Structural Steel Buildings

warehouse

office

concrete core

floors

external
bracing at
facade
columns

kiosk
 Structural Steel Buildings

Foreword

There has been a growing trend in many countries overseas to build multilevel buildings in steel
because of the short and long term benefits that this form of construction has to offer. These
benefits are detailed in the Australian Steel Institute Publication “Seven reasons why you should
consider structural steel on your next building project”.

In a study of the Australian Construction Industry it was evident that the number of recent
references on multilevel construction was limited, and filling this knowledge gap would facilitate
builders, developers and their consultants to capitalize on the benefits of steel-framed construction.

This publication is OneSteel Market Mills recognition of the need to filling this knowledge gap.
However, a manual of this type usually takes a considerable amount of time to compile. With
construction techniques and technology changing at such a rapid pace, there is always a risk that
the information is outdated before it is published. To reduce the likelihood of this occurring,
publishing technology in the form of the OneSteel website is being utilized. Each chapter of this
manual is being written so that it is largely “stand-alone” and therefore can be published and used
as a reference before the remainder of the manual is complete.

Comments from the users can be made and are welcomed so that the final printed version will be
in a manner best suited for use by the reader.

The information contained in this manual has been compiled using various sources both from
overseas, local and from our research laboratories. While every care has been made to ensure the
accuracy of the information it should be used as a guide only and relevant professional services
should be sought to assess the information.

Anthony Ng
Email Address: NgA@OneSteel.com

i
 Contents

Structural Steel Buildings

Contents Section
Introduction 1
12 Storey Office Building 2
2 Storey Office with Warehouse 3
Shopping Centre 4
Facade 5

Published by:
OneSteel Market Mills
Ingal Street Newcastle
NSW 2300 Australia

June 2003
Disclaimer

This publication has been prepared by OneSteel Market Mills an operating business group of which OneSteel Manufacturing Pty Limited ABN 42 004 651 325 is a part. Please note
that any specifications or technical data referred to in this publication are subject to change and/or variation or improvement without notice and no warranty as to their suitability for
any use is made. Users of this publication - to ensure accuracy and adequacy for their purposes - are requested to check the information provided in this publication to satisfy
themselves as to its appropriateness and not to rely on the information without first doing so. Unless required by law, the company cannot accept any responsibility for any loss,
damage or consequence resulting from the use of this publication.
Photographs shown are representative only of typical applications, current at June 2003.
This brochure is not an offer to trade and shall not form any part of the trading terms in any transaction.
©Copyright 2002. OneSteel Manufacturing Pty Limited ABN 42 004 651 325
Registered Trademarks of OneSteel Manufacturing Pty Limited ABN 42 004 651 325
Issue 0.1 June 13 2003

ii
 [Blank]

ii
Section 2 -
12 Storey Office Building

Contents Page
Building Description 2-2
Structure 2-3
Floor System 2-3
Columns 2-4
Footings 2-4
Core Construction 2-5
Floor Vibrations 2-8
Corrosion Protection 2-9
Fire Safety Engineering 2-10
Integration of Air Handling Systems 2-12
Construction Aspects 2-16.
Future Proofing 2-20
References 2-21
Appendix A - Structural Drawings: 12 Storey Office Building 2-22
Appendix B - Structural Drawings: Future Proofing 2-23
Appendix C – Composite Beam Span Tables 2-26

This section written by:

I. D. Bennetts,
Victoria University of Technology
C. C. Goh,
AMOG Risk
A. Ng
OneSteel Market Mills
 Structural Steel Buildings
12 Storey Office Building
Building Description
The building described below will be used to
illustrate how steel construction can provide
excellent column-free space, readily
incorporate services such as air-conditioning
duct work, and offer reduced construction
time.
Design Loads:
• Live Load: 3.0kPa (Reducible)
• Compactus: 7.5kPa, 3m around core
• Superimposed Dead Load: 1.3kPa
(Services: 0.5kPa, Partitions: 0.8kPa)
Fig 2.1 – Plan - Typical Floor Layout
2- 2 -
Description:
• Overall dimensions: 41.2 m x 39.2 m
• Central core: 11.2 m x 20.9 m
• Net floor area approximately: 1380 m2 per
floor
• Typical floor-to-floor height: 3.7 m
• Ground floor height: 4.8 m
• Floor to ceiling height: 2.7 m
• Number of lifts: 6
• Number of stairs: 2
Version 0.1

Structure
Floor System
The use of composite beams and steel
decking offers prop-free construction
providing significant advantages in the speed
of construction. The back-propping that is
usually necessary in traditional reinforced
concrete construction is completely avoided.
This allows earlier fit-out of the floors below
the construction front. This means that it is
also possible to erect several levels of steel
work at one time if required. In construction
up to four storeys high, it is common to erect
Fig 2.2 – Steel Framing Plan
Version 0.1
12 Storey Office Building
a bay of steelwork at a time to the full height
of the building using a mobile crane.
In this particular case study the floor
construction consists of a composite slab
spanning 2.8m and composite steel beams
spanning 15m from the core to the perimeter,
creating significant column free space. The
corresponding structural drawings are given
in Appendix A. Tables for other beam spans
are given in Appendix C.
2- 3
 Structural Steel Buildings

Columns

One of the main advantages of a steel floor concreting of the column occurring prior to the
system is the speed it offers in construction. placement of the concrete in the slab. Plates
To fully utilise this advantage the column are welded or bolted onto the steel beams
system needs to match or exceed the speed framing into the column to act as the shutters
of the composite floor system. To achieve in that region simplifying the formwork at the
this, a steel column is commonly used. For
buildings less than four storeys in height, non-
composite steel columns can be as
economical as any other type of column.
However, for significantly taller buildings, the
use of such columns may involve a cost
penalty and it may be more appropriate to
use composite columns. Such columns
include concrete-filled tubes and reinforced
concrete columns incorporating steel
construction columns.
Fig 2.4 – Steel column with steel formwork for
concrete encasement

beam column intersection (refer to Fig 4).

This method of column construction has been
adopted on many projects since the mid
eighties and more recently, on the Queen
Victoria Building, Melbourne. The use of such
columns permits the use of simplified
Fig 2.3 Concrete filled tube connections between beams and columns.
Footings
Concrete filled tubes were popular in the early
nineties (Casseldon Place, Melbourne and
Footings for steel-framed buildings are
Brisbane International Airport Terminals,
generally smaller than those required for
ASER office building in Adelaide, Market City
concrete-framed buildings of the same size.
- Sydney). Large steel tubes can be designed
This is because steel-framed buildings are in
to carry from 3 to 6 levels of composite steel
the order of 20% lighter than concrete-framed
floors and construction loading, allowing
buildings by way of a thinner concrete slab
construction to proceed ahead of the concrete
and steel beams being lighter than concrete
filling [1]. To fill the steel tubes, concrete can
beams.
be pumped in from the bottom of the tube up
to 6 levels in height. A fire engineering design
The reduced weight of the steel building may
can be performed to determine if the column
be of significance where there is poor
should be spayed to provide additional
foundation material. A 20% reduction in
protection against fire.
footing loads can reduce piling costs, which
are significant particularly where the
The use of construction columns as part of a
substructure costs are large compared with
conventional composite column is another
the super structure costs.
economical alternative to ensure that column
erection is ahead of steel beam erection and
In this particular case study the founding
concreting. This technique utilises a steel
material has been assumed to be sandstone,
column that will carry up to 4 levels of
Therefore a 20% saving in the pad footings
composite steel floor and its construction
for excavation and concrete footing costs is
loading. Reinforcement and shutters are
achieved over a concrete frame.
placed around the steel column with

2- 4 Version 0.1
 12 Storey Office Building

Core Construction

The "core" of a building is considered to be it is also important to minimise the impact of

the part of the building housing the various
services that must be provided to each level
— plumbing, air-handling, lifts, stairs, toilets,
etc. Because vertical shafts can provide a
pathway for the spread of fire from one level
to the next, building regulations generally
require such risers to have a significant fire-
resistance level. In the case of stairs and lifts,
fire on the people using these shafts. Thus
fire-resistant enclosures are generally
required around lifts, stairs and other vertical
risers and there are particular requirements
for stair and elevator landing doors.
Penetrations to other vertical risers are often
protected with fire dampers to minimise the
likelihood of vertical fire spread.

concrete core

floors

external
bracing at
facade
columns

Fig 2.5b – Steel Bracing at

Facade

Fig 2.5a – Schematic diagram of core

Fig 2.5c – Rigid Connection

Preventing Sway

Fig 2.5d – Internal Bracing

Fig 2.5e - Composite Concrete Core

Version 0.1 2- 5
 Structural Steel Buildings
In addition to the fire separating function it
has been common to use the core to resist
the lateral forces applied to the building
during its life and to provide stability to
columns. However, such lateral load
resistance and stiffness can be provided in
other ways. For example, lateral load
resistance for this building could be provided
by:
a. A reinforced concrete core
b. Steel bracing at each level — both
internally and at the facade
c. Steel bracing provided within parts of the
core
d. Provision of beam-to-column connections
capable of resisting sway
e. A "composite core" — an approach
featured in this study
f. Some combination of the above
A conventional reinforced concrete core will
provide both fire resistance and lateral load
resistance. Forming the core in this way may
take considerable time and work may need to
commence well before the rest of the frame is
erected. For a building of this size, this may
result in increased time for construction. If
such a core is used, connection of steel
beams to the core can be achieved in
numerous ways:
1. Cast in a plate during the slip or jump
form construction of the core and then site
weld a web side plate at the correct
location to the cast-in plate.
Fig 2.6 – Cast-in plate for beam to concrete
core connection
2- 6
2. Cast pockets into the core, use packers to
shim the beam to the right level and then
grout pack around the pocket after the
beam is installed.
Fig 2.7 – Cast in pockets for beam to concrete
core connection
An alternative form of core construction that
has been used is that of a "composite core"
(Note that this approach was pioneered by
Alfasi Construction in combination with
Bonacci Group, and was used for a 11 storey
building in Melbourne for which speed of
construction was critical). This was used as
part of the bracing system in combination with
(b) and (d). The stability of the building during
construction was achieved using external and
internal bracing and utilising the sway
resistance of the rigid connections between
the beams and columns. The construction of
the core was achieved as each level of
steelwork was erected. The concept and
sequence of construction is as follows:
• Erect steel columns and beams within
core and beams framing from core
columns to facade; also framing to
support edge of floor slab around the core
• Erect mullions around core
• Attach sheeting to mullions and columns
• Place wall reinforcement
• Shotcrete wall
Some of the additional advantages
associated with this approach include:
• Construction is from the floor side only
• Future openings in the floor are covered
by the steel decking which improves
safety as these are not cut out until a later
Version 0.1

stage. These are not concreted and the
steel decking is later cut to provide the
necessary access when required
• The steel decking provides a flat and
uninterrupted surface to facilitate
installation of elevator hardware such as
lift rails
Alternatively, it is possible to use drywall
construction to provide the necessary
separation from a fire perspective. In this
case all of the resistance to load must be
Fig 2.8b Composite core wall
after shotcreting
Version 0.1
12 Storey Office Building
achieved by combination of systems (b) and
(c). Should bracing be provided within the
core then it must be positioned so that it does
not interfere with the installation of elevators
within the shaft. Details of drywall
construction can be obtained from Boral or
CSR on the following websites:-
http://www.plasterboard.boral.com.au/.
http://www.gyprock.com.au
Fig 2.8a Composite core wall with
sheeting and reinforcement in place
2- 7
 Structural Steel Buildings

Floor Vibrations
Floor vibrations can be of concern to building
owners and tenants. Much work has been
carried out over the past two decades on this
area of design to devise methods of
calculating potential floor vibrations. As a
result, the design of composite floors against
unacceptable vibrations is better based than
for most other floor systems. In office
buildings it is generally the dynamic response
of the floor system due to human excitation
(one or two workers walking across the floor)
that needs to be designed.

Australian Standard AS2670.2 - Evaluation of

human exposure to whole body vibration Part
2: Continuous and shock induced vibration in
buildings (1 to 80 Hz) [2]. covers the design of
floor vibrations. This Standard which is
identical to the ISO Standard 2631/2 1989 [3],
is relatively straight forward for designers to
use. A design guide published by the AISC
and CISC Steel Design Guide Series 11 -
Floor Vibrations due to Human Activity [4]
provides excellent guidance on the basic
principles of design for floor vibration.
Up until the early eighties the design criteria
for vibration in composite floors was based
purely on the natural frequency of the floor.
More recent investigations, which are
reflected in the Australian Standard [2]
indicate that acceleration of the floor system
induced by human activity (generally footfall)
is more important than the frequency of the
floor system. Figure 2.9 gives the ISO Base
line acceleration versus frequency
relationship where combinations of frequency
and acceleration below the line are unlikely to
cause annoyance in a situation where there is
a very low tolerance to movement (eg
hospitals). In the case of offices, the level of
tolerance is much greater and the acceptable
accelerations can be more than an order of
magnitude higher for a given frequency as
indicated by a second curve in the same
figure.
The current acceptance criteria are contrary
to the past belief that long floors are more
susceptible to human induced vibration. It is
now accepted that the longer the beam span,
the greater the mass that needs to be excited,
Fig 2.9 - Recommended peak acceleration for
human comfort for vibrations due to
human activity [4]
and therefore the less likely the acceleration
limits will be exceeded. Thus for floors
spanning greater than 12m, there is generally
no issue with human induced floor vibrations
given the large mass of the floor that needs to
be excited and the level of damping that is
present in office and retail fit-outs.
Acceptable levels of vibrations of composite
floors with grids as small as 8.4m x 8.4m
have been achieved for offices for general
use, retail and commercial buildings when
these have been designed for strength
requirements, and then subsequently against
the vibration acceptance criteria (in Fig 9).
Damping plays an import role in the
acceleration of the floor system and hence
perception of vibrations. Air conditioning
ducts, half height and full height partitions,
computer flooring, carpet, filing cabinets and
other furniture offer significant levels of
damping. Perception of vibrations in an office
that is fully fitted out, is therefore less likely
than in a building just completed.
Designers should take into account the
possibility of “rogue jumping” and sensitive
equipment. However, both of these are
unlikely in the 12 Storey Office being studied.

2- 8 - Version 0.1

Corrosion Protection
Internal steelwork under certain atmospheric
conditions does not require any corrosion
protection. This is the case for an air-
conditioned building such as the 12 Storey
Office Building being case-studied. In these
relatively benign conditions, painting of the
structural steel components of the composite
floor would impose an additional cost on
construction and should only be considered if
required for aesthetic or architectural reasons
where the steel is exposed to view.
The cost of painting the steelwork is not in the
painting itself, but with the associated
activities of handling and preparation.
Generally fabricators in Australia (with some
notable exceptions) do not have paint lines,
so any surface treatment (blasting and
painting) needs to be conducted at a different
site. Thus there is the additional cost
associated with transport (and cranage) on to
take it to a paint shop. The cost of painting
composite floor beams with a primer ranges
from $6 to $10 per square metre of floor area.
Even where it does not need to be
transported to another site, it will need to be
moved from a fabrication line to a paint line,
thus incurring additional handling charges
The Building Code of Australia sets out the
Fig 2.10 – Unpainted steel beams that will eventually be concealed
over an air-conditioned office.
Version 0.1
12 Storey Office Building
requirements for the corrosion protection of
structural steel subjected to various
environmental conditions. For office buildings
reference is made to Australian Standard
AS4100 Steel Structures [6], which in turn
refers to the Australian/New Zealand
Standard AS 2311 – Guide to the painting of
Buildings [7] for internal steelwork
This standard states that: ”Recommendations
for the painting of steelwork in this standard
are intended to apply to steelwork and fittings
that are not exposed to external atmospheric
conditions. Corrosion of metals under these
conditions is minimal so no special design
considerations for corrosion protection are
needed”. Suitably qualified designers should
be able to invoke these Code
recommendations to provide a more
economical structure.
For buildings that are not air-conditioned the
same guidance should be sought, as it may
be possible, depending on the atmospheric
conditions and the level of exposure, to also
justify unpainted steel.
The photograph below shows a recent
example of a project where unpainted
steelwork was utilised; Queen Victoria
Building on Lonsdale St Melbourne.
Other examples of office buildings
with bare steel which were
constructed some time ago in
include:-
• 140 William St., Melbourne;
• 151 Clarence St., Sydney; and
• Council House, Perth.
2- 9
 Structural Steel Buildings
Fire Safety Engineering
The Building Code of Australia permits the
use of Alternative Solutions provided that it
can be demonstrated that they satisfy the
performance requirements of the BCA.
It has been possible to develop Alternative
Solutions permitting the use of essentially
unprotected structural steel beams for multi-
storey steel-framed buildings. However, each
building needs to be carefully considered and
a qualified fire-safety engineer must
undertake an appropriate fire-engineering
assessment.
Such an assessment will need to
demonstrate that the risk associated with a
building with reduced fire protection (to the
structural steelwork) is not less than that
associated with a building complying with the
minimum deemed-to-satisfy provisions. In
order for this to be so, it will probably be
necessary to incorporate a more reliable
sprinkler system within the building and to
design the building against loss of overall
stability in the unlikely event of sprinkler
Fig 2.12 – 209 Kings Way South Melbourne
Fig 2.11 University Square – Melbourne
University
2- 10
failure and the eventual development of a
significant fire.
Sprinkler reliability can be improved in a
relatively inexpensive manner by installing
monitored subsidiary valves and end-of-line
taps at each floor. The additional valves will
permit isolation of only one floor instead of
multiple floors whilst the provision of end-of-
line taps is a simple way to check the
presence of water on each floor during
commissioning or following sprinkler
modifications to a floor. It will also be
necessary to implement sound sprinkler
management strategy. Such a strategy
should:
(i) restrict the periods of sprinkler isolation
(ii) prove that system is re-activated after
isolation – using end-of-line taps
(iii) isolate one floor at a time
(iv) if extended isolation required then
restrict the fire load on a floor
(v) require special surveillance/fire-safety
measures during sprinkler
modifications
Version 0.1

The assessment of the consequences of
sprinkler failure on a floor will require
determination of the likely severity of a non-
sprinklered fire and its effect on the building
structure. To this end, guidance can be
obtained from full-scale fire tests such as
those conducted for the building at 140
William St [8] or at Cardington by the Building
Research Establishment in the United
Kingdom [9].
The potential severity of a fire is dependent
on the area and distribution of glazing around
the perimeter and the depth of the floor. The
duration of burning is likely to be greater as
the depth of the floor increases or as the
window area reduces and care should be
exercised in estimating the likely duration of
burning.
Interaction between the floors and the
columns needs to be considered with
recognition of the importance of maintaining
vertical support given the conditions that
Duct
Fig 2.13 – No fire protection inside opening
Version 0.1
12 Storey Office Building
might be experienced by the floor above the
fire. This will normally require protection of
the columns and appropriate detailing of
beam-to-column and beam-to-core
connections
Should bare steel beam construction not be
possible then other innovations are still
possible to allow the efficient incorporation of
ductwork below or through beams. These
innovations consist of the deletion of fire
protection around the edges of a penetration
(Figure 2.13) in the case of air-conditioning
ducts passing through web penetrations and
from the lower part of the bottom flange in the
vicinity of the duct in the case of the ducts
passing below the beams (Figure 2.14). The
deletion of fire protection in these situations is
justified on the basis of the reduced pathway
for heat to enter a beam and the shielding
effect from the ductwork. Once again, the
above innovations will need to be justified by
a fire-engineering assessment.
Duct
Fig 2.14 – No fire protection above duct
2- 11
 Structural Steel Buildings
Integrated Air Handling Systems
The air-handling requirements for multi-storey
buildings are very much an integral part of
steel frame construction. Large vertical risers
for supply and return air must be provided
throughout the building, as must a network of
horizontal distribution ducts to distribute air to
each part of each floor. These ducts are
located within the ceiling space and compete
for space with other services and with the
floor beams themselves. Furthermore, there
is pressure to reduce the floor-to-floor height
of many office buildings so as to reduce the
cost of the facade. Modifications to office
floors are relatively frequent requiring the
moving or addition of partitions. This, in turn,
may require modification of the air-handling
ductwork within the ceiling space. The duct
system must therefore be sufficiently flexible
so that it can be readily modified to allow for
tenancy alterations on any level of the
building.
The need to be able to handle future tenancy
modifications and the trend towards lower
floor-to-floor heights means that the air-
handling ductwork may impose severe
restrictions on the steel floor beams .
The core can occupy significant parts of the
floor area. The larger the core, the less the
available rentable area on the floor. It is
therefore important to efficiently lay out the
various services within a core without
reducing functional performance. For practical
reasons, supply air from a single air handling
unit (AHU) can only be delivered to a certain
number of levels and therefore a number of
Fig 2.15 – Ductwork locations in a steel floor system
2- 12
plant room levels will be provided throughout
a tall building.
Fig 2.16 – Air handling system below beams
The capacity of an air handling system, which
will determine the required number of
plantrooms, is directly related to:
• The area of each floor (or the number of
occupants)
• The number of storeys connected to the
system (up to a point)
• The extent and type of glazing around the
perimeter of the floor
• Ambient temperature and humidity
Efficient use of space within the core is
important as otherwise this area could be
used as rentable space. Supply air is
vertically transported inside major riser ducts
within the core, horizontally to each floor and
then around each floor. The type of floor
construction can influence the layout of air-
handling ductwork around a floor. An
inappropriate layout of ductwork may result in
significant additional costs
being associated with initial
installation and ongoing
refurbishment.
Air supply ducts can run
below beams, through webs,
or below the flange cut out
("notched") at the perimeter
of the building. The final
floor-to-floor height is a
function of the ceiling height,
slab thickness, and the space
occupied by the supporting
beam, any ductwork located
Version 0.1

below the beam and any ceiling support
system and protruding housings for light
fittings.
Deeper beams are more efficient than
shallow. The presence of deeper beams
means that it may be more difficult to route
ducts around the floor as these may need to
pass through the space occupied by the webs
of the beams. This issue can be resolved by
the provision of penetrations through the
beam webs. Rectangular and circular
penetrations are very common. It is
recommended that such an approach should
always incorporate unreinforced/unstiffened
penetrations for cost savings. Guidance on
design of Web Penetrations can be found in
the OneSteel Market Mills publication Design
of Simply-Supported Beams with Large
Penetrations [5]
Terminal ducts typically incorporate Variable
Ducts
Web of
steel beam
Rectangular penetration Circular penetration
Fig 2.17 – Penetrations through the web of steel beams
Generally the duct work on a floor can be
considered to consist of three types of ducts:
Loop ducts: These have the largest cross-
sectional area and are connected to the main
air supply riser within the service core. These
ducts allow air to be distributed at relatively
high velocity around the perimeter of the core
and then to smaller supply ducts (trunk
ducts). If multiple central air handling systems
are used to supply air to any given floor, loop
ducts can be independent in the sense that
each is connected to one of the air supply
systems, or can be linked joining two systems
together. These ducts are insulated to
minimise losses and reduce noise. The ducts
are typically fabricated from steel sheet and
insulated with 50 mm of acoustic (internal)
insulation. These ducts are frequently run
Version 0.1
12 Storey Office Building
around the outside of the service core. For a
typical high-rise commercial floor these can
vary from 900 mm x 350 mm to 1200 mm x
450 mm.
Trunk ducts: These ducts take the air-
conditioned air to various distances from the
core at medium velocity where it is distributed
to other ducts which distribute the air laterally
on each side of this duct. They are typically
insulated with 25 mm of thermal insulation.
Sizes can range from 600 mm x 300 mm to
900 mm x 450 mm.
Terminal ducts: These ducts distribute the air
laterally at low velocity and have thermal
insulation. Flexible ducting may be run
directly from these ducts. Typical sizes range
from 300 mm x 250 mm to 900 mm x 250mm.
Air Volume (VAV) boxes so as to
allow control of air supply to
various parts of the floor. They
also may incorporate a fan to
increase the circulation rate of air
delivered to various parts of the
floor should this be required. VAV
boxes have a cross-sectional area
that is generally greater than the
connected ducts and require
maintenance access, but can be
conveniently located between
steel floor beams.
It will be noted that duct depths
are more or less fixed and any
increase in required capacity is mostly
achieved by increasing the width of the duct.
However, as is well understood, the greater
the aspect ratio, the less effective the flow
through the ductwork in the sense of volume
of air delivered for a given air velocity.
Fig 2.18 Duct penetrations
2- 13
 Structural Steel Buildings

Traditional Duct Layout

A conventional duct layout is shown in maximum width of 1200 mm can be handled

relation to the nominated core layout. Critical using this approach. This would result in a
duct dimensions are also indicated, as is the floor-to-floor height of 3650 mm.
steel beam layout. Since the loop duct is
located outside the core, it must be located Trunk ducts can be laid between the beams.
below the steel beams spanning from the However, terminal ducts must pass through
edge of the core or pass through them. If or below the beams. If structural steel beams
these ducts pass below the beams then the were fabricated with regular web openings,
required floor-to-floor height is 3900 mm then this would enable ducts to be passed
assuming that 100 mm is allowed for the through the beams. In this case, the
ceilings and light fittings, and the depth of the maximum web opening that could be
steel beam and thickness of the slab are 530 tolerated is 370 mm (0.7x530). The terminal
mm and 120 mm, respectively. The floor-to- ducts could be passed through the web
floor height can be further reduced it the openings, and the floor-to-floor height would
beams are "notched" at the ends. However, be 3450 mm. Alternatively these ducts could
this requires additional fabrication which be passed below the bottom flange. In this
imposes a cost penalty on the structural steel situation, this would increase the floor-to-floor
solution because the web of the beam must height to 3700 mm.
be reinforced. Nevertheless, ducts having a

250 deep
350 deep

Steel beams
VAV box
Terminal ducts 250 deep

450 deep
Loop ducts
Supply
riser
250 deep

450 deep
250 deep

Return
riser
Trunk ducts
450 deep

VAV box
350 deep
350 deep
450 deep

250 deep

250 deep

Return
riser
Supply

Return ducts
riser

Flexible ducts
350 deep

250 deep

250 deep

Fig 2.19 Traditional duct layout

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 12 Storey Office Building

Alternative Duct Layout

If loop ducts are located within the core (a the core columns should the core be framed
solution which is more easily achievable in in steel. However, the beams connecting the
steel-core buildings), then it will not be columns will be shallow and there will be
necessary to cut away the ends of the beams sufficient space for the ducts to run below
to allow the duct to run below the beams. Due these beams.
to the lesser requirement for a high ceiling
within the core area and the absence of any The location of the loop duct within the core
beams it is possible to utilise the ceiling needs to be examined from the perspective of
space more effectively. Two separate loop construction sequence and ease of
ducts have been incorporated. A connecting construction. A cursory examination suggests
duct to allow the two systems to interact can that, provided the sequence of construction is
interlink these, should this be necessary. appropriately modified, then the erection of
the ductwork will be as straightforward as if
The branch ducts must penetrate the core the ductwork was alternatively located outside
walls and pass below the beams connecting of the core.

250 deep
350 deep

Steel beams

Terminal ducts VAV box

250 deep
Loop ducts
Supply
riser
250 deep

250 deep

350 deep

Return
riser
Trunk ducts

VAV box
350 deep
350 deep
350 deep

250 deep

250 deep

Return
riser
Return ducts
Supply
riser

Flexible ducts

250 deep
350 deep

250 deep

Fig 2.20.- Alternate duct layout

Version 0.1 2- 15
 Structural Steel Buildings

Construction Aspects
The use of structural steel framework in
combination with steel decking enables
activities on various levels in different areas
to be undertaken almost simultaneously. The
schematic diagram (fig 21) illustrates how
prop-free construction enables work below a
level to proceed without interference from
falsework: concrete can be placed under
cover and the following trades may proceed
under the level above as soon as the
concrete has been poured rather than waiting
until the structure has reached its required
strength.

Steel erection

Deck laying / Stud fixing,

Concrete placement & Finishing

Façade installation
Fitout of services

Fig 2.21 – Construction schematic - Construction can progresses on a number of fronts

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 12 Storey Office Building

The construction program in Table 1 covers crane and the trades / resources as listed in
the steel erection and concrete placement Table 2:
beyond the foundation stage for the building
being case studied. This programme can be Other non-structural activities can take place
considered as typical for a similar building on on each floor once the floor slab above has
a site, which has reasonable access been completed. This is facilitated by the
absence of significant propping. Such non-
Weeks structural activities include:
Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Foundation completed • Positioning of air-handling ducts on the
Level 1
erect columns ( L1 - L3 )
floors
erect beams • Placement of other services such as
lay decking & edgeform
weld shear studs water and electrical
place reo
place sheeting & reo • Placement of cladding on facade
on core walls
pour concrete slab
• Installation of stairs
shotcrete core walls • Installation of toilets and plumbing
Level 2
erect beams • Installation of elevators
lay decking & edgeform
weld shear studs
• Erection of any non-load bearing walls
place reo • Placement of ceiling grids and lighting
place sheeting & reo
on core walls
pour concrete slab
shotcrete core walls
Level 3
erect beams
lay decking & edgeform
weld shear studs
place reo
place sheeting & reo
on core walls
pour concrete slab
shotcrete core walls
Level 4
erect columns ( L4 - L7 )
erect beams
lay decking & edgeform
weld shear studs
place reo
…….. repeat the cycle --- repeat pattern ---

Table 2.1-Typical construction program for a steel

frame composite core.

The construction sequence and timing

outlined in Table 1 assumes one central

Activity Men Days Remarks

Resources required to complete each 16000m2 of floor
Erect Columns (14m High) 4 3 20 lifts per day
Erect complete level of beams 4 2 25 lifts per day
Lay decking 3 3 1200m2 per day
Edgeform (strap/patch) 2 2 XXXm per day
Weld shear studs 2 1 600 studs per day
Lay reinforcement 4 2 1400m per day
Pour concrete slab 10 1 250m3 per day

Resources required to complete each lift of the core

Place sheeting 3 4 75m2 per day

Place reinforcement 4 3 100m2 per day
Shotcrete walls 6 1 250m2 per day

Table 2.2 – Trades and Resources

Version 0.1 2- 17
 Structural Steel Buildings

weeks 1 - 4
• Erection of columns (14 m high) from Ground to Level 3 completed
• Erection of beams on Levels 1 to 3 completed
• Laying of steel decking and edge form on Levels 1 to 3 completed
• Welding of shear studs on Levels 1 and 2 completed
• Fixing of reinforcement on Levels 1 and 2 completed
• Placing of sheeting and reinforcement on core walls from Ground floor and Level 1 completed
• Pouring of concrete slab on Level 1 completed

Weeks 5 - 8
• Erection of columns from Levels 4 to 7 completed
• Erection of beams on Levels 4 to 7 completed
• Laying of steel decking and edge form on Levels 4 to 6 completed
• Welding of shear studs on Levels 4 to 6 completed
• Fixing of reinforcement on Levels 3 to 6 completed
• Placing of sheeting and reinforcement on core walls on Levels 1 to 4 completed
• Pouring of concrete slab on Levels 2 to 4 completed
• Shotcreting (spraying) of core walls from Ground to Levels 3 completed

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 12 Storey Office Building

Weeks 9 - 12
• Erection of columns from
Levels 8 to 12 completed
• Erection of beams on Levels
8 to 10 completed
• Laying of steel decking and
edgeform on Levels 7 to 10
completed
• Welding of shear studs on
Levels 7 to 9 completed
• Fixing of reinforcement on
Levels 7 to 9 completed
• Placing of sheeting and
reinforcement on core walls
on Levels 5 to 8 completed
• Pouring of concrete slab on
Levels 5 to 8 completed
• Shotcreting (spraying) of core
walls from Levels 4 to 6
completed

Weeks 13 - 16
• Erection of beams on Levels
11 to 12 completed
• Laying of steel decking and
edgeform on Levels 11 to 12
completed
• Welding of shear studs on
Levels 10 to 12 completed
• Fixing of reinforcement on
Levels 10 to 12 completed
• Placing of sheeting and
reinforcement on core walls
on Levels 9 to 12 completed
• Pouring of concrete slab on
Levels 9 to 12 completed
• Shotcreting (spraying) of
core walls from Levels 7 to
11 completed

Version 0.1 2- 19
 Structural Steel Buildings
Future Proofing
“Future proofing” refers to the ease with
which a building can be modified to
accommodate future changes. Such changes
may result from new tenants with particular
requirements such as access between
adjacent floors, or modifying the floor layout.
To demonstrate the ease with which a
composite floor can be modified to
accommodate tenancy or usage changes, the
following situations are considered:
1. Move an office from the eastern to the
northern side of the building.
2. Library or storeroom to occupy a 15m
x 9.8m grid of the building.
3. Add an inter-tenancy stair between 2
floors
4. Infill the inter-tenancy floor after the
tenant leaves the building
The required structural changes are detailed
on structural drawings in Appendix B
Situation 1: To move offices around in this
particular building is relatively simple since
there are no internal columns. There is total
architectural freedom. Air conditioning ducts
fit under the steel beams as there is a zone
for flexible ducting that can come off any
nearby trunk duct.
Fig 2.22 Floor penetration new stairs
2- 20
Situation 2: The 530UB92 composite beams
can be strengthened to carry a 7.5kPa load
by welding a 20x200plate to the bottom
flange of the existing beam. The connection
needs to be strengthened by simply running a
fillet weld on either side of the web-side-plate.
The column can then be checked for the
additional load - in this particular case the
existing capacity of the columns is sufficient
to carry the additional loads.
Situation 3: Situation 3: An inter-tenancy stair
can be added (see Figure 2.22). This is
achieved by cutting away the slab, adding
new trimmer beams and strengthening the
existing beams through the addition of lower
flange plates (Refer Appendix B).
Situation 4: Refilling the stair void is just as
easy. Weld on a new cleat for a support
beam, scabble back the concrete and pour a
new slab on the steel deck. Details are shown
in Appendix B.”
The modification process is simple with
structural steel since connection of new steel
members to the existing steel frame is
straightforward and structural components
that are added or removed can be readily
handled due to their lower mass.
Version 0.1
 12 Storey Office Building

References

1. Australian Steel Institute, Seven reasons - Melbourne Laboratories Rep No.

why you should consider structural steel BHPR/ENG/R/92/043/SG2C, Feb
for your next building project. 2002
9. Newman, G. (1999) “Unprotected Steel in
2. Standards Australia, Evaluation of human Buildings”, New Steel Construction, 7(4)
exposure to whole body vibration Part 2: pp 18 –21
Continuous and shock induced vibration
in buildings (1 to 80 Hz) AS2670.2.

3. International Standards Organisation,

Evaluation of human exposure to whole
body vibration Part 2: Continuous and
shock induced vibration in buildings (1 to
80 Hz) ISO Standard 2631/2

4. American Institute of Steel Construction

and the Canadian Institute of Steel
Construction., Steel Design Guide Series
11 - Floor Vibrations due to Human
Activity

5. OneSteel Market Mills, Design of Simply

Supported Beams with Large Web
Penetrations Feb 2001

6. Standards Australia, Steel Structures

AS4100

7. Australian/New Zealand Standard –

Guide to the paining of Buildings for
internal steelwork AS 2311
8. Thomas, I. R., Bennetts, I. D.,
Dayawansa, P., Proe, D. J. and Lewins,
R. R. (1992), "Fire Tests of the 140
William St Office Building, BHP Research

Version 0.1 2- 21
 Structural Steel Buildings

Appendix A - Structural Engineering Drawings

2- 22 Version 0.1
 12 Storey Office Building

Appendix B – Future Proofing

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 Structural Steel Buildings

2- 24 Version 0.1
 12 Storey Office Building

Version 0.1 2- 25
 Structural Steel Buildings

Appendix C – Composite Beam Span Tables

Design Criteria

Re-entrant Deck – pans at 200mm centres

120mm Slab
No Propping
3.0 kPa Live Load (reducible)
1.5 kPa Superimposed Dead Load
Concrete strength F’c=25MPa

Secondary Beams

Table 3a – Composite Secondary Beam Spans

Span Spacing 300PLUS Camber No 19mm No. of
(m) (m) Beam (mm) dia Studs Bolts
8 2.8 310UB40.4 30 21 3
9 2.8 360UB44.7 35 23 3
10 2.8 360UB50.7 50 26 3
11 2.8 410UB59.7 50 28 4
12 2.8 460UB67.1 50 32 5
13 2.8 530UB82 45 36 6
14 2.8 530UB92.4 50 36 6
15 2.8 610UB101 50 39 7
16 2.8 610UB125 50 41 7
17 2.8 800WB122 40 44 9
18 2.8 800WB122 50 46 9
19 2.8 800WB146 50 49 9
20 2.8 800WB168 50 51 9

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 12 Storey Office Building

Primary Beams

Table 3 – Composite Primary Beam Spans

Span (m) Spacing Beam GR300+ Camber No 19mm No. of

(m) (mm) dia Studs Bolts
8 8 460UB67.1 20 30 4
9 460UB67.1 25 30 4
10 460UB74.6 25 34 5
11 530UB82.0 20 36 6
12 530UB82.0 20 36 6
13 530UB92.4 20 42 6
14 530UB92.4 20 42 6
15 610UB101 15 46 7
16 610UB101 20 46 7
17 610UB125 20 54 7
18 700WB115 20 52 8
19 800WB122 20 52 9
20 800WB122 20 52 9
9 8 460UB74.6 35 34 4
9 460UB82.1 35 36 4
10 530UB82.0 30 36 6
11 530UB92.4 25 42 6
12 610UB101 20 46 7
13 610UB101 25 46 7
14 610UB101 25 46 7
15 610UB125 20 42 8
16 610UB125 25 52 8
17 800WB122 20 52 9
18 800WB122 20 52 9
19 800WB146 20 62 8
20 800UB146 25 62 8
10 8 530UB82.0 35 36 6
9 530UB92.4 35 42 6
10 610UB101 30 46 7
11 610UB101 30 46 7
12 610UB113 30 46 7
13 610UB125 30 52 7
14 700WB115 25 52 8
15 800WB122 20 54 9
16 800WB122 20 54 9
17 800WB146 25 62 9
18 800WB146 25 62 9
19 800WB168 25 66 9
20 800WB168 25 66 9
11 8 610UB101 30 46 7
9 610UB101 35 46 7
10 610UB113 35 46 7
11 610UB125 35 52 7
12 700WB115 35 52 8
13 800WB122 25 54 9
14 800WB122 30 54 9
15 800WB146 25 64 9
16 800WB168 30 66 9
12 8 610UB113 40 46 7
9 610UB125 40 52 7
10 700WB115 40 52 8
11 800WB122 30 54 9
12 800WB122 35 54 9
13 800WB146 30 64 9
14 800WB146 30 64 9
15 800WB146 35 64 9
16 800WB192 35 108 9

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