MR- CNT Knit Layer 2 Reflection
Absorbance SE total
Figure 135 Theoretical prediction of a Multi-layer system with 5 mm spacing between layers, from
0.1 to 100 GHz
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7 Conclusions
In this section, the overall conclusions drawn from the present study are
summarised and further work is also proposed. The conclusions are presented
considering the scientific, industrial and the application/consumer perspectives.
7.1 Overall conclusion
Novel EM shielding fabrics have been developed and reported in this study.
Carbon nanotube based coated EM shielding fabrics have been produced and
fully characterised for the first time in the literature. The developed fabrics were
scrutinised in terms EM shielding theory and an original and interesting
mechanism was observed, which is the very high absorption behaviour of these
fabrics, contradicting the theoretical predictions. This mechanism was associated
with the high surface area found on the developed fabrics, thereby enhancing the
multiple-reflections, which appears to be the result of the high absorption. In
addition, the synergy among carbon nanotubes, conductive polymer and metals
has also been investigated. Eventually, the “Smart Bra” application has been
discussed according to textile requirements and two EM shielding bra designs
have been conceptualised.
Furthermore, this extensive and comprehensive investigation contributes

substantially to the literature of EM shielding fabrics in general, as a significant
number of scientific findings were obtained in terms of relationships, correlations
and theoretical analysis. Therefore, the original contribution of this study lies not
only related to the development of novel carbon nanotube EM shielding fabrics,
but also new approaches for coating methodology have been proposed. A novel
‘Smart Bra’ application has also been proposed. This is a pioneering study on this
subject, which provides food for thought and is expected to lead to further
investigation on the topic.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate commercially available EM
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shielding fabrics, as well as to develop EM shielding fabrics that could be
potentially applied into the “Smart Bra” application, which is intended to detect
breast cancer in an early stage, i.e. before its physical appearance. Therefore, the
structure of this research work was organised as follows: firstly shielding fabrics
from the market were obtained and fully investigated in terms of EM shielding
behaviour, washing durability and bra cup moulding performance. Secondly, an
attempt was made to develop alternative EM shielding fabrics exploring new
approaches such as knife-over-roll coating, padding coating and melt-spinning.
Furthermore, novel conductive fillers such as micro/nanoparticles of conductive
polymers, metals, and carbon nanotubes were used, which have not been
previously considered for EM shielding fabric applications. Thirdly, an overview on
the bra design and a consumer survey were carried out in order to establish the
Smart Bra textile requirements, customer expectations and to conceptualise EM
shielding bra designs.
The results of this study have been reported into two peer reviewed papers; the
first one was published at ‘Textile Bioengineering and Informatics Symposium
Proceedings 2010’, entitled “Electromagnetic shielding characterisation of several
conductive fabrics for medical applications”; and the second paper, entitled
“Carbon nanotube composite coatings for electromagnetic interference shielding
fabrics”, is under consideration for publication at ‘Carbon’ Journal.
The following sections will provide further details about the achievements of this
work in terms of scientific, industrial and application/consumer points of view.
7.1.1 Scientific perspective
Exploratory and systematic research methodologies were adopted and

quantitative/qualitative approaches were used to characterise and investigate the
materials. The main characterisation methodologies used were: microscopy
techniques, energy dispersive X-ray, Raman spectroscopy, thermo-gravimetric
analysis, BET surface area analysis, surface resistivity and EM shielding. The
empirical information obtained was critically analysed and supported by extensive
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relationship to theoretical modelling so as to build an in-depth understanding of the
results obtained. Parametric statistics were used in order to analyse relationships
and predictions and to enhance understanding and validity of the results.
The most relevant scientific findings are listed below:
 The major finding is the unusually high absorption behaviour found in the
developed fabrics, which can be assigned to an interesting relationship
between interface surface area, filler coating density and absorption
behaviour. It was concluded that the higher the surface area the higher the
absorption, since a good correlation was obtained (r=0.6) and a good
relationship was also obtained between the filler density and surface area(r= -
0.7), higher the filler density lower the surface area. Therefore, surface area
can predict and enable the characterisation of the absorption behaviour, which
can be assigned to multiple interface reflections inside the coating structure.
The presence of CNTs generated a high surface area due to the exposed 3D
network formed. The combination of CNT + Ppy achieved the highest surface
area (1473 m2), which may explain the very high EM shielding obtained
considering that only 28g/m2 of conductive filler was used in the coating.
However, further empirical information is needed to clarify this relationship in
more detail.
 A good correlation between experimental and theoretical results was obtained,

which means Plane Wave Single Layer shielding theory can be successfully
used to predict total EM shielding of fabrics in general, particularly for the
coated fabrics developed in the current study. Furthermore, surface resistivity
can directly predict the Total EM shielding, by the logarithmic regression
derived in section 6.1, in which only the ‘constant’ differs from the theoretical
equation. However, the absorption and reflection behaviours contradicted the
theory significantly, and it was explained and investigated by the
characterisation of the coated fabric structures developed in this study.
 A significant relationship was also devised between shielding effectiveness and
CNT loading (g/m2) in section 6.2, exhibiting a logarithmic equation with
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correlation coefficient of 0,92; which means CNT loading can predict SE
performance of the coated fabric, particularly in the case of coatings obtained
using the knife methodology adopted in this study.
 In the factorial experiments, involving CNT, PPy, Ni/CF and Ag, it emerged that
the effect of CNT was by far the highest, which means it highly influenced the
results. The best synergy in terms of higher EM shielding with low conductive
material loading was obtained by CNT + Ppy. The factor effect of Ppy + Ni/CF
was also found to be moderately high. CNT enhanced the shielding capabilities
of all products by providing a more complete, stable and reliable conductive
pathway, which is due to the nanoscale nature and aspect ratio properties of
the CNTs.
 The EMS test results for the commercial fabrics tested show that metal plated
woven fabrics provide the highest EM shielding (~84dB), followed by metal

plated nonwoven (~54dB), metal plated knit (~40dB) and lastly carbon fibre
nonwoven (~27dB) and polypyrrole coated fabrics (~17dB). Absorption is
higher for knitted fabrics, carbon fibre and polypyrrole fabrics (~35%).
Reflection is the primary mechanism for metal plated fabrics in terms of
percentage (~75%). Most commercial fabrics are electrically thick ( ),
hence absorption is expected theoretically. It was also found that only Ag
plated fabrics withstood hot washing treatment and nonwoven or higher mass
knitted fabrics are more suitable for bra cup moulding.
 As for the EMS results for the developed coated fabrics, they provide lower
shielding (10-20db 90 - 99.99%), which is expected from composites

containing CNTs; however, they exhibit much higher absorption performance
(max. 50%). CNT and conductive polymers achieved percolation threshold with
very low amount, which gradually increased with the filler loading. The metal
fillers reached percolation only at very high loading, which was also unstable.
All developed fabrics were found to be electrically thin ( ). and expected to
have theoretically negligible absorption, however, the absorption values were
found to be very high, thus contradicting the EM theory.
212
 A reliable consumer survey was undertaken to gather empirical information
about consumer expectations in relation to the Smart Bra. The results collected
were quite interesting and were useful for the conceptualisation of an EMS bra
design and raised discussion on the suitability of EMS fabrics. The main results
are presented in section 5.9.2.
 A Multi-layer theoretical modelling was deliberated, which highlighted the
advantages of using the CNT coated fabrics in multi-layer systems and

achieving considerably higher EM shielding. This characteristic may be
promising for lightweight absorption shields offering high shielding capabilities.
The scientific findings and in-depth investigation on EM shielding properties

presented in this thesis add to the current effort in devising simpler and
straightforward methods to measure and predict Shielding Effectiveness of fabrics,
identified in recent publications (Militky and Safarova, 2012).
7.1.2 Industrial perspective
This section discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the approaches,

techniques and results obtained in terms of the relevance and feasibility of this
research on industrial scale. Knife-over-roll technique is widely used in the
technical textiles field and has been increasingly considered for the modification
and functionalisation of fabrics. It is a simple, flexible and versatile process as it is
used at the end of the textile supply chain, thereby reducing complexity, inventory
and time/waste; otherwise generated by producing fabrics made of conductive
yarns.
When comparing this process to the conventional metal plating techniques, it is

considerably cheaper, cost-effective and it has the advantage of belonging to the
textile know-how and expertise, which encourages the integration of EM shielding
fabrics in the textile industry. Furthermore, Knife-over-roll coating proved to be the
better approach to develop shielding fabrics than padding coating or melt-spinning.
This technique is also suitable for CNT application, as CNT cannot be applied by
213
plating and in-situ polymerisation methods. On the other hand, the high number of
layers (5) utilised may not be a viable proposition at industrial scale - up to three
coating layers would be more appropriate and the use of ultrasonication would
need to be minimised.
With regards to the environment and health and safety issues, the coating
methodology used was environmentally friendly and safe, as water was used
instead of the conventional organic solvents. Brief ultrasonication and stirring
steps were considered and no carbon nanotube chemical functionalisation was
utilised.
7.1.3 Application/Consumer perspective
This study showed that an EM shielding fabric can be produced using accessible
coating textile technology and carbon nanotubes. The EM shielding obtained was
close to the value considered for commercial applications (~20dB, 99%), even
though it depends on the specific requirements of the application. If higher EM
shielding is needed, the developed fabric can be applied as a double layer or multi-
layer system. Alternatively, further optimisation would be needed to increase the
EM shielding.
The fabrics developed in this study have the potential to be applied as a thin,
flexible, breathable, lightweight and porous film where absorption behaviour is
required, which is otherwise only achieved by thicker and bulky absorption shield
structures. These EM shielding fabrics are promising materials for microwave
absorption in military or commercial applications. In addition, absorption is
considered a more preferable mechanism for shielding, as it does not reflect
radiation back into the environment, hence contributing to a reduction in radiation
pollution. The need for EM shielding fabrics where absorption is the primary
mechanism has been reported in literature.
The coating methodology and the carbon nanotubes also make it possible to tailor-
make the coatings to obtain the desired conductivity, making the fabrics useful for
214
a broad range of smart textile applications by optimising the loading of the
conductive filler. This advantage cannot be obtained from commercial metal plated
fabrics and metal composite fillers, where the percolation is achieved with very
high loading of the conductive material.
As for the Smart Bra application, it was fully studied in chapter 5 and two EM
shielding bra designs were conceptualised and discussed. The EM shielding
fabrics were also discussed and it was concluded that some of the commercial
fabrics and the developed fabrics can be potentially used - depending on the
requirements in terms of durability and shielding behaviour. In general, silver
plated nonwoven fabrics offer the best option in terms of high shielding, good
moulding performance and durability to washing. The fact that they are lightweight
and cheaper than other fabrics is also important from the commercial perspective.
In this case, reflection would be the primary mechanism. On the other hand, the
developed coated fabrics have the advantage of being coated in only one face and
maintain the original appearance of the fabric. These fabrics offer a cheaper
alternative as a cost-effective methodology is used and the primary mechanism is
absorption. The absorption behaviour can be useful for the Smart Bra as a source
of power (by converting heat into energy). It also avoids the need of grounding.
The CNT coated fabric can be used as a single, double, or multi-layer system,
according to the shielding required. These fabrics do not offer high washing
durability; hence optimisation/adaptation may be required. The CNT is also a
preferable material to shield microwave band frequencies when compared with
metals.
7.2 Future work
Depending on the application, further experiments need to be carried out to

optimise washing durability, increase EM shielding and to understand the influence
of elongation, abrasion, etc. In order to enhance durability to washing, the use of
binder can be optimised or a protection layer can be applied by lamination or
coating.
215
In terms of EM shielding, the following steps could be considered: optimize solution
dispersion and rheology; use longer CNT (as suggested by research studies),
increase layer density by compression, such as using a textile calendaring
process. Compression techniques are successfully used for the production of
composite films. The compression is expected to reduce the free-space, porosity
and to generate a flatter and denser coating; despite the increase in EM shielding,
this approach may reduce the high absorption obtained due to the morphology of
the coating prepared.
It is believed that an interesting balance between total shielding and absorption

behaviour was obtained for the knitted CNT coated fabric and a very interesting
and efficient synergistic combination was achieved by CNT + Ppy based fabrics.
Therefore it is suggested to investigate these fabrics further, mainly the positive
synergy between CNT and Ppy, which could lead to the development of very
lightweight and cost-effective shielding fabrics, with significantly lower amounts of
the conductive filler.
Time domain analysis would also provide valuable information to understand the
multiple-reflection behaviour and more quantitative evidence would be needed to
possibly establish a regression curve between surface area and absorbance, as a
good correlation was identified in the present study. It is suggested to study the
same type of fabric by varying only the morphology (density, filler, porosity) so that
more valuable information can be gathered.
Furthermore, the existence of aggregated macropores (~50 nm) measured by

isotherm analysis in the bulk CNT pristine powder is likely to be present in the CNT
coated fabrics due to the exposed 3D network formed and high surface area
observed. This is an interesting finding to be further investigated in relation to the
coating morphology of the developed fabrics, which could lead to catalytic and gas
adsorption capabilities.
Finally, both developed and commercial EM shielding fabrics need to be tested on

a practical Smart Bra application, so that the interference characteristics can be
understood and the reflection and absorption properties of the shielding fabrics
216
can be compared and contrasted. This would provide more valuable information
on the suitability of the fabrics for the Smart Bra application.
217
8 Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Elias

Siores and Dr Tahir Shah, for their guidance and support throughout my PhD
studies. They encouraged and assisted me to develop an understanding of the
subject and made available the resources and facilities to be able to
accomplish the project.
It is also a pleasure to thank those who supported me in a number of ways

during my study, such as the technicians at University of Bolton and experts
from York University, Leeds University and Manchester Metropolitan University,
who assisted me for the experimental and characterisation work.
Lastly, this thesis would not have been possible without the support of my
colleagues from work, from the university and most importantly from my family
and beloved husband.
218
9 Bibliography & References
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Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd..
Harris, P.J.F.(2009) Carbon Nanotube Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, B. (2005). The Bra-makers Manual. Turtle Press.
Jorio, A. et al. (2008) Carbon nanotubes: advanced topics in the synthesis, structure, properties
and applications. Berlin: Springer.
Kaiser, K.L. (2006) Electromagnetic Shielding. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Kodali, V. (1996) Engineering electromagnetic compatibility: principles, measurements, and
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9.3 Scientific papers
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CAYLA, A., CAMPAGNE, C., ROCHERY, M. and DEVAUX, E., 2012. Melt spun multifilament
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CHEN, A.P., LIN, C.M., LIN, C.W., HSIEH, C.T., LOU, C.W., YOUNG, Y.H. and LIN, J.H., 2010.
Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness and manufacture technique of functional bamboo
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221
CHEN, H.-., LEE, K.-. and LIN, J.-., 2004. Electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding properties of
co-weaving-knitting fabrics reinforced composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and
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CHEN, H.C., LEE, K.C., LIN, J.H. and KOCH, M., 2007. Comparison of electromagnetic shielding
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CHEN, H.C., LEI, C.H., LIN, J.H. and LEE, K.C., 2006. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of
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CHEN, H.C., LIN, J.H. and LEE, K.C., 2008. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of
copper/stainless steel/polyamide fiber co-woven-knitted fabric reinforced polypropylene
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CHEN, W., DU, L., YAO, Y. and LU, S., 2007. Electromagnetic shielding fabrics with magnetron
sputtered copper coating. Zhenkong Kexue yu Jishu Xuebao/Journal of Vacuum Science
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CHENG, K.B., 2000. Production and electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of the knitted
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CHENG, K.B., CHENG, T.W., LEE, K.C., UENG, T.H. and HSING, W.H., 2003. Effects of yarn
constitutions and fabric specifications on electrical properties of hybrid woven fabrics.
Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 34(10), pp. 971-978.
CHENG, K.B., CHENG, T.W., NADARAJ, R.N., DEV, V.R.G. and NEELAKANDAN, R., 2006.
Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of the twill copper woven fabrics. Journal of
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CHENG, K.B., LEE, K.C., UENG, T.H. and MOU, K.J., 2002. Electrical and impact properties of the
hybrid knitted inlaid fabric reinforced polypropylene composites. Composites Part A: Applied
Science and Manufacturing, 33(9), pp. 1219-1226.
CHENG, K.B., LEE, M.L., RAMAKRISHNA, S. and UENG, T.H., 2001. Electromagnetic shielding
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CHENG, K.B., RAMAKRISHNA, S. and LEE, K.C., 2000. Development of conductive knitted-fabric-
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CHENG, K.B., RAMAKRISHNA, S. and LEE, K.C., 2000. Electromagnetic shielding effectiveness
of copper/glass fiber knitted fabric reinforced polypropylene composites. Composites Part A:
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CHUNG, D.D.L., 2001. Electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness of carbon materials.
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222
CHUNG, D.D.L., 2004. Applications of nanostructured carbons in polymer-based materials, ANTEC
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DAS, A., KOTHARI, V.K., KOTHARI, A., KUMAR, A. and TULI, S., 2009. Effect of various
parameters on electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of textile fabrics. Indian Journal of
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DAS, D., SEN, K., SARAOGI, A. and MAITY, S., 2010. Experimental studies on electro-conductive
fabric prepared by In situ polymerization of thiophene onto polyester. Journal of Applied
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DAS, N.C., LIU, Y., YANG, K., PENG, W., MAITI, S. and WANG, H., 2009. Single-walled carbon
nanotube/poly(methyl methacrylate) composites for electromagnetic interference shielding.
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DENG, H., SKIPA, T., BILOTTI, E., ZHANG, R., LELLINGER, D., MEZZO, L., FU, Q., ALIG, I. and
PEIJS, T., 2010. Preparation of high-performance conductive polymer fibers through
morphological control of networks formed by nanofillers. Advanced Functional Materials,
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DEVAUX, E., KONCAR, V., KIM, B., CAMPAGNE, C., ROUX, C., ROCHERY, M. and SAIHI, D.,
2007. Processing and characterization of conductive yarns by coating or bulk treatment for
smart textile applications. Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control, 29(3-4),
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DHAWAN, S.K., SINGH, N. and VENKATACHALAM, S., 2002. Shielding behaviour of conducting
polymer-coated fabrics in X-band, W-band and radio frequency range. Synthetic Metals,
129(3), pp. 261-267.
DHAWAN, S.K., SINGH, N. and VENKATACHALAM, S., 2002. Shielding effectiveness of
conducting polyaniline coated fabrics at 101 GHz. Synthetic Metals, 125(3), pp. 389-393.
DIETZEL, Y., PRZYBOROWSKI, W., NOCKE, G., OFFERMANN, P., HOLLSTEIN, F. and
MEINHARDT, J., 2000. Investigation of PVD arc coatings on polyamide fabrics. Surface and
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DRESSELHAUS, M.S., DRESSELHAUS, G., SAITO, R. and JORIO, A., 2005. Raman
spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes. Physics Reports, 409(2), pp. 47-99.
DU, N., LUO, X. and WANG, X., 2007. Preparation and properties of electromagnetic interference
shielding poly(ethylene terephthalate) fabrics by the electroless deposition method. Beijing
Huagong Daxue Xuebao (Ziran Kexueban)/Journal of Beijing University of Chemical
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DU, W., YU, F. and QI, H., 2011. Sputter-deposited nano-metal films in a short period for
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223
FERRERO, F., NAPOLI, L., TONIN, C. and VARESANO, A., 2006. Pyrrole chemical polymerization
on textiles: Kinetics and operating conditions. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 102(5),
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GASANA, E., WESTBROEK, P., HAKUZIMANA, J., DE CLERCK, K., PRINIOTAKIS, G.,
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deposition of polypyrrole and copper at polyaramide surfaces. Surface and Coatings
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GEETHA, S., KUMAR, K.K.S. and TRIVEDI, D.C., 2005. Conducting fabric-reinforced polyaniline
film using p-chlorophenol as secondary dopant for the control of electromagnetic radiations.
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GEETHA, S., KUMAR, K.K.S., MEENAKSHI, S., VIJAYAN, M.T. and TRIVEDI, D.C., 2010.
Synergetic effect of conducting polymer composites reinforced E-glass fabric for the control
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GUO, R.H., JIANG, S.Q., YUEN, C.W.M. and NG, M.C.F., 2009. An alternative process for
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GUO, R.H., JIANG, S.Q., YUEN, C.W.M. and NG, M.C.F., 2009. Effect of copper content on the
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GUO, R.H., JIANG, S.Q., YUEN, C.W.M. and NG, M.C.F., 2009. Microstructure and
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GUO, R.H., JIANG, S.Q., YUEN, C.W.M., NG, M.C.F. and ZHENG, G.H., 2012. Influence of nickel
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GUPTA A., CHOUDHARY V., 2011. Electromagnetic interference shielding behaviour of
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HÅKANSSON, E., AMIET, A. and KAYNAK, A., 2006. Electromagnetic shielding properties of
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HÅKANSSON, E., AMIET, A. and KAYNAK, A., 2007. Dielectric characterization of conducting
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HÅKANSSON, E., AMIET, A., NAHAVANDI, S. and KAYNAK, A., 2007. Electromagnetic
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HAN, E.G., KIM, E.A. and OH, K.W., 2001. Electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness of
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HOOSHMAND, S., SOROUDI, A. and SKRIFVARS, M., 2011. Electro-conductive composite fibers
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HORNBOSTEL, B., LEUTE, U., PÖTSCHKE, P., KOTZ, J., KORNFELD, D., CHIU, P.-. and ROTH,
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232
APPENDIX A
233
APPENDIX B
234
APPENDIX C
This appendix shows information about the demographic results of the Customer Survey; also the
results for the comparison of factors between Normal and Smart Bra, where Aesthetic/Appearance,
Comfort/Fit and and Price revealed statistically significant differences due to the lower P (2-tailed)
obtained (<0.05); and a T-test comparing the Pilot test (first and second test) in order to ensure
reliability and validity of the scale, which was confirmed by P(2-tailed) results higher than 0.05 (no
statistical difference). An example of the questionnaire is also enclosed.
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 >60

Age
32% 22% 15% 16% 15%
Student Employed Unemployed Retired no answer
Occupation 7% 53% 2% 10% 14%
Student + Employed (14%)
£10,000 £20,000
Income/ < £10,001 > £30,000 no answer
£20,000 £30,000
year
17% 18% 17% 43% 5%
Higher Post-
GCSE A Level no answer
Education Educ. Grad.
14% 17% 39% 15% 15%
Independent-samples t-test to compare Factors between Normal and Smart Bra (alpha=0.05)
Aesthetic/ Quality/
Appearance Comfort/ Fit Brand/Store Price Durability Functionality
Normal Smart Normal Smart Normal Smart Normal Smart Normal Smart Normal Smart
Mean 3.86 3.34 4.60 4.26 2.46 2.29 3.25 2.94 3.71 3.62 4.33 4.48
SD 0.84 1.15 0.60 0.88 1.25 1.36 0.93 1.12 0.80 1.08 0.70 0.89
Variance 0.71 1.32 0.37 0.77 1.54 1.82 0.86 1.25 0.63 1.15 0.49 0.80
N 100 100 99 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
df 99 98 99 99 99 99
P (2-
tailed) 0.000001 0.000021 0.13 0.00914 0.34 0.11
t 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98 1.98
T-test on Pilot Test-retest (first and second) - assuming equal variances (alpha 0.05)
NORMAL BRA
Aesthetic/ Quality/
Comfort/Fit Brand/Store Price Functionality
Appearance Durability
First Second First Second First Second First Second First Second First Second
Mean 3.9 3.3 4.8 4.9 2.6 2.6 3.3 3.2 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.4
Variance 1.2 1.1 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.5
N 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
235
df 18 18 18 18 18 18
P(2-tailed) 0.23 0.47 1.00 0.84 0.50 1.00
t 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10
SMART BRA
Aesthetic/ Quality/
Comfort/Fit Brand/Store Price Functionality
Appearance Durability
First Second First Second First Second First Second First Second First Second
Mean 3.4 3.3 4.3 4.5 2.4 2.8 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.5
Variance 1.6 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.8 1.1 1.3 1.0 0.5 0.9
N 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
df 18 18 18 18 18 18
P(2-tailed) 0.85 0.66 0.41 0.32 0.82 1.00
t 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10
APPENDIX C
236

Renata Thesis Final THS 02

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Development of electromagnetic

shielding fibrous structures for

Renata Redondo Bonaldi

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

Electromagnetic shielding is important to block electromagnetic radiation that could

Exploratory and systematic research methodologies were adopted in this study

This study reports a significant number of scientific findings and contributes

3- EXPERIMENTS- Phase 1: Characterisation of commercial EMS fabrics 69

4- EXPERIMENTS- Phase 2: Development of novel EM shielding fabrics 99

5- EXPERIMENTS- Phase 3: Smart Bra case-study 177

6- FINAL RESULTS & DISCUSSION 194

2.1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Shielding (EMS) 24

2.2 EMS textiles - Research papers 36

2.3 EMS textiles - Market overview 56

2.4 EMS textiles - Patents overview 61

2.5 EMS films using carbon nanotubes – Research overview 65

3.3 Results and Discussion 74

3.4 Development and EMS Bra Cups 88

4.1.2 Methodology 104

4.1.3 Results of the knife coating application on nonwoven fabric 108

4.1.4 Results of the factorial experiment 2⁴ 124

5. EXPERIMENTS- Phase 3: Smart Bra case-study 177

5.1 Bra design background 177

6.1 Correlations among resistivity, SE, reflection and absorbance 194

Figure 1 Mechanisms of EM shielding.

Equation 1 Skin Depth

The present research study relates to the investigation and development of

 Carry out an in-depth and comprehensive literature survey;

Apart from the technology to produce conductive textiles, the electromagnetic

Regarding the second experimental stage, novel EM shielding structures were

2.1 Introduction to electromagnetic shielding (EMS)

2.1.1 EM shielding theory

Electromagnetic (EM) shielding is the process of limiting the flow of EM fields

Reflection Electromagnetic Waves

Figure 1 Mechanisms of EM shielding.

Figure 2 Radiation Spectrum (Roh et al, 2008)

The shielding material has to be electrically conducting; however, electrical

Reflection is normally the main mechanism of EM shielding, it occurs when the

The strength of the EM radiation decreases exponentially as it penetrates the

Power Ratio dB = 10 log (Pi / Pt) (3)

2.1.2 Plane Wave theory- Single layer concept

In order to theoretically calculate EM shielding, several methodologies can be

2.1.3 Plane Wave theory- Multi layer/laminated concept

In order to calculate the total reflection of the 4 interfaces, the approximated

The EM shielding was experimentally measured by Insertion Loss (S21 parameter),

Insertion Loss - IL (-dB) = (13a)

Return Loss - RL (-dB) = (14a)

The EM shielding results will also be reported in percentages, in order to facilitate

Shielding Effectiveness (%)

Figure 5 Relationship between SE % and Decibels

SE(dB) = SE% = (17)

In order to calculate the absorbance, (either from experimental or theoretical

AdB = SEdB - RdB (20)

SE% = 100 - T% = A% + R% A% = 100 - T% - R% (21)

Regarding the multiple-reflection term, it could not be measured experimentally;

2.1.5 Shielding effectiveness measurement standards

IEEE-STD 299-2006, “Standard Method for Measuring the Effectiveness of

ASTM ES7-83, “Test Method for Electromagnetic Shielding Effectiveness of

2.2 EMS textiles – research papers

Textiles have been highly considered in applications for electromagnetic

Figure 7 Summary of scientific paper publications from 1990 to 2011.

Other approaches to develop conductive fabrics include the application of

An overview of the most common approaches used to produce EM Shielding