SE1,ECTED ENGINEERING PAPERS,

BEING ORIQINALCONXUNICATIONSORDERED BY THE COUNCIL

TO BB PUBLISHED WITIIOUT DISCUSSION.

No. 58.

A THEORY OF EARTH-PRESSURES,”

BY

ARTHUR CECIL VIVIAN, B.Sc., Assoc. M. INST.C.E.

EDITED BY

H. H. JEFFCOTT, Sc.D., B.A.I., Assoc. &!I. IXST.C.&

SECRETARY.

LONDON:
#ublis!rb bp &be fnstitution,
CZiEAT QEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W.l.
1928.

IT& riqht sf Publktbn and of Trawlation i r r u m d . 1

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made, or for the opinions expressed, in the following pages.

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BILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,LIMITED,LONDON AND BECCLBS.
 THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
_..__
~ ~~ ~

SELECTEDENGINEERINGPAPERS.

No. 58.
‘‘ A Theory of Earth-Pressures.”
By ARTHURCECIL VIVIAN,B.Sc.,Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.

THE theory developed in this Paper puts forward an alternative to

a fundamentalengineering principle. Theprincipleinquestion is
that in the design, for example, of a dam the resultant must not
passoutside the “ middle third ” inorder to ensure that there
shall be no “ tension ” on the upstream face, the stress-distribution
under the base being assumed to be a straight line.
In venturing to put forwardamorerationaltheory of earth-
pressures, the Author desires to point out that the theory which
followswas developedduring andsubsequentlytothe design by
conventional methods of a number of eccentrically-loaded founda-
tion-blocks and is based upon the experience gained in that way.
The prevailing theory may be reduced ad absurdum by the following
simple experiment. Place a brick on the ground and load it eccen-
tricallyoutsidethemiddlethird.Prevailingtheoryexplains the
resulting stability which may be attained with a structure so loaded
by assuming a stress-distribution of zero for some part of the space
between the surfaces of pressure, breaking suddenly into a positive
and uniforrnlyincreasingstressdistributedover the remainder of
the surfaces, its indicated diagrammatically in Piy. 1.
Existing theory is based on an assumption of elasticity, where2.s
the average bearing-soil is essentially non-elastic : it is plastic or
“ formless,” that is, i t is capable of adopting any form into which

it is pressed without possessing any capacity for resuming its original

shape.
I n order to simplify the explanation which follows the theory is
here applied to the rectangular base of a unit length of a dam. Only
the vertical component of the resultant load produced by the dead

Original Communication No. 46i3.

4 VIVIAN ON A THEORY OB EARTH-PRESSURES.

Fig. I .
\
Resultant

THE USUAL THEORY O F STRESS-DISTRIBUTIONWHENTHE RESULTANT PASSES

OUTSIDETHEMIDDLETHIRD IS SHOWN DIACKAMI.IRIATICALLY. THE DOTTED
LINEGIVESTHESTRESS-DISTRIBUTIONASSIGbED BY THENEWTHEORY FOR
THESAMECONDITIONS OF LOADING.

weight and by the water-pressureon the upstreamface is considered.

It is assumed that the resistance to sliding is more than adequate
to take care of the horizontal component.
The theory isbased on the postulates that:---.
(1) Thetotalupwardpressure is equal tothe downwardload
(Newton’s First Law).
( 2 ) The moment of the one part of the load about the point where
the resultant cuts the base is equal to the moment of the
other part of the load about the same point.
Referring t o Pigs. 2, GH representsthe base of a foundation.
Three particular stress-distributions are shown for three particular
positions of the resultant. When thestress-distribution line GMII
isstraighttheresultant is at the middle third ; when thestress
line is concave with respect to GH the resultant is within the middle
third; and when it isconvex the resultant is outside the middle
third.
This infinite fanlily of curvesmay beexpressed by the general
equation y = Jfm(x/d)J-l,where y denotes the stress between the
foundation and bearing-soil, J can be shown to be the ratio GP/PH,
fm is the mean stress, 2 the distance from the heel of the foundation,
and d the length across the base.
Themathematical proof thatthisequation satisfies thetwo
postulatesisstatedinthe Appendix, where are also given ex-
pressions for the maximum stress and the moment of resistance of
a rectangular foundation.
 VIVIAX ON A THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURES. .5
I n using the theory in practice the position of the resultant is
obtainedbyconventionalmeans.Then the value of J for this
particularloading is determinedsimplybymeasuringtheratio
GP/PH, that is, the ratio of the greater to the less part into which
the resultant divides the base. Thc stress produced at the toe of
the foundation is equal to JJn, as shown in the Appendix.
Such a computation is simple and justified by a rational theory.
Actually it is liable to err on the safe side, since in practice it is

Figs. 2.
!

i
Resultant
l
Resultofit
l

THE EQUATION TO THE LIEE GME IS y = Jf,(x/d)J-l. IF J DENOTES THE

RATIO GP/pH and fm IS THEMEAFSTRESSDUE TO DEADLOAD,TEEAREA
GHEM = TEEDEAD LOADPERUNITWlDTH,ANDTHE MOMENT OF T E E
AREA GPM ABOUT P THE MOMENT OF THE AREA PHEM ABOUTTHE
SAXE POINT. THE LEEGTH X IS MEASURED ALONG GH FROM G. THE
BEARING-PRESSURE ?/ IS XEASURED PERPENDICULARLY PROM GH.

hardly likely that in anyplastic material a stress can change suddenly

from a maximum value to zero.
Fig. 3 indicates the probable actualstress-distribution which
occurs. The actual stress area GH’E’M’ is equal to the theoretical
stress area GHEM. The moment of GPM’ about P is equal to the
moment of PH’E’DI‘ about the same point. Theextension of the
base stress line t,o H’ is justified by the practical observation that
when a foundationfails, earth is pushed upwards round the concrete,
which proves an upward pressure at HH’.
Whether the position of the resultantis outside or inside the middle
t . h i d , there is likely to be a flat,teningof the peak load a t E, and the
act,ual maximum stress HE’ will be in all such cases less than the
theoretical maximum stress, Jfv,.
This ratio J plays animportantpart in a theory of bending
[ 69 ] A 2
6 VIVIAN ON A THEORY OF EARTH-PRESSURES.

recently developed 1 by the Author, inwhich the symbol J expressed

the attribute of differing materials which causes them to develop
differinginternalstress-distributionswhensubjected to similar
bending-moments.The ratio J was in thattheorytermedthe
" form-factor " of the material because it determined the form of
the line of stress-distribution across a section of a beam subjected
to a bending-moment.
In the theory of earth-pressures now advanced the same symbol
J is purposely used to emphasize the suggestion that in cases where
a structure is to be carried on ordinary earth foundations, the earth
may be considered as a " formless " material, and the value of the
Fig. 3.

DIAGRAM
OF A CROSS SECTION OF A BRICK WALL.

factor J is determined solely by the position of the resultant. The

suggestion implied in this Paper is that the difference between an
elastic and a plastic material is that the former has a form-factor
characteristic of the properties of the material and the latter has not.
That is, for a " formless " material the value of J is simply fixed
by the applied loading.
If, however, any vertical anchorage is introduced on the upstream
side of afoundation, the va.lue of J is thereby modified.The
development of a rational theory on theselines allowing for a definite

Inst. C.E. Selected Engineering Paper No. 44 (1927).

 VIVIAN ON A THEORY OF EARTH-PRESSURES. 7

amount of tension at the heel offers a promising field in the design

of reinforced concrete as well as in the design of foundation-blocks
for the rationalization of the computations for which the theory is
primarily intended.
The first postulate is unquestioned, the second assumes that the
whole of the weight is concentrated along one line. When the dam
is bonded together into a solid block the assumption may be ac-
cepted ; but in the case of an earth-fill dam it does notapply.
The theory put forward therefore applies only to the case of a solid
block resting upon earth. The earth has been described as plastic
and “ formless,” andin order to illustrate clearly the bearing
material to which the theory relates a description of the method
normallyemployed for placingconcrete isused. Theexcavation
is dug and concrete is placed in such a way that there is contact
everywherebetween the bottom of the concrete and the earth, a
condition aided by the plastic nature of the ground which as the
superimposed load increases is pushed everywhere into even more
intimate contact with the concrete.
Even if such bearing-material is treated as an elastic substance,
there is no justification for the assumption that the neutralaxis
of the base about which the foundation will tend to revolve lies a t
the centroid of the base ; nor that the resulting stress-distribution
willfollow a straight-line law. Nothing in the foregoing argument,
however, vitiates the statement of the second postulate, that the
moment of all the upward forces to the left of the resultant will be
equal to the moment of all upward forces to the right, each taken
about the resultantat thepoint where it cuts through thebase.
Application of theTheory to Other Conditions amd Materials.--
Consider the cross section shown in Fig. 3 to represent a brick and
cement-mortar wall, for convenience of unit length, and subject to
a horizontal pull Q at the top. Thetheoreticalmaximumstress
under the toe of the foundation is the mean stress multiplied bythe
ratio GP/PH. Theprobableactualstress-distribution is shown
dotted.
Considering nextthecement-mortar section LK betweentwo
courses of brick, it is first assumed that no failure has occurred a t
the tension face. The stress-distribution a t L K is due to the dead
weight of the wall above LK and the bending-moment to which the
section LK is subjected.Treatingthesefactorsseparately, the
dead-weight stress is equal to the total load above LK divided by
the area.This is denotedby fm and represented by LD or KW.
The maximum compressive and tensile stresses due to the bending-
momentdependon the section-modulus of the section. According
to existing theory the stress-distribution will be a straight line and
8 VIVIAN ON
THEORY
A OF EARTH-PRESSURES.

the section-modulus will be bd2/6, where b is unity in this case and

d is the length of the section LK. Adopting the assumption con-
tainedintheAuthor'sform-factortheory of bendingas being
applicable to cement mortarand finding its form-factorexperi-
mentally,thecurve B"XE" is the stress line producedby the
overturning-moment.Thestraight line DW- is thestress line due
tothe uniformly-distributeddeadweight.Thesestress lines are
combined in the resultant stress line TSC.
The assumption of a value for 3 for constructing this Fig. 3 is
purelyarbitrary. Theexperimentaldetermination is governed by
the salient fact that failure will probably occur in tension at the
junction between t,he cement mortar and the brickwork. It would
be practicable to prepare two courses of brickwork 18 inches square
in cross section, secure topandbottomseparatelyinlight steel
boxes, and subject the section to a bending-moment. By attaching
a long light vertical lever to the upper course, the effects of shear
and dead weight would be reduced to a minimum. A similar cross
section would also be testedtodestruction in a tensile testing-
machine. The bending-moment which causes failure on the section
+
may be expressed as (J - l)bd2ft/2(J l),whereft is the sum of the
ultimate tensile strength of the section and the dead load stress to
which the section is subjected in the bending test. From a numberof
pairs of tests of this nature, aminimum value for J may be obtained.
If the straight-line theory had been used, the theoretical maximum
tension a t L would have been much greater. But it is well known
that abrickwall will withstand far greater overturning-moments
than are theoretically justifiable by existing methods of computa-
tion, and the proposition is therefore mooted that the actual stress-
distribution under such circumstances as described follows a curved
path of the form indicated by the line TSC in Fig. 3.
There will be a definite and sudden alteration in the stress-distribu-
tion a t failure onthe tension side. If the line TSC in Figs. 4 represents
the stress-distribution immediately before failure, then atthe
moment of failure on the tension face the mortar will open from L
towards K, or a t least the tension bond between the particles will
be snapped. The
conditions of stress-distribution which now
suddenly develop are in all probability those which apply where a
rigid base rests on a '' formless " material, that is, once the tension
bond fails the cementmortarmay for all practicalpurposes be
considered a formless material.
Such a stress-distribution is represented the by line LME in Fig... 4,
and the value of the factor J in the equation to this line LME is
determined solely by the position of theresultant. Figs. 4 area
particular example drawn to scale, adopting an arbitrary value of
 VIVIAN ON A THEORY OF EARTH-PRESSURES. B

J-4 for the form-factor of cement mortar loaded under the con-
ditions described a t the moment before failure on the tension face.
Figs. 4.

The approximate conditions reproduced in the figures are based on the

assumption that a brick column 18 inches square and 18 feet high
wouldcrack on the tensionface but would not collapse if sub-
jected to a uniformpressure of 10 lbs.persquare foot on one
side.
Arbitrary assumption for mortar of J = 4.0.
Overturning-moment = 1.5 X 10 X 18 X 108 1bs.-inches.
= M = ( J - l)bdzft/2(J+ 1).
Whence by substitution ft = 16.7 lbs. per square inch.
The mean dead-load stress,f, = 112 X lS/144 = 14 lbs. per square
inch.
The eccentricity, e = &h/W = M j W = 6.45 inches.
The ratio a/b = 15.4512.55 ~ 6 . = 1 J,.
Therefore the equation to the line LME iu
y = 6*l(z/d)5'lfm= 85*5(~/1)"~,
and the maximumstress KE = 85.5 lbs.per square inch. Im-
mediately before failure on the tension face the maximum tension
LT = ft - f, = 16.7 - 14.0 2.7 Ibs. per square inch, and the
E

maximum compression KC = ( J - 1)ft f f, = 64 Ibs. per square

inch.
58 1
10 VIVIAN ON A THEORY O F EARTH-PRESSURES.

The area LKEM is equivalent to the deadweight., and the moment

of LPM about P is equal to the moment of PKEM about P. If the
ultimate compressive strength of themortaris unequal tothe
sudden accretion of compressive stress CE, the wall will overturn.

The Paper is accompanied by five diagrams, from some of which

the Bigures in thetexthave been prepared, and by two Ap-
pendixes, one of which follows.

APPENDIX.
Area of GHEM in Figs. 2.-
Area =
I:
Jj,(x/d)J-ldx
= total
= ( J / J ) ( d J / d J - l ) j , = fmd

dead weight. That is, the first postulate is satisfied

by the general equation.
Moment of GPM about P in Figs. 2.-
Put GP = a, and PH = b.
Then J = ajb. Also d = a + b.
+
By substitution a = Jd(J 1) and 6 = d / ( J 1). +
1:
Moment = Jf,(x/d)J-I(a - z)dx.
= { f,aJ+l/(J + l))dJ-I, and by substituting for a,
=JJ+ldZf,/(J + 1)J+2.

Moment of PHEM about P in Figs 2.-

Moment = Jj,(x/d)J-l(x - a)dx
J,"
= {j,,,(JdJfl - JadJ - adJ + a J + l ) / ( J-
and by substituting for a,
= JJ+1@j,,,/(J 4-1 ) J I - Z .
That is, the expressions for the moments are identical. The general equa-
tion therefore satisfies the second postulatc.
Expression for mazimum stress, HE.-
By substituting X = cl in the general equation.
Maximum stress = Jj,(d/d)J-l
= Jf,.
Expression for Moment of Resistance.-
It mayoccur thatthe designerdesires to compute the moment of
resistance of a rectangular foundationfor a given maximum earth-pressure.
Suppose that themaximum stress g and the mean stressf,,, are given, then
g = J f , and J = g/f,.
 VIVIAN ON A THEORY OF EARTH-PRESSURES. 11
Let the moment of resistance (= overturning moment)be denoted by M,
and the dead weight by W, then eccentricit,y of load, that is, the distance
from the middle of the foundation to the point where the resultant cuts
the base = e = N/W.
If length of the base isd,
+
J = (d/2 M / W ) / ( d / 2- M/IY).
From which M = Wd(J - 1)/2(J 1 ) +
= W4g -f m ) / 2 ( g +j m ) .
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