Vectors 1

ˆj

x
k̂
î
z
Fig. 0.1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (7) Orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ are called orthogonal unit
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vectors. These vectors must form a Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate
vector algebra are called vectors. system such that when we Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y then
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, we must get the direction of z along thumb). The
impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it does ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z
not always imply that it is a vector. For it to be a vector the third condition x y z
of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.  x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  zkˆ
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude and
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of application .
direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the laws of vector algebra.
Example displacement and force etc.
Types of Vector (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are always
along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are example of physical
have equal magnitudes and same direction. quantities of this type.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel Axial vector Axis of rotation
when
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another
vector. Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation

(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be Axis of rotation Axial vector
Fig. 0.2
anti-parallel when
(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called
(i) Both have opposite direction.
coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free) vectors are always
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another coplanar.
vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration can Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
share the same support or have a common support then the considered If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a
vectors are collinear. triangle taken in same order then B
the resultant is given by the
(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary closing side of triangle in opposite R  AB
direction (not known to us) is a zero vector.
order. i.e. R  A  B
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. Unit B
vector for A is A ˆ (read as A cap or A hat).  OB  OA  AB O A
A
Fig. 0.3
ˆ  A  A AA
Since, A ˆ .
(1) Magnitude of resultant
A
vector
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
 2 Vectors

AN (2) Direction
In  ABN , cos   AN  B cos
B CN B sin
tan   
BN ON A  B cos
sin   BN  B sin
B Polygon Law of Vector Addition
In OBN , we have OB  ON  BN 2 2 2 If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n – 1)
B sides of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by the closing side or
the n side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
th

R
B B sin R  ABCD E
 
O A A N OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE
B cos D D C
2Fig. 0.4
 R  ( A  B cos  )  (B sin )
2 2

E C
 R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos   B 2 sin2 
 R 2  A 2  B 2 (cos 2   sin2  )  2 AB cos  E B

 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
R B
 R A 2  B 2  2 AB cos
O A
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between A and A
Note :  Resultant
Fig.of0.6
two unequal vectors can not be zero.
B, then
 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not be
| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos zero
 Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN ,
zero.
BN BN
tan    Subtraction of vectors
ON OA  AN
B sin Since, A  B  A  ( B) and
tan  
A  B cos
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent sides of
 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )
a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the two vectors. Since, cos (180   )   cos
(1) Magnitude
Since, R 2  ON 2  CN 2  | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
 R 2  (OA  AN )2  CN 2
R sum  A  B
 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B
 R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B C  1
2 A
180 – 
R  AB B
B B sin
B
 

R diff  A  ( B )
O A N
A B cos Fig. 0.7
Fig. 0.5 B sin
tan 1 
Special cases : R  A  B when  = 0 o
A  B cos
R  A  B when  = 180 o

B sin(180   )
and tan  2 
A  B cos (180   )
R A 2  B 2 when  = 90 o
 Vectors 3
But sin(180   )  sin and cos(180   )   cos Ry Ry
 cos    m
R R x2  R y2  R z2
B sin
 tan  2 
A  B cos
Rz Rz
 cos    n
Resolution of Vector Into Components R R x2  R y2  R z2
Consider a vector R in X-Y plane as
Y Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R and
shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors
R x and R y along x and y axes respectively, R x2  R y2  R z2
l 2  m 2  n 2  cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
by law of vector addition, R  R x  R y
Ry R R x2  R y2  R z2


Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, Rx
X Note : When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z)

R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y Fig. 0.8 then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ
 When a particle moves from point (x , y , z ) to (x , y ,
so R  ˆi R x  ˆjRy
1 1 1 2 2

…(i) z ) then its displacement vector

2


But from figure R x  R cos  …(ii)
r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 )kˆ
and R y  R sin …(iii)
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the (1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is
defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle
magnitude of the components of R along x and y-axes respectively.
between them.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the components themselves can be used to specify the vector Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle  between
as
them, then their scalar product written as A . B is defined as A . B
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and  AB cos 
adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar B
R R x2  R y2 which is positive if angle between the vectors is
acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if angle between

(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
(iii) by (ii), i.e.
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A
tan   (Ry / R x ) or   tan 1 (Ry / R x ) (iii) It is distributive, i.e.
A
Fig. 0.10

Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C

R  R x  R y  R z q or R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ (iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 

Y  A. B 
The angle between the vectors   cos 1  
 AB 

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when

R
Ry
Rx cos  max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors are parallel

X ( A . B)max  AB
Rz

Z (vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when

Fig. 0.9 | cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o
If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis,
( A . B)min  0
then
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the vectors
Rx Rx are orthogonal.
 cos    l
R R x2  R y2  R z2 (vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot
product and is given by ( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2
 4 Vectors

i.e. A  A . A

(viii) In case of unit vector n̂

nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ ,

ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  1  1 cos 90  0 Fig. 0.12

(x) In terms of components The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane

A . B  (iAx  jAy  k Az ). (iBx  jBy  k Bz )  [ Ax Bx  Ay By  AZ Bz ] containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work is handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector) through
defined as, W  Fs cos  …(i) the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is rotated from A to B
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, F. s  Fs cos  through the smaller angle between them, then the direction of advancement
…(ii) of the screw gives the direction of A  B i.e. C
So from eq (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar product of
n

(2) Properties
force with displacement.
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
(ii) Power P : perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to
dW ds both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and B may or may
As W  F . s or  F. [As F is constant]
dt dt not be orthogonal.

or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with (ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,
A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
 dW ds 
velocity.  As  P and  v 
 dt dt  Here it is worthy to note that
ds 
B
(iii) Magnetic Flux  : | A  B | | B  A |  AB sin

Magnetic flux through an area is i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but

given by d  B ds cos …(i) directions are opposite.
But by definition of scalar O (iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors
is strictly maintained, i.e.
product B . d s  Bds cos ...(ii)
Fig. 0.11
So from eq (i) and (ii) we have
n
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when
d  B . d s or    B.ds sin  max  1, i.e.,   90 o
(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of moment [ A  B]max  AB nˆ
p is situated in an electric field E or a magnetic dipole of moment M
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given by : (v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when
U E   p . E and U B   M . B | sin |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0 o or 180 o

Vector Product of Two Vectors [ A  B]min  0

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two vectors
is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product of the
magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in
accordance with right hand screw rule.
i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the
vectors are collinear.
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself
vanishes, i.e., is null vector A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0

C  AB (vii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that

Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0

written as A  B is a vector C defined by

(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, kˆ in accordance with
C  A  B  AB sin nˆ right hand screw rule :
 Vectors 5

ˆj ˆj  a  b  c …(ii)

Pre-multiplying both sides by a

k̂ a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c
î î
 ab  ca …(iii)
k̂
Fig. 0.13 Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c
And as cross product is not commutative,
ˆj  ˆi  kˆ , kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj   a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c …(iv)

(x) In terms of components From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a

ˆi ˆj kˆ Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a |
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz  ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180   )  ca sin(180   )

 ab sin  bc sin  ca sin 

 ˆi ( Ay Bz  Az By )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
Dividing through out by abc, we have
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector, vector
physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects) like torque, sin sin  sin
  
angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a magnetic field a b c
and can be expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is well –
established in physics that : Relative Velocity
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a particle, we
(i) Torque   r  F assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in motion. For
example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is
(ii) Angular momentum L  r  p running with a speed v, we mean that these all are relative to the earth
(which we have assumed to be fixed).
(iii) Velocity v    r
Y
Y P
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a
magnetic field B is given by F  q(v  B)
r
PS '
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and  B  M  B r
PS
X
S
Lami's Theorem rS ' S
S X
In any  A B C with sides a, b, c
Fig. 0.15
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another
sin sin  sin moving object, consider a particle P whose position relative to frame S is
 
a b c  
rPS while relative to S  is rPS  .
180 – 

 If the position of frames S  relative to S at any time is r S S then
  
c b from figure, rPS  rPS   rS S
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
  180 – 
  
drPS drPS  drS S
180 –  a  
dt dt dt
i.e. for any triangle the ratioFig.of0.14
the sine of the angle containing the
    
side to the length of the side is a constant. or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ]
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we establish
  
the Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the triangle shown or v PS   v PS  v S S
a  b  c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)
 6 Vectors
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P moving 1
(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim relative to
 
with velocity v1 with respect to another particle P moving with velocity
2
water with velocity v and water is flowing relative to ground with velocity
     
v 2 is given by, v r1 2 = v1 – v 2 v R velocity of man relative to ground v M will be given by:

     
v1 v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R
v2
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
P2
vM  v  vR
Fig. 0.16 P1
And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water, v M  v  v R
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then :
r12  1 –  2 
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with velocity

 r . A man can swim in still water with velocity  m . He is standing on one
(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction, then :
bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two cases arise.
r12  1   2
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually perpendicular (i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross the
directions, then: river straight, the man should swim making angle  with the upstream as
shown.
r12  12   22 
A vr B
  
(iv) If the angle between 1 and 2 be , then
 


r12  12   22 – 21 2 cos  
1/2
. w 
vm
v
vr


(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in equatorial

 
plane with velocity v s and a point on the surface of earth with v e Upstream O Downstream
relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface Fig. 0.18    
of earth Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which OA  vm , AB  r .
 
  
Their resultant is given by OB   . The direction of swimming makes
vse  v s  v e
angle  with upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find,
So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of
r 
rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity relative to earth's surface will be cos   Also sin  r
v se  v s  ve m m

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the Where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming with the
motion of earth, v se  v s  (ve )  v s  ve shortest distance (OB) across the river.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river, then
(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically with a time taken to cross the river will be given by
 
velocity v R and an observer is moving horizontally with speed v M the w w
t1  
    m2 –  r2
velocity of rain relative to observer will be v RM  v R  v M

which by law of vector addition has magnitude (ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man should
swim perpendicular to the bank.
v RM  v R2  v M
2 The time taken to cross the river will be:

w
direction   tan 1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in fig. t2 
m

A vr B

– vM 

vR vR  
vR w vr
   vm
vM vM

Fig. 0.17 Upstream O Downstream

Fig. 0.19
 Vectors 7
     
Because A  A  A and A  A is collinear with A
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a distance AB
down stream. This distance will be given by:  Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its direction.
 
w r If A  B , then A = B and Aˆ Bˆ .
AB  r t 2 r or AB  w
m m   
ˆ  B
If A  B  0 , then A = B but A ˆ .

 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can be zero

is two.
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose resultant is zero is
three.

 All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For
example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a scalar
quantity because it can not be added or multiplied according to the rules
of vector algebra.
 A vector can have only two rectangular components in plane and
only three rectangular components in space.
 A vector can have any number, even infinite components.
(minimum 2 components)
 Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars : Relative
density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia, specific heat, latent heat,
spring constant loudness, resistance, conductance, reactance, impedance,
permittivity, dielectric constant, permeability, susceptibility, refractive
index, focal length, power of lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant,
Gas constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, Planck’s constant
etc.
 Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose resultant is zero
is four.
 
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if A.B  0 .
 
 Two vectors are parallel to each other if A  B  0.
 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and force are polar
vectors.
 Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular
momentum are axial vectors.
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is not possible to
divide with a direction.
 Distance covered is always positive quantity.
 The components of a vectors can have magnitude than that of the
vector itself.

 Distance covered is a scalar quantity.
 The displacement is a vector quantity.
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided algebraically.
 Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
 Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be divided.
 The rectangular components cannot have magnitude greater than
that of the vector itself.
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product becomes a null
vector.
 The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never be a
null vector.

 Unit vector gives the direction of vector.  Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null
vector.
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not necessarily a
 Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of an object is 5 ms –1

vector. For example, time and electric current. These quantities have
due East. magnitude and direction but they are scalar. This is because they do not
 obey the laws of vector addition.
i.e. v  5ms 1 due east.
  A physical quantity which has different values in different
v 5 ms 1 (East) directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has
vˆ     East
| v| 5 ms 1 different values in different directions. Hence moment of inertia is a
tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,
So unit vector v̂ has no unit as East is not a physical quantity. density etc.
 Unit vector has no dimensions.  The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is always less
than the magnitude of the vector
 ˆi . ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1  
  If A  B , then Ax  Bx , Ay  By and Az  Bz .
 ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0          
 If A  B  C . Or if A  B  C  0 , then A, B and C lie in
 ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
one plane.
ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  0      
  If A  B  C , then C is perpendicular to A as well as B .
               
 A  A  0 . Also A  A  0 But A  A  A  A  If | A  B | | A  B | , then angle between A and B is 90°.
 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when  = 0° i.e. vectors
 8 Vectors
are parallel.
Rmax  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 0 | P  Q |
 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when  = 180° i.e.
vectors are anti-parallel.
Rmin  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 180 | P  Q |
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to the
difference of their magnitude.
 Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to
the sum of their magnitude.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then
Rmin  P  Q  0
 
[| P | | Q |]
 
Thus, two vectors P and Q having different magnitudes can never be
combined to give zero resultant. From here, we conclude that the
minimum number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose resultant can
be zero is three. On the other hand, the minimum number of vectors of
equal magnitude whose resultant can be zero is two.
 
 Angle between two vectors A and B is given by
 
A.B
cos   
| A| | B|
 
 Projection of a vector A in the direction of vector B
 
A. B
 
| B|
 
 Projection of a vector B in the direction of vector A
 
A. B
 
| A|
  
 If vectors A, B and C are represented by three sides ab, bc and
ca respectively taken in a order, then
  
| A| | B| | C|
 
ab bc ca
 The vectors ˆi  ˆj  kˆ is equally inclined to the coordinate axes at
an angle of 54.74 degrees.
     
 If A  B  C , then A . B  C  0 .
     
 If A . B  C  0 , then A . B and C are coplanar.
 
 If angle between A and B is 45°,
   
then A . B | A  B |
    
 If A1  A2  A3  ......  An  0 and A1  A2  A3  ......  An
then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at angle 2 / n .
   
 If A  B  C and A 2  B 2  C 2 , then the angle between A

and B is 90°. Also A, B and C can have the following values.
(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
(iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.