Emilio Aguinaldo

War taxes and voluntary contributions were solicited from the people. A national loan
was launched. President Aguinaldo ordered schools open. Elementary education was made
compulsory and free.
The Director of Public instruction appointed Enrique Mendiola, a Filipino instructor who founded
"Instituto de Burgos". The school offer courses in agriculture, surveying, and commerce, as well as a
complete A.B course.
On October 1898 a government decree fixed the opening date of the "Universidad Literia".
Courses offered were Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, and Notary Public. The President of the Philippines
appointed the professors thereof. They, in turn, choose the University Highest Official. The first to
occupy this position was Joaquin Gonzales. Later, he was succeeded by Dr. Leo Ma. Guerrero.
IV. National Issues

National issues within Aguinaldo’s presidency revolve in the Filipino-American war.

Filipino army is not considered a real army because they lack qualities and proper training. On
the first phase of the war, the Filipino outnumbered the Americans but our arms don’t have
enough ammunition, funds and military supplies which resulted in defeat. Famine and illness due
to war is also spreading in the country.

V. Transnational Issues

Citizens look unto the Americans as their hero from the Spanish people, but in reality the
country did not gain a hero in Americans but a new conqueror. Benevolent Assimilation
Proclamation reveals the hidden agenda of the Americans in helping the Philippines against the
Spain. They wanted to drive away the Spaniards so they could replace them.

Without the country knowing, under the Treaty of Paris Philippines is sold for $20
Million to the Americans by the Spain. This means that the control of the country is now in the
hands of the Americans.

Manuel L. Quezon
I. Politics (Administration)

Manuel Quezons’ Commonwealth administration is a presidential system of government

with unicameral legislature. Filipinos reelected Quezon, Osmeña, and legislators to fill seats
in the newly created bicameral congress on November 11, 1941. During his term, from the seven
departments existing before his administration he added two more; the National Defense and
Public Welfare.
II. Economics

Manuel L. Quezon made several institutions and programs to attend to the needs of the
economy on his term. Healthy economy is hard to establish back then because we became
independent on U.S. His effort to fix the economy was see on the Commonwealth Act No. 2
which established the National Economic Council, this act helps solve social imbalance, land
maldistribution, provide land to the landless and farmers, provide housing and create an
employment to the unemployed.

III. Programs (Reforms)

Commonwealth Act No. 1, President Manuel L. Quezon asks for General McArthur
service to devise an effective yet affordable National Defense Plan for the Philippines. This
defense plan was later abolished because 16 Million is not sufficient enough to fund the act. A
compulsory military training for men age 20 in a period of 5 ½ months and pre-military training
in high school was enforced. Quezon also push the standardization of ROTC (Reserve Officers’
Training Corps) programs in colleges and universities.

In response to social imbalance and land maldistribution; National Economic Council as

an adviser and Social Justice Program that bought lands and distribute it to farmers and landless
Filipinos. Law also requires a written agreement between farmers, tenants and landlords to
protect citizens from an unfair rent increase. Court of Industrial Relations was established for the
creation of Agricultural and Industrial Bank, National Land Settlement Administration and
National Housing Commission to provide housing, National Relief Administration for calamities
and for finding employment to the unemployed.

Institute of National Language was established for studying the issue of choosing the
country’s mother tongue; National Council of Education to guide the education policies, adult
education program, for vocational schools, also in charge of the Education Act of 1940. He also
makes Pilipino the national language.
IV. National Issues

Regaining independence is tough battle Filipino face and with Quezon it became
possible. He fought for Philippines to be self-governed, prepared us to be independent from
America and later on lead our country to its full independent government. He tried to solve
problems inherited from Spanish and Americans Administrations, fought graft and corruption in
the country, build up the national defense and strengthen economy that is dependent on the U.S.

Filipino pays attention on choosing the mother tongue and because of this the Institute of
Nat’l Language was created, he was known as “Ama ng Wikang Pambansa”.

Jose P. Laurel
I. Politics (Administration)

Jose P. Laurel’s administration is also known as the “Puppet Republic”. Laurel was
among the Commonwealth officials instructed by the Japanese Imperial Army to form a fake
government when they invaded and occupied the country. He willingly served under the
Japanese Military Administration.

II. Economics

During Laurel's term as President, hunger was the main problem. Prices of essential

supplies rose. The government exerted every effort to increase production and
bring consumers' goods under control. However, the greediness of the Japanese prevails. 

III. Programs (Reforms)

He formulated the 1943 constitution; a temporary constitution expected to last until the
end of war, this established a republican government with a strong executive that states the duties
and obligations of the people rather than their rights and privileges.

Laurel issued an executive order organizing the Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong

Pilipinas (KALIBAPI) as the sole political organization to back the government.
IV. National Issues

Filipino people were torn in half whether he’s a hero or a traitor; others think that he was
ready to obey the orders of the Japanese Army for the “maintenance of peace and order and the
promotion of well-being of our people” on the contrast the idea that he did not make any
negative actions against the Japanese Government when they occupied the Philippines.

Food Shortage; during his presidency, the Philippines faced a crippling food shortage
which demanded much of Laurel's attention.

Sergio Osmena
I. Politics (Administration)

After the war, Osmeña restored the Commonwealth government and the various
executive departments. On 8 August 1944, President Osmeña issued Executive Order 15-W
reorganizing and uniting the Executive Departments of the Commonwealth government.

II. Economics

During his time when the country is still recovering from the damage of the war; the
Philippine National Bank has been rehabilitated and the country joined the International
Monetary Fund. To help the economy be somewhat stabilized.

III. Programs (Reforms)

The First Commonwealth Congress earnestly took up the various pending assignments to
solve the pressing matters affecting the Philippines, especially in regard to relief, rehabilitation,
and reconstruction. The first bill enacted was Commonwealth Act No. 672 – rehabilitating the
Philippine National Bank.

To prepare for the forthcoming independent status of the Philippine, President Osmeña
created the Office of Foreign Relations. President Osmeña entered into an agreement with
the United States Government to send five Filipino trainees to the U.S. State Department to
prepare themselves for diplomatic service.
Manuel Roxas

Manuel A. Roxas Rehabilitation and reconstruction in all aspects:Environmentally, Emotionally,

Economically and Culturally.War Damage Act - liability in respect of damage to, or destruction
of, property caused by acts lawfully done during, or in contemplation of the outbreak of, a war in
which it is engaged.Signed US-RP Treaty of General Relations nullifying Philippine
independence. This treaty empowered the US government to retain its supreme authority over
extensive military bases which it could expand at will, guaranteed the property rights of US
corporations and citizens being equal to those of Filipino corporations.

Among the main remedies proposed was the establishment of the Philippine Rehabilitation
Finance Corporation. This entity would be responsible for the construction of twelve thousand
houses and for the grant of easy-term loans in the amount of 177,000,000 pesos. Another
proposal was the creation of the Central Bank of the Philippines to help stabilize the Philippine
dollar reserves and coordinate and the nations banking activities gearing them to the economic
progress.Concentrating on the sugar industry, President Roxas would exert such efforts as to
succeed in increasing production from 13,000 tons at the time of the Philippine liberation to an
all-high of one million tons.

The postwar Philippines had burned cities and towns, ruined farms and factories, blasted roads
and bridges, shattered industries and commerce, and thousands of massacred victims. The war
had paralyzed the educational system, where 80% of the school buildings, their equipment,
laboratories and furnitures were destroyed. Numberless books, invaluable documents and works
of art, irreplaceable historical relics and family heirlooms, hundreds of churches and temples
were burned. The reconstruction of the damaged school buildings alone cost more
than Php 126,000,000.

The new Republic began to function on an annual deficit of over Php 200,000,000 with little
prospect of a balanced budget for some years to come. Manila and other cities then were infested
with criminal gangs which used techniques of American gangsters in some activities–
bank holdups, kidnapping and burglaries. In rural regions, especially the provinces of Central
Luzon and the Southern Tagalog regions, the Hukbalahaps

Bell Trade Act

On 30 April 1946, the United States Congress, at last approved the Bell Act, which as early as 20
January had been reported to the Ways and Means Committee of the lower house, having been
already passed by the Senate. President Osmeña and Resident Commissioner Ramulo had urged
the passage of this bill, with United States High Commissioner, Paul V. McNutt, exerting similar
pressure.

The Act gave the Philippines eight years of free trade with the United States, then twenty years
during which tariffs would be upped gradually until they were in line with the rest of the
American tariff policy. The law also fixed some quotas for certain products: sugar – 850,000
long tons; cordage – 6,000,000 pounds; coconut oil – 200,000 long tons; cigars – 200,000,000
pounds
The great aid this legislation meant for the Philippines was coupled with that to be obtained from
the recently passed Tydings Damage bill, which provided some nine hundred million dollars for
payment of war damages, of which one million had been earmarked to compensate for church
losses. The sum of two hundred and forty million dollars was to be periodically allocated by the
United States President as a manifestation of good will to the Filipino people. Additionally, sixty
million pieces of surplus property were also transferred to the Philippine Government

Elpidio Quirino

Elpidio Quirino (1948 – 1953)Created the Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing

Administration (ACCFA)- To facilitate the financial help extended to the farmers.Import
controls was improved in 1949 to conserve the dollar reserves. In 1953 an entire system of
foreign exchange controls was applied to further put a brake on the depletion of the financial
resources of the government. Central Bank of the Philippines was Established during his term.

Ramon Magsaysay

Ramon Magsaysay (1954 – 1957 )During his term, he made Malacañang literally a "house of the
people", opening its gates to the public.One example of his integrity followed a demonstration
flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippine Air Force (PAF): President Magsaysay
asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal
check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.In history, he is the first Philippine president to
wear a barong tagalog in his inauguration. He brought back the people's trust to the military and
to the government.His administration was considered one of the cleanest and most corruption-
free; his presidency was cited as the Philippines' Golden Years. Trade and industry flourished,
the Philippine military was at its prime, and the Filipino people were given international
recognition in sports, culture and foreign affairs. The Philippines ranked second in Asia's clean
and well-governed countries.

Carlos P. Garcia
The Filipino First Policy (Tagalog: Pilipino Muna) refers to a policy first introduced and
implemented by the administration of then Philippine President Carlos P. Garcia.[1] Under the
policy, Filipino-owned business is prioritized over its foreign counterparts, and the patronizing
of Filipino-made products by Filipinos was also promoted.[2]
The policy of Garcia, was a response to the impact of free trade and American economic
dominance in the Philippines for years following the World War II. It is meant to assert greater
Filipino role over the country's economy if not to gain control of it by promoting "Filipino
business establishment".[3]
Garcia first instituted the policy with the issuance of Resolution No. 202 of the National
Economic Council on August 28, 1958. The policy dictates that Filipinos would have preference
over non-Filipinos in receiving foreign exchange. In line with the policy, Garcia pledged that his
administration would assist Filipino entrepreneurs to make ventures in industries dominated by
non-Filipinos.[4]
The policy received positive reception from Filipino businessmen,[3] and there were calls to
expand the scope of the policy to include other spheres of society such as education.[4]

In the face of the trying conditions of the country, President García initiated what has been called
"The Austerity Program". García's administration was characterized by its austerity program and
its insistence on a comprehensive nationalist policy. On March 3, 1960, he affirmed the need for
complete economic freedom and added that the government no longer would tolerate the
dominance of foreign interests (especially American) in the national economy. He promised to
shake off "the yoke of alien domination in business, trade, commerce and industry." García was
also credited with his role in reviving Filipino cultural arts.

Austerity Program
 The main points of the Austerity Program were:The government would tighten up its controls to
prevent abuses in the over shipment of exports under license and in under-pricing as well.There
would be a more rigid enforcement of the existing regulations on barter shipments.Government
imports themselves were to be restricted to essential items.The government also would reduce
rice imports to a minimum.An overhauling of the local transportation system would be attempted
so as to reduce the importation of gasoline and spare parts.The tax system would be revised so as
to attain more equitable distribution of the payment-burden and achieve more effective collection
from those with ability to pay.There would be an intensification of food production.The program
was hailed by the people at large and confidence was expressed that the measures proposed
would help solve the standing problems of the Republic.

Diosdado Macapagal
Established the Land Bank of the Philippines.Dollar reserves were exhausted. Peso was devalued
from the previous fixed rate of P2.00 to P3.90 per dollar. To maintain this rate, the Macapagal
government accepted the onerous ‘stabilization’ loans from US banks. Advocated an open door
policy for US investments.The volume of US investments increased but not any higher than the
huge profits being remitted.

Economy. In his inaugural address, Macapagal promised a socio-economic program anchored on

"a return to free and private enterprise", placing economic development in the hands of private
entrepreneurs with minimal government interference.Twenty days after the inauguration,
exchange controls were lifted and the Philippine peso was allowed to float on the free currency
exchange market. The currency controls were initially adopted by the administration of Elpidio
Quirino as a temporary measure, but continued to be adopted by succeeding administrations. The
peso devalued from P2.64 to the US dollar, and stabilized at P3.80 to the dollar, supported by a
$300 million stabilization fund from the International Monetary Fund.

Anti-corruption drive. One of Macapagal's major campaign pledges had been to clean out the
government corruption that had proliferated under former President Garcia.The administration
also openly feuded with Filipino businessmen Fernando Lopez and Eugenio Lopez, brothers who
had controlling interests in several large businesses. The administration alluded to the brothers as
"Filipino Stonehills who build and maintain business empires through political power, including
the corruption of politicians and other officials".[13] In the 1965 election, the Lopezes threw
their support behind Macapagal's rival, Ferdinand Marcos, with Fernando as Marcos' running
mate

Establishment of the Philippine Veterans Bank

The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844)was an advancement of land reform in the
Philippines and was enacted in 1963 under President Diosdado Macapagal. It abolished tenancy
and established a leasehold system in which farmers paid fixed rentals to landlords, rather than a
percentage of harvest. In agricultral leasehold, the farmer cultivates the land belonging to, or
possessed by, another with the latter's consent for a price certain in money or in produce or both.
It also established the Land Bank of the Philippines to help with land reform, particularly the
purchase of agricultural estates for division and resale to small landholders, and the purchase of
land by the agricultural lessee.[1]

Ferdinand E. Marcos

Implemented a number of economic programs that helps the country to enjoy the period of
economic growth from the mid-1970’s until the early 1980’s. Land reform was introduced under
PD Nos. 2 and 27.Kilusang Kabuhayan at Kaunlaran (KKK) – aimed to promote economic
development of the Barangay’s by encouraging Barangay residents to engage in their own
livelihood projects.Enacted the investment incentives law on 1967 which declares it the state
policy to encourage foreign investments and defines a corporation with a maximum foreign
equity of 40% as a Philippine national. IMF dictated the devaluation of peso.

In 1970 P1.00 $6.00 from previous P3.90 per US dollars.P 6 Billion interval debts because of
profligate (recklessly wasting) spending on project that merely deepen the semi-feudal and semi-
colonial character of Phil-economy.Philippine external debt has reached to $ 1.9 billion.Japan-
RP Treaty of Amnesty, commerce and navigation has encouraged Japanese monopolies to invade
the Philippines. They rank as the 2nd biggest foreign investors. Japanese products/commodities
were dumped into the country and Japanese investments penetrated every major field of business
activity.

 Food sufficiency
 A. Green Revolution
 Production of rice was increased through promoting the cultivation of IR-8 hybrid rice. In
1968 the Philippines became self-sufficient in rice, the first time in history since the
American period. It also exported rice worth US$7 million.
 B. Blue Revolution
 Marine species like prawn, mullet, milkfish, and golden tilapia were being produced and
distributed to farmers at a minimum cost. Today, milkfish and prawns contribute
substantially to foreign exchange income.
 C. Liberalized Credit
 More than one thousand rural banks spread all over the country resulting to the
accessibility of credit to finance purchase of agricultural inputs, hired labor, and
harvesting expenses at very low interest rate.
 During 1981-1985, credit was available
 without interest and collateral arrangements.
 Some of the credit programs were the ff:
 1. Biyayang Dagat (credit support for fishermen)
 2. Bakahang Barangay –supported fattening of 40,000 head of cattle in farmer backyards
 3. Masaganang Maisan, Maisagana, and Expanded Yellow Corn Program –supported 1.4
Million farmers through P4.7 Billion loans from 1975-1985
 4. Gulayan sa Kalusugan and Pagkain ng Bayan Programs –provided grants and loans of
P12.4 Million to encourage backyard and communal production of vegetables and
improve nutrition of Filipino households
 5. Kilusang Kabuhayan at Kaunlaran (KKK)— supported 25,000 entrepreneurial projects
through P1.8 Billion and helping 500,000 beneficiaries
 D. Decontrol Program
 Price control polices were implemented on rice and corn to provide greater incentive to
farmers to produce more. Deregulation of trading in commodities like sugar and coconut
and agricultural inputs like fertilizer were done for more efficient marketing and trading
arrangements.
 The Primary Health Care (PHC) Program made medical care accessible to millions of
Filipinos in the remotest barrios of the country. This program was even awarded by
United Nations as the most effective and most responsive health program among the third
world countries. With PHC life expectancy increased from 53.7 years in 1965 to 65 years
in 1985. Infant mortality rate also declined from 73 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1965 to
58 in 1984.
 V. Housing for the masses
 Bagong Lipunan Improvement of Sites and Services (BLISS) Housing project had
expanded the government’s housing program for the low-income group. Massive slum
upgrading projects have improved to 14,000 lots in 1985 from 2,500 in 1976. The Tondo
foreshore, for instance, is one of the biggest and most miserable slum colonies in Asia
was transformed into a decent community. A total of 230,000 housing units were
constructed from 1975-1985.
 VI. Energy Self-Reliance
 Indigenous energy sources were developed like hydro, geothermal, dendrothermal, coal,
biogas and biomass. The country became the first in Asia to use dendrothermal and in
five years we became number two, next to US, in geothermal utilization. The extensive
energy resource research and exploration and development resulted to reduction of oil
imports from 100% in 1965 to 40% in 1985 and in the same year, more than 1,400 towns
and cities were fully energized.
 VII. Export Development
 During 1985 textile and textile products like garments and embroideries, furniture and
rattan products, marine products like prawns and milkfish, raw silk, shoes, dehydrated
and fresh fruits were exported aside from the traditional export products like coconut,
sugar, logs, lumber and veneer. The maritime industry was also dominated by Filipinos
wherein 50,000 seamen were employed by various world shipping companies.
  Unprecedented Infrastructure Growth
 The country’s road network had improved from 55,778 kilometers in 1965 to 77,950 in
five years (1970), and eventually reached 161,000 kilometers in 1985. Construction of
irrigation facilities was also done that made 1.5 million hectares of land irrigated and
increased the farmer’s harvest and income. In addition, nationwide telecommunication
systems— telephone systems, telex exchange too centers, and interprovincial toll stations
were also built.

Fidel V. Ramos and Philippines 2000

The Philippines 2000 platform largely hinged on five major areas:

 Peace and Stability

 Economic Growth and Sustainable Development
 Energy and Power Generation
 Environmental Protection
 Streamlined Bureaucracy
The Philippines 2000 program formed the core of the Ramos campaign platform in the 1992
elections which largely centered on economic reforms and improved national security and unity.

Joseph E. Estrada

According to the president, the new KKK will liberate 10 million Filipinos from poverty over the
next five years. Around 6,000 people, whom critics dismissed as mere hakot, attended the
launching of KKK.

The event marked the formal launching of the National Anti-Poverty Commission’s (NAPC)
action plans to eradicate poverty. It was also a platform for the administration’s accomplishment
report on poverty alleviation, which included:

 the launching of the Enhanced Retail Access for the Poor, or ERAP sari-sari stores, and
the National Food Authority's rolling stores;
 implementation of several programs on food security to ensure adequate food in areas
stricken by the El Niño phenomenon;
 the rebound of the agriculture sector, and;
 the forging of a food covenant among provincial governors which aims to ensure the
country's self-sufficiency in rice by 2001, corn by 2002 and fish by 2003.

“ERAP PARA SA MAHIRAP’. This was the battle cry that endeared President Joseph
Estrada and made him very popular during the 1998 presidential election.

President Joseph E. Estrada initiated the enactment of the following law:

Executive Order N0. 151, September 1999 (Farmer’s Trust Fund) – Allowed the
voluntary consolidation of small farm operation into medium and large scale integrated
 enterprise that can access long-term capital.

During his administration, President Estrada launched the Magkabalikat Para sa

Kaunlarang Agraryo or MAGKASAKA. The DAR forged into joint ventures with private
investors into agrarian sector to make FBs competitive.

However, the Estrada Administration was short lived. The masses who put him into
office demanded for his ouster.

Gloria Macapagal Arroyo

FOR A BETTER BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

• RA 7844, The Export Development Act

• RA 7718, The Amended Build-Operate-Transfer Law
• RA 7843, Strengthening the Anti-Dumping Provisions
• RA 8179, Further liberalizing Foreign Investments 
• RA 7721, Liberalizing banking in the Philippines
• RA 7651, Revitalizing and strengthening the Bureau of Customs
• RA 7916, Creating the Philippine Economic Zone Authority
• RA 7640, Constituting the Legislative-Executive Development Council 
• RA 1490, Investment Houses Act (Passed on third reading)
• RA 7661, Extending the Life of the Asset Privatization Trust
• RA 7903, Creating the Zamboanga Special Economic Zone
• SBN 345, Promoting the Development of Interisland Shipping
• SBN 358, Development of Micro and Cottage Industries 

FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

• RA 7882, Providing assistance to women engaging in micro and cottage business

enterprises
• Women's desk to provide assistance to battered wives and other victims of domestic
violence
• RA 7877, Declaring sexual harassment unlawful in the employment, education or
training environment and for other purposes
• SBN 356, Increasing penalties for wife-beating
• SBN 362, Mandatory employment of women
• Establishment of the Movement Against Sexual Abuse (MASA)
 FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

• OCW desk to provide assistance to OCWs and their families

• RA 7833, Excluding the 13th Month Pay and Other Benefits from the Computation of
Taxable Income
• RA 7654, Allocating a Portion of the Incremental Revenue Collected for the Emergency
Employment Program
• RA 7637, Creating the Mt. Pinatubo Assistance, Resettlement and Development
Commission
 • RA 7657, Appropriating 10 Billion Pesos for the victims of Mt. Pinatubo Eruption
• RA 7906, Regulation of the Organization and Operations of Thrift Banks 
• RA 8182, Excluding the Official Development Assistance (ODA) from Foreign Debt
Limit in order to facilitate the absorption and optimize the utilization of ODA resources
• RA 7820, Creating the Partido Development Administration in Bicol region
• SBN 1176, Establishing Computer Literacy Program in all public schools at the
secondary level
• SBN 1175, Instituting a Public School Teachers Scholarship Program
• SBN 1728, Ancestral Domain Bill
• SBN 1044, Institutionalizing a National Strategy for Poverty Alleviation
• SBN 336, Magna Carta for the Urban Poor

FOR AGRICULTURE & THE ENVIRONMENT

• RA 7900, Promoting the production, processing, marketing and distribution of high-

value crops
• RA 8175. Amending the Charter of the Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation in order
to make more stable and beneficial to farmers and the national economy
• RA 7942, Instituting a new system of mineral resources exploration, development,
utilization and conservation
• Co-host, "Dighay Bayan" TV program catering to farmers
• Pres. Macapagal Awards for best rice farm cooperative 
• SBN 1282, Food Security Buffer Stock Bill
• SBN 2046, Amending the Sugar Restitution Law
• RA 7638, Creating the Department of Energy
 President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo during her eighth State of the Nation Address
(SONA) highlighted the economic benefits of the roll-on, roll-off system (RORO). Mrs
Arroyo said this is the reason why the price of bread remains cheap in many areas
particularly in Mindanao and Visayas. "RORO boats carried 33 metric tons of cargo and
31 million passengers. We have built 39 RORO ports, and 12 more are slated to start,"
she said. The President also thanked local government units who stopped collecting fees
from delivery vehicles. – 
 Benigno Aquino III
 On July 27, 2015, he gave his last State of the Nation Address to the Philippine Congress
that marked the final stages of his six-year presidency. Today as he celebrates his 56th
birthday, here’s an evaluation if he fulfilled his promises.
 His promises
In June 2010, President Aquino won a landslide victory, promising to fight corruption
and poverty. During his inauguration on June 30, 2010, he promised to transform the
government of the country “from one that is self-serving to one that works for the welfare
of the nation.”
 Popularizing the belief that “if no one is corrupt, no one will be poor”, he said his first
priority was to “lift the nation from poverty through honest and effective governance.” To
achieve this promise he explained that his government will “have leaders who are ethical,
honest and true public servants.”
  Besides fighting poverty and corruption, he also promised to make the country “attractive
to investors” through economic reforms. He vowed he would “cut red tape dramatically
and implement stable economic policies.” He also added that he would also “level the
playing field for investors and make government an enabler, not a hindrance to business.”
 Economic record
According to reports, President Aquino has a solid economic record. The country is an
emerging economy, stated by world economic experts due to the inflow of foreign direct
investments (FDI).
 Between January and November 2014, FDI flows reached $5.7 billion that represented a
more than 60 percent increase compared to 2013. The economy was also reported to have
increased by 6.1 percent in 2014. It may be slower than the 7.2 growth in 2013, and short
of the government’s 6.5 to 7.5 target, it was still the second fastest in Asia during that
period. But critics said, this economic growth has failed to raise the living standards in
the country.
 Meanwhile, official figures showed that 25.8 percent of Filipinos were living below the
poverty line in the first half of 2014, just 0.5 percent less than in 2009.
 Corruption record
According to the Official Gazette, the official government journal of the Philippines, the
Aquino government implemented radical transformation in an attempt to improve
transparency and accountability. The Aquino government claims to have improved good
governance reforms that includes “strengthening the mechanisms necessary for the swift
and efficient delivery of services.”
 The government also boasts of changing “procurement and budgeting processes to
promote efficiency and reduce opportunities for corruption.” It resulted to channeling
government funds into social services, health and education.
 On the other hand, an opinion poll cited in The Economist published that 46 percent of
Filipinos believe Aquino has failed to curb corruption, while 13 percent said he
succeeded. The high figure may be attributed to the continuing controversies regarding
the Disbursement Acceleration Program (DAP) and Priority Development Assistance
Fund (PDAF).
 The DAP, which is a program aimed at speeding up public spending and boost economic
growth, and PDAF, which was created to allow legislators to fund small-scale
infrastructure, are being accused of misusing public funds.
 Whether the Chief Executive’s policies and reforms will prove to be successful in the
long run will depend on his successor.

LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT

Unemployment and underemployment have become a serious problem in the country today.
Unemployment means involuntary idleness of laborers who are able and willing to work but
cannot find work. Underemployment is a condition where there is expressed desire for additional
work by those who are employed
The increase in the legislated nominal effective minimum wage (EMW) or the total take home
pay consisting of the minimum wage plus the daily equivalent of cost of living allowance and the
13th month pay, still a steady erosion in the real EMW occurred. The real value of the peso
shrunk and rampant violation of minimum wage, allowances and bonuses among employers.
High prices of basic commodities would not match the EMW of laborers, leading to labor
disputes and work unrest and stoppage. Laborer’s strikes increased in order to get whatever
benefits due to them.

The members, scope, duration of strikes as well as increase of repressions and harassment in the
picket lines were phenomenal. Strikes became a question of survival as times became hard for
every laborers.

The expeditious settlement of labor disputes was done via voluntary arbitration. It is defined as a
mode of settling differences through investigations and determination by one or more persons
selected for the purpose of disputed matter submitted to them by contending parties for decision
and award in line of judicial proceedings.

Development of Labor and Employment under Duterte Administration

From June 2016 up to June 2018, a total of 182,915 contractual workers have been regularized
following the labor department’s campaign against illegal work contracting and
subcontracting. The DOLE has ordered the regularization of another 76,000 workers from top
local companies, which they found to be engaged in illegal labor-only contracting. Although
there are legal implications of endo because a company cannot just practice labor contracting
wittingly or unwittingly without having in their company a roster of regular employees, it has
nonetheless contributed a lot to the total employment and national income by way of short-term
employment opportunities.  While endo has deprived many laborers of the opportunity to enjoy
the full benefit of being a regular employee, the stringent measure normally applied to a regular
applicant is relaxed in favor of an endo worker, resulting in a bigger participation of the entire
employment sector. 

Cancellation of endo would most likely post stringent requirements for the employers before new
regular employees may be hired. Hiring regular employees in favor of contractual employees, we
have to admit, entails a lot of costs perhaps more than double than what a contractual employee
will get sans benefits. Although this author would not favor a full implementation of
contractualization, but the thought of full cancellation of the same would accelerate the
unemployment statistics that we currently have.

Logic tells us that you cannot force the employers to give what they do not have. Much less force
them to hire regular employees to fill in job vacancies. To escape from the responsibility of
carrying the load and additional cost of hiring regular manpower, firms would rather overload
their current roster of regular employees with work in lieu of hiring regular employees.
To escape from the responsibility of carrying the load and additional cost of hiring regular
manpower, firms would rather overload their current roster of regular employees with work in
lieu of hiring regular employees.

This is the most plausible scenario that may transpire if the government will go for the full
prohibition of contractualization. Prudence dictates that contractualization should still exist in a
case to case basis but with government regulation to avoid abuses by the employers. Firms in the
infancy stage should be allowed to some extent to hire contractual employees until such time that
firms can exist on its own and be stable enough to weather the challenges of investment risks.

Firms in the infancy stage should be allowed to some extent to hire contractual employees until
such time that firms can exist on its own and be stable enough to weather the challenges of
investment risks.

Unemployment and economic growth

With the current data on unemployment which stands at 5.8 percent, the incoming administration
under the leadership of presumptive president Duterte stands to inherit around 3.48 million
people who are unemployed. This practically puts to naught the 6.9 percent GDP growth the
country was able to accomplish in the 1st quarter of 2016.

The growth component was mainly consumer-driven fuelled primarily by election spending
estimated to be within P10-12 billion. This amount of fund injection created temporary
employment opportunities that generated an income that contributed to the 1st quarter growth
rate. This, however, is a short-term “economic bliss” that after certain “honeymoon period” will
go back to its previous dilemma of exclusive growth, an economy reserved for the ruling
oligarchy.

Countless growth have been experienced but the people who consider themselves poor remain
unyielding, the number of unemployed remain at more than 3 million. Graft and corruption
remain unmoved, putting it in the upper index of most corrupt nations of the world.

Tall order

Despite the tall order that awaits the incoming Duterte regime, the resounding mandate that he
received during the last election puts to emphasis the people’s high trust in his leadership. One
thing going for the incoming president that perhaps distinguishes him from his predecessor is the
fact that he approaches the nation’s problem with “coolness’ and serenity. If you are in this
mood, it is most likely you will make a good account of yourself and your decision.

His micro approach to the problem as exemplified by the news item he heard about the group of
pushers arrested in Tanauan, Batangas. The pushers were made to parade in the streets as if to
imitate the traditional “Flores de mayo” but this time renamed “Flores de Pusher,” for purposes
of putting them to shame for their criminal acts.
Perhaps in jest, incoming president Duterte made pronouncements that these people may have
been dead if he was in the position of the mayor. His ability to put premium and emphasis even
for this simple police matters if he continues doing it during his term, will endear him to people.
It shows that he does not want himself isolated from the most basic problem of the society — the
society that elected him and catapulted him to the highest position of the land. 

His ability to put premium and emphasis even for this simple police matters if he continues doing
it during his term, will endear him to people. It shows that he does not want himself isolated
from the most basic problem of the society — the society that elected him and catapulted him to
the highest position of the land. 

One of the ticklish issues that will confront the Duterte administration when its term finally
commences at midday of June 30, 2016 is the continued existence or demise of
job contractualization. Despite several attempts to weed out this very contentious labor scheme,
it has remained in effect until now.

The capitalist nature of the outgoing regime has not given emphasis on this supposed anti-poor
policy of employment for reasons that may be both beneficial and otherwise to labor matters and
stakeholders. But then we also have to acknowledge that many investors deem it wise to put their
money in the Philippines because of the relatively cheaper labor cost, which to an extent is
brought about by contractualization.

The termination of “endo”(end of contract) as a campaign promise of incoming president

Rodrigo Duterte will create various repercussions to the Philippine economy. The labor force
especially the proletariat sees endo as a tool of the capitalist to manipulate and exploit the
vulnerability of laborers. The laborers, as an offshoot of prolonged unemployment and
uncompetitive nature, would rather accept a below par employment contract without full benefits
enjoyed by a regular worker than have no paid employment.

Agrarian Reform Program

Pre Spanish Period

“This land is Ours God gave this land to us”

Before the Spaniards came to the Philippines, Filipinos lived in villages or barangays ruled by
chiefs or datus. The datus comprised the nobility. Then came the maharlikas (freemen), followed
by the aliping mamamahay (serfs) and aliping saguiguilid (slaves).

However, despite the existence of different classes in the social structure, practically everyone
had access to the fruits of the soil. Money was unknown, and rice served as the medium of
exchange.
 Spanish Period

“United we stand, divided we fall”

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the concept of encomienda (Royal Land Grants)
was introduced. This system grants that Encomienderos must defend his encomienda from
external attack, maintain peace and order within, and support the missionaries. In turn, the
encomiendero acquired the right to collect tribute from the indios (native).

The system, however, degenerated into abuse of power by the encomienderos The tribute soon
became land rents to a few powerful landlords. And the natives who once cultivated the lands in
freedom were transformed into mere share tenants.

First Philippine Republic

“The yoke has finally broken”

When the First Philippine Republic was established in 1899, Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo declared in
the Malolos Constitution his intention to confiscate large estates, especially the so-called Friar
lands.

However, as the Republic was short-lived, Aguinaldo’s plan was never implemented.

American Period

Long live America”

the americans broadened the ownership of land among people and introduced the capitalistic
system with an export orientation.
Significant legislation enacted during the American Period:

 Philippine Bill of 1902 – Set the ceilings on the hectarage of private individuals and corporations
may acquire: 16 has. for private individuals and 1,024 has. for corporations.
 Land Registration Act of 1902 (Act No. 496) – Provided for a comprehensive registration of land
titles under the Torrens system.
 Public Land Act of 1903 – introduced the homestead system in the Philippines.
 Tenancy Act of 1933 (Act No. 4054 and 4113) – regulated relationships between landowners and
tenants of rice (50-50 sharing) and sugar cane lands.
The Torrens system, which the Americans instituted for the registration of lands, did not solve
the problem completely. Either they were not aware of the law or if they did, they could not pay
the survey cost and other fees required in applying for a Torrens title.

The Philippine Republic

Land reform was grappled and attended to during the presidency of Ramon Magsaysay,
Disodado Macapagal, Ferdinand Marcos, Corazon Aquino, Fidel Ramos, Gloria Arroyo,
Benigno Aquino III and the incumbent Rodrigo Duterte. They considered land reform as one of
the cornerstone of their respective administration.

Objectives of Agricultural Land Reform Code

i) To establish owner-cultivatorship among those who live and work on the land as
tillers, with owne-cultivatorship and economic size farm as basis of Philippine
Agriculture and as a consequence to divert landlord capital in agriculture to industrial
development;
ii) To achieve a dignified existence for small farmers, free from percinous institutional
restraint and practices;
iii) To create a truly viable, social and economic structure in agriculture conducive to
greater productivity and higher farm income through a cooperative system of
production, processing, marketing, distribution, credit and services;
iv) To apply labor laws equally and without discrimination in both industrial and
agricultural wage earners;
v) To provide a more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and public
level distribution;
vi) To make small farmers more independent, self reliant and responsible citizens and a
source of genuine strength in our democratic society;
vii) To give first priority measures for adequate and timely financing of the agrarian
reform program;
viii) To involve local governments in the implementation of the agrarian reform program;
and
ix) To evolve a system of land use and classification

Newly Created Department of Human Settlements and Urban Development (DHSUD).

President Rodrigo Duterte signed on February 14 a law creating the Department of Human
Settlements and Urban Development (DHSUD) or Republic Act 1120. The measure
consolidates the administrative functions of the Housing and Urban Development Coordinating
Council, and the regulatory functions of the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB).

The new department will have several bureaus: Bureau of Environmental, Land Use and Urban
Planning and Development;  Housing and Real Estate Development Regulation Bureau, and 
Homeowners Associations and Community Development Bureau.

Under the department, the HLURB will be reconstituted into the Human Settlements
Adjudication Commission.

The law also creates the National Human Settlements Board. It will be composed of the
department secretary, as well as the heads of the National Economic Development Authority, the
Department of Finance, the Department of Budget and Management, the Department of Public
Works and Highways, and the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG).

The DHSUD shall have administrative supervision of the National Housing Authority, the
National Home Mortgage Finance Corporation, the Home Development Mutual Fund, and the
Social Housing Finance Corporation.

The new department is mandated to establish housing one-stop processing centers, which will
centralize processing and issuance of housing-related permits, clearances and licenses.

The DHSUD, along with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of
Agrarian Reform, the Department of Agriculture, DILG, and Land Registration Authority must
identify government lands for housing and rural development within 180 days from the
effectivity of the law.

Identified lands, however, must be idle for more than 10 years. Lands owned by government-
owned and controlled corporations, and government financial institutions engaged in shelter
financing are not covered. Lands exempted from conversion under existing laws shall also be
excluded.

The last time a housing department was instituted was during the martial law regime of then
President Ferdinand Marcos. It was called the Ministry of Human Settlements, headed by his
wife, now Ilocos Norte Second District Rep. Imelda Marcos.

Major Development problems of the Philippines

It is important to note that, as in any country, many of the development problems in the
Philippines are interrelated; it is slightly artificial to attempt to separate them. However, to
address them it is necessary to do so. It is also crucial to note that the term ‘development’ has no
one defined meaning; there are a variety of understandings. For this reason, although the ‘major
development problems’ identified in this essay would be generally accepted as such, there may
be dispute as to whether they are the most ‘major’ or pressing issues. Certainly different actors in
the development ‘field’ may have differing priorities; USAID may focus on peace-building in
areas of conflict, while a Manila slum-dweller may call first for reform in health services and
land tenure. Issues such as national debt, which spiralled after the 1974 OPEC shocks (Tan and
Leonor 1985, 111), must be understood to be under-writing many of these problems: “The debt
trap has severely limited the Philippine government’s ability to confront its many problems.
Servicing the debt places tremendous demands on its budget and foreign exchange earnings”

Corruption

One broad definition of corruption is “the violation of norms of duty and responsibility for
personal gain” (Angles 1999, 3). It has certainly been a major stumbling-block in the
Philippines’ development. In 1991, following the end of Marcos’ period of martial law, Goodno
observed that corruption “may well be the most serious problem in Philippine culture” (1991,
260). This was written even before President Estrada was removed from power in 2000
following revelations that he had hundreds of millions of dollars in bank accounts under false
names. The current President, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, has said that corruption is “strangling”
the nation (Javellana-Santos 2004) but has not been immune from accusation herself. Corruption
in the Philippines has been described as “the root cause of continued poverty” (Azfar and Gurgur
2000, 3), “pervasive and deeprooted” (World Bank 2000, ii) and a crippling hindrance to the
economy and efficient governance (The Asia Foundation 2006, 1). It exists at many levels, from
the relatively small-scale and local to the offices of the most powerful.

There is no doubt that corruption has had a negative effect on education. Lewin (1997, 4) draws
attention to Rao’s observation that the effectiveness of educational investment depends upon the
stability of the economic environment and the efficiency with which “public institutions mobilise
the resources they have and capture private contributions” (Rao 1995). Alongside other factors,
corruption has certainly played a part in limiting stability and efficiency. At a national level, the
Department of Education has been accused of misappropriating funds, while at a local level
many local schools have remained under-financed. Education must also play a part in efforts to
end corruption. President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo has observed that Filipinos must “employ
education to change the culture of corruption” (Gov.Ph News, 2004). Although still limited, this
can be seen in attempts to educate students about corruption and ethical issues in schools and
higher education.

Inequality

In 1988 the World Bank stated that the Philippines “has one of the most unequal income
distributions among middle income countries” (World Bank 1988 quoted in Goodno 1991, 110).
Inequality in the Philippines begins with geographical location; throughout history, people far
from the power base have often missed out. During the Spanish period, the education of a select
few “helped to create an enormous gap between the mass of Filipino people and the educated
elite” (ibid., 261). The power of these elite, based largely in Manila, grew over the years,
supported by corruption, American and religious political intervention and inequitable land laws,
leading to geographical disparity: “some adverse consequences of this situation are uneven
development and unequal distribution of population, government resources, and opportunities for
social and economic advancement” (Cortes 1980, 146). One outcome of these depressed rural
areas has been conflict (particularly in terms of anti-government rebel groups). This will be
discussed under a separate heading.

Inequality is not only between urban and rural. Today’s Philippine cities contain gated
private estates for the rich, but also slums, a “physical manifestation of poverty, inequality and
social exclusion in urban areas” (DFID 2004, p1). Education plays a part in the growth of such
areas: “with the spread of education, migration continued unabated, depleting the rural areas of
the educated people while causing congestion, open unemployment and related problems in the
city” (Tan and Leonor 1985, 110). The issue of unemployment will be discussed later. In
addition to rapid rural-to-urban migration, the Philippines faces population growth; it “has the
highest birth rate in Asia, and forecasters say the population could double within three decades”
(BBC 2007). Clearly this causes difficulties for the education system. Although the Philippines
appears to be extremely successful in terms of school enrolment, “the devil is in the detail”
(Doyle 2005). Public schools have struggled to manage the large numbers of pupils, while often
also suffering from less than adequate budget; in many areas quality has had to give way to
quantity.

• “Official government data show that school facilities in the country are insufficient to
cover the entire school-age population” (Philippine Star 2006)

• “There are large-scale shortages of classrooms, teachers, desks and chairs, textbooks
and audio-visual materials. Over-crowding of classrooms is standard with class sizes averaging
about 80 students per class” (USAID 2007, 1).

• Public high schools in densely populated areas are sometimes resorting to running two
institutions using the same facilities: ‘day’ and ‘evening’ high schools.

Conflict

Inequality and corruption, both discussed above, are often factors in causing conflict.
This has certainly been the case in the Philippines, where anti-government rebel groups have
often been rooted in depressed, rural areas, particularly during the period of martial law under
Marcos. Conflict can be understood as a development problem in that it discourages foreign
investment, causes economic and social instability and is a large cost in itself.

The most significant area of conflict in the Philippines today is Mindanao, the
archipelago’s southern-most island. Currently populated by around 12 million Christians, 4
million Muslims and 2 million indigenous peoples, it is “a region long characterised by conflict
between multi-ethnic and religious groups” (Neufldt, McCann and Cilliers 2000, 3). A key factor
in the on-going conflict between Christians and Muslims “was the government resettlement
effort between the 1920s and 1950s, when mainly Christian landless farmers were relocated from
other areas in the Philippines to the resource-rich and under populated island of Mindanao”
(ibid.). Since that time, over 120, 000 people have lost their lives and over 1.5 million people
have been displaced, resulting in deep-seated tension and prejudice, which has not been helped
by the government’s often heavy handed approach, particularly since joining the US-led ‘War on
Terror’. USAID notes that development problems are now “particularly acute in the conflict-
affected areas of Mindanao” (USAID 2007, 1).

Unemployment and underemployment

As has been seen above, the Philippines faces difficulties with poverty, inequality and rapid
rural-to urban migration. Issues around unemployment and underemployment (i.e. those who are
employed, but well below capacity in terms of ability or working time) must be understood as
related to these. A survey carried out by the Philippine National Statistics office in 2003 reported
that unemployment was around 13 per cent, while underemployment was at 20.8 per cent
(Serrano 2004). It also suggested that these figures were expected to increase due to rising costs
in the agriculture sector. For the most part, thanks to the successes of Philippine education
discussed earlier, these unemployed and underemployed people are educated.
This is not a new problem for the Philippines; in 1975, one in five college graduates was not in
employment (Tan and Leonor 1985, 114). The attempted solution came through educational
policy; an emphasis on vocational training in schools, under the slogan “Work is the core of our
curriculum” (ibid, 121). A similar approach is being used today: “[Department of Education]
Secretary Lapus pointed out the need to provide a solution to the job mismatch in the workforce,
where graduates do not have the skills required by hiring industries. He emphasized the need to
improve DepED’s technical and vocational educational program so that this need can be
addressed” (Department of Education 2006). However, some critics have argued that this may
not be the only or most appropriate solution. Rather than only increasing or improving the
vocational education on offer, Leonor suggested that it is important to develop “the flexibility to
adjust to changing labour markets” (Leonor 1985, 2) through the entire education system,
beginning in primary school. Vocational training can also have a limiting effect, preparing
students for short term contract, low paid factory jobs in trade export zones.

One of the reasons for the survival of the Philippine economy in the face of the problems
described above is the high numbers of workers overseas; it “is now the world’s biggest exporter
of labour” (New Internationalist 2005, 18). Over eight million Filipinos live and work overseas –
around ten per cent of the population. In 2006 they sent back about fifteen billion dollars in
remittances (Higham 2007), upon which the country is “highly dependant” (BBC 2007). While
this benefits many, it has some negative effects. Those who receive remittances tend not to be
from the poor; “most of those who work abroad can be described as middle class: the rich have
no incentive to leave, the poor lack the education or the money to buy schooling and air fares”
(Higham 2007). It can have a clear negative effect on family life, as families are separated by
long distances and expensive transport costs. There is also the issue of ‘brain drain’. For
example, the Philippines “sends 14,000 nurses abroad each year – twice as many as it trains…
causing a shortfall at home” (New Internationalist 2005, 18).

Poverty

"Poverty is the deprivation of common necessities such as food, clothing, shelter and safe
drinking water, all of which determine our quality of life." 
Generally, the term poverty refers to : 
1) the lack of daily necessities 
             -- water(potable water, of course) 
             -- food
             -- clothing
             -- shelter
2) financial incapability for education and other 
    
     With the lack of daily necessities comes many problems. Without potable water, the risks of
contracting cholera, a disease contracted upon contact with dirty water, are higher. Without food,
malnutrition, and other diet-related problems begin to emerge. With no proper clothing, these
people have nothing to protect their skin from the roughness of the environment. Death rates
among the populace will increase, creating environmental problems. With that, more problems
shall rise as each reaction leads to another. 
     Without education, children of poor families cannot take on higher-paying jobs since they
lack the academic qualifications required, and are thus forced to take on low-paying jobs i.e.
contract worker, construction worker, cleaner, etc. With a low paying job, these children will
eventually be unable to support their families, let alone support him or herself. With that, the
vicious cycle goes on.

Drugs and Other Vices

The prevalence of illegal drug use in the Philippines is lower than the global average,
according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). President Rodrigo
Duterte has claimed that the country could become a "narco-state". Two of the most used and
valuable illegal drugs in the country are methamphetamine hydrochloride (known locally as
shabu) and marijuana. In 2012, the United Nations said the Philippines had the highest rate of
methamphetamine use in East Asia, and according to a U.S. State Department report, 2.1 percent
of Filipinos aged 16 to 64 use the drug based on 2008 figures by the Philippines Dangerous
Drugs Board. As of 2018, the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime report that 1.1 percent
of Filipinos aged 10 to 69 use the drug. In Metro Manila, most barangays are affected by illegal
drugs.

Population Explosion

By yearend of 2018 population, 108.11 million Filipinos will be inhabiting the country, making it the
13th biggest in the world and the second largest in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations after
Indonesia’s more than 260 million.

Per the Population Commission (PopCom), there will be 3.22 births per minute this year and,
despite a declining growth rate, the population is now adding an estimated two million people a
year, or much higher than the annual increase of 1.6 million from 2010 to 2015.

The population breached the 100-million mark in 2014 even when the annual growth rate had
slowed to 2.1 percent from 2.4 percent in the 1990s. Still, it remained the highest in Asean. (The
rate was 1.9 percent in Cambodia, 1.6 percent in Malaysia, 1 percent in Vietnam and Indonesia,
and 0.4 percent in Thailand.)

What is dismaying about the latest figure is that the poor account for a major segment of the
population, according to PopCom deputy executive director Lolito Tacardon, who noted that
women from poor communities were giving birth to an average of five children, compared to an
average of two children for women from higher-income brackets.
Experts argue that poverty is a major cause of high population growth; they point to the fact that
the poor have much bigger families than those with higher incomes. Latest government data
indicate that poverty incidence throughout the country averaged 21.6 percent in 2015. Among the
nine sectors surveyed by the government, farmers, fishers and children belonging to poor families
(or those with income below the official poverty threshold) posted the highest poverty incidences
at 34.3 percent, 34 percent and 31.4 percent, respectively. These consistently registered as the three
sectors with the highest poverty incidence in the 2006, 2009 and 2012 official surveys.

Teenage pregnancy, another contributor to population growth, can also be traced to poverty, as
many teenage mothers are from poor families with no access to education and public health
service. Klaus Beck, country representative of the United Nations Population Fund, has earlier
warned that teenage pregnancy remained an urgent concern in the Philippines, the only country in
the Asia-Pacific region where the number of teenage mothers rose over the last two decades.

Data from the Philippine Statistics Authority for 2016 showed that one in 10 women of child-
bearing age was a teenager, while an earlier study noted that one in 10 Filipino women aged 15 to
19 was already a mother or pregnant with her first child.

PopCom estimated that this year there would be 27.29 million women of reproductive age (or
those between 15 and 49 years old). Of these, adolescent girls aged 10 to 19 years old will account
for 10.08 million, more than 200,000 of whom are projected to give birth in 2017. The figures for
women of reproductive age and adolescent girls continue to be the highest numbers on record,
PopCom has pointed out.

At the end of the day, this size of a population can be alarming or not, depending on the capacity of
the government and the private sector to provide services to its people and to generate enough jobs
to keep people out of poverty.

The Duterte administration seems to be aware of the link between poverty and population
explosion, as indicated by the fact that poverty alleviation — or bringing down the poverty rate
from 25 percent to about 14 percent at the end of its term in 2022—is at the centerpiece of its
governance program.

Environmental degradation
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the natural environment, including the
atmosphere, bodies of water, soil, and forests — is an important cause of poverty. Environmental
problems have led to shortages of food, clean water, materials for shelter, and other essential
resources. As forests, land, air, and water are degraded, people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects. People in developed countries, on the other hand, have
technologies and conveniences such as air and water filters, refined fuels, and industrially
produced and stored foods to buffer themselves from the effects of environmental degradation.
In developing countries, deforestation has had particularly devastating environmental effects.
Many rural people, particularly in tropical regions, depend on forests as a source of food and
other resources, and deforestation damages or eliminates these supplies. Forests also absorb
many pollutants and water from extended rains; without forests, pollution increases and massive
flooding further decreases the usability of the deforested areas.

Natural Disasters

Natural disasters such as typhoons, drought, volcanic eruption and earthquakes have caused
billions of peso worth of infrastructure and the loss of lives. Developing countries, such as the
Philippines, often suffer much more extensive and acute crises at the hands of natural disasters,
because limited resources become obstacles for the construction of adequate housing,
infrastructure, and mechanisms for responding to crises. Natural disasters, being uncontrollable
by man, affect annual agricultural output, such as floods destroying the fertility of soils by
washing away mineral-rich topsoil, and take away natural decomposing agents, rendering the soil
infertile. Droughts cause the land to become barren and unsuitable for cultivation. The
Philippines face constant fears of poor harvests in the face of frequent typhoon occurrences.