Greenhouse Effect (SOCIAL PROJECT)

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
PROJECT ON
“A PROJECT REPORT ON GREENHOUSE EFFECT”
SUBMITTED BY
NISHAD RAHUL RAJENDRA
SEAT NO.: --
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR
THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MMS (FINANCE)
OF
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
2022-2023
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
PROF. ALSHAMA MOMIN
MATOSHRI USHATAI JADHAV INSTITUTE OF
MANAGEMENT STUDIES AND RESEARCH CENTER, BHIWANDI.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that NISHAD RAHUL RAJENDRA, a student of Matoshri

Ushatai Jadhav Institute of Management Studies and Research Centre, Bhiwandi of
MMS Semester-VI bearing SEAT No and specializing in FINANCE has
successfully completed the project titled. " A PROJECT REPORT ON
GREENHOUSE EFFECT.” Under the guidance of PROF. ALSHAMA
MOMIN in partial fulfillment of the requirement of Masters of Management
Studies by University of Mumbai for the Academic Year 2022-2023.
Prof. Alshama momin Prof. Vijay Vanjare Dr.SopanBhamre
(Project guide) ( Coordinator) ( Director)
Examiner: ___________
DATE: ___________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To list who all have helped me is difficult because they are so numerous, and the
depth is so enormous
I would like to acknowledge the following as being idealistic channel and

freshdimensions in the completion of this project.
I take this opportunity to thank the UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI for giving

mechance to do this project.
I would like to thank our Director Dr. Sopan Bhamre Sir for providing the
necessary facilities required for completion of this project.
I take this opportunity to thank our CO ORDINATOR Prof. Vijay Vanjare Sir for
his moral support and guidance.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude toward my project guide Prof.

Alshama momin whose guidance and care made the project successfully.
I would like to thank my college LIBRARY for having provided various reference
Books and magazines related to my project
Lastly, I would like to thank each and every person who directly or indirectly
helped me in the completion of the project especially MY PARENTS AND
PEERS who supported me throughout my project work.
NISHAD RAHUL RAJENDRA

INDEX
CHAPTER NO. CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO
1. INTRODUCTION 1-40
RESEARCH METHODLOGY
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
2. SCOPE OF STUDY 41-48
3. LITERVIEW REVIEW 49-50
4. CASE STUDY ANALYSIS 51-52
5. FINDINGS,SUGGESTION,CONCLUSION 53-57
6. BIBLIGRAPHY 58
7. ANNEXURE 59-60
A PROJECT REPORT ON GREENHOSE EFFECT SYMMS (SEM IV)
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
EXECUTIVE SUMMURY
The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's
heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The
greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live. The
magnitude of the enhanced greenhouse effect is influenced by various complex interactions in
the earth-ocean-atmosphere system which are not included in the discussion above. For example,
as the temperature of the earth’s surface increases more water vapour is evaporated. Since water
vapour is itself a strong greenhouse gas this is a positive feedback which will tend to amplify the
warming effect of (for example) carbon dioxide emissions. Clouds tend both to cool the Earth
because they reflect incoming sunlight, and to warm it by trapping outgoing infra-red radiation.
The net result over the globe of clouds is a cooling, but it is still uncertain whether this overall
cooling will increase or decrease as greenhouse gas concentrations increase. Heat is distributed
vertically in the atmosphere by motion, turbulence and evaporation and condensation of moist
air, as well as by the radiative processes discussed above.
Thus many processes and feedbacks must be accounted for in order to realistically predict
climate changes resulting from particular greenhouse gas emission scenarios. These
complications are the source of much of the debate which has occurred about the likely
magnitude and timing of climate changes due to enhanced greenhouse gas emissions.
Greenhouse the effect keeps the climate of earth warm by receiving energy of sun in the form of
visible light Earth absortis visible light from the sun and then cast as thermal radiation Sun emits
light both of shorter and longer wavelengths Short wavelength of visible light emitted from the
sun is absorbed whees longer wavelength of infrared radiations is trapped and unable to pass
These trapped infrared radiations that escaped from the earth makes the earth surface warmer. It
has been analyzed by the researchers that about 50% of sun energy is absorbed at earth surface
while the remaining is reflected and absorbed by the atmosphere The infrared radiations emitted
from the sun are trapped by gases known collectively as Greenhouse Gases: Joseph Founer
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covered the Greenhouse effect in 1824 But it was first experiment by John Tyndall in 1858. Now
the question arises that which gases contribute to the mposition of greenhouse gases?
Greenhouses gases involves all the triatomic gases of earth's atmosphere Gases with three or
more atoms are only able to interact with infrared radiations. It known that diatomic gases like
oxygen and nitrogen together forms about 99% of earth atmosphere Only 1% earth atmosphere
constitutes the greenhouse gases Major Greenhouse gases include.
 Water Vapor constitute 36% to 70% of greenhouse gases

 Carbon dioxide constitute 9% to 26% of greenhouse gases
 Methane 4% to 9%
 Cloud constitute 3% to 7%
 Cloud also absorb and emit infrared radiations
Earth’s most abundant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, CFCs, and water
vapour. These gases are present near the Earth’s surface. They absorb solar energy that is
radiated back from the surface of the Earth. The absorption of radiation results in the heating up
of the atmosphere. Hence, greenhouse gases are essential for maintaining the temperature of
Earth for the sustenance of life.
In the absence of greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth will decrease drastically,
making it uninhabitable. As a result, life on Earth would be impossible.
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INTRODUCTION
Green House Effect is heating up of earth'satmosphere due to the trapping of intra-red ray.
(reflected from the earth's surface) by the carbondioxide layer in the atmosphere is called green-
houseeffect.The green-house effect in the atmosphere occurs dueto the presence of a blanket of
carbon-dioxide gas inthe atmosphere. This blanket of carbon dioxide gas inthe atmosphere
allows the sunlight to come in freelybut does not allow the intra-red radiation reflected bythe
earth's surface to go out. It is just because the sunlight can come in freely but the intra-red rays
cannotgo out freely that the temperature of earth'satmosphere is raised. The greenhouse effect is
a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat. This process makes
Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is one of the
things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live. The greenhouse effect is the way in which
heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be
thought of as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be
without them. Our Earth is the third planet in the solar system. It revolves around the Sun. The
Earth gets its heating energy from the rays of the sun. These rays are filtered down to the surface
of the Earth through the layer of gases (atmosphere) which surrounds the Earth.
While most of the rays of the sun reach the Earth’s surface, some of the rays are also reflected
back out of the atmosphere. The heat of the sun’s rays is then absorbed by the Earth’s surface
and that too is radiated back into the layer of atmospheric gases.
When this happens, some of this heat is absorbed by the atmospheric gases and some is allowed
to escape back into space. This process is known as the ‘Green-house Effect’. The green-house
effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The green-house effect may therefore be
defined as the progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to blanketing effect of some a
gases. There are some specific gases in the atmospheric layer which trap this heat which is
emitted back from the surface of the Earth. These gases are known as ‘Green-house Gases’. The
four major green-house gases, which cause adverse effect, are carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Among these CO2 is the most
common and important green-house gas. Ozone (O3) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2) also act as
serious pollutants with causing global warming. Thus, if the amount of these gases increases in
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the atmospheric layer, it is usual to expect that more and more of the heat emitted by the surface
of the Earth will get trapped within this atmospheric layer and will not escape back into space.
As the sunray travels through the atmosphere and reaches the Earth, the following events
take place:
 A total of 26% of the sun’s energy is reflected by the atmosphere and the clouds back
into the space. Around 6% is scattered by the atmosphere and the remaining 20% is
reflected by the clouds.
 About 19% of the energy is absorbed by the atmosphere (gases like the ozone and other
particles present in the atmosphere) and the clouds.
 The remaining 55% reaches the Earth.
 Of this 55%, 4% is reflected back into the space by the Earth’s surface and the remaining
50% is absorbed by it.
 The energy trapped by the Earth’s surface heats up the planet. It causes melting of ice and
snow on the Earth and evaporation of water from various water bodies.
 The heat absorbed by the Earth’s surface is released in the form of infrared radiations that
are directed to the space.
 However, only a little amount of this heat is able to escape into the space as most of it is
absorbed by the green-house gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. These gases radiate heat in
the infrared range both out to the space and back to the Earth.
 Majority of the radiation is directed back towards the Earth. This heats up the Earth and
the Earth again radiates this energy in the form of infrared radiations. This cycle keeps
repeating until there are no more infrared radiations are available for absorption.
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
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A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations
warm the plants and the air inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and
warms the greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants. Same is the case in the
earth’s atmosphere. During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night, when the
earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere. During this process, the heat is
absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the surface of
the earth warmer, that makes the survival of living beings on earth possible. However, due to the
increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has increased considerably.
This has led to several drastic effects.Let us have a look at the greenhouse gases and understand
the causes and consequences of greenhouse effects with the help of a diagram. The greenhouse
effect is a good thing. It warms the planet to its comfortable average of 57 degrees Fahrenheit
(13.9 degrees Celsius) and keeps life on earth, well, livable. Without it, the world would be a
frozen, uninhabitable place, more like Mars. The problem is, mankind’s voracious burning of
fossil fuels for energy is artificially amping up the natural greenhouse effect. The result? An
increase in global warming that is altering the planet’s climate systems in countless ways. Here’s
a look at what the greenhouse effect is, what causes it, and how we can temper its contributions
to our changing climate.
Sources of Green-House Effect:
As this keeps on happening, the Earth will become warmer and warmer. This process is also
commonly known as the process of ‘Global Warming’. The process of green-house effect on
earth is quite similar to a green-house. A green-house is a house made out of glass. It is used to
grow plants in the winter season.
In the green-house the rays of the sun come in via the glass, and then the heat remains trapped
within the glass walls and is not allowed to escape. In this manner the temperature inside the
green-house remains high from outside and allows the plant to grow during the winter season as
well.Mainly human beings are responsible for what is happening to the Earth. The production of
Green-house Gases is largely due to the burning of fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal and
natural gas and also the burning of rain forests. This has served to speed up the Green-house
Effect process which happens naturally. This is also, therefore, referred to as the “Man-Made
Green-house Effect’. As mentioned before, the increasing heat which remains trapped within
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theatmospheric layer will end up creating warmer climates across the globe. This process will
significantly cause various climatic disturbances all over the Earth. This can result in many
problems in the long run.
Table 1 shows some green-house gases their concentration Hill 21003 and sources of their
emission.
To combat this rising threat of global warming, countries all over the world are trying to create
pollution free environment and planting trees. Re-forestation is a very natural method of creating
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an environment where global warming can be controlled as plants and trees actually absorb
carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere.
Automobile companies are focusing on manufacturing ‘Green’ cars which release reduced
amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere. In the solar system the atmosphere of Venus, Mars
and Titan also contains gases that cause green-house effect. If an ideal thermally conductive
blackbody was at the same distance from the Sun as the Earth is, it would have a temperature of
about 5.3 °C. However, since the Earth reflects about 30% (or 28%) of the incoming sunlight,
the planet’s effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same
amount of radiation) is about -18 or -19°, about 33° C below the actual surface temperature of
about 14°C or 15°C.
The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the
effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the green-house effect. Solar
radiation at the high frequencies of visible light passes through the atmosphere to warm the
planetary surface, which then emits this energy at the lower frequencies of infrared thermal
radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by green-house gases, which in turn re-radiates much of
the energy to the surface and lower atmosphere.
The mechanism is named after the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a
green-house, but the way it retains heat is fundamentally different as a green-house works by
reducing airflow, isolating the warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.
Green-house gases-including most diatomic gases with two different atoms (such as carbon
monoxide, CO) and all gases with three or more atoms-are able to absorb and emit infrared
radiation. Though more than 99% of the dry atmosphere is IR transparent (because the main
constituents – N2, O2, and Ar-are not able to directly absorb emit infrared radiation),
intermolecular collisions cause the energy absorbed and emitted by the green-house gases to be
shared with the other, non-IR-active, gases.
In our solar system, Mars, Venus, and the Moon Titan also exhibit green-house effect. Titan has
an anti-green-house effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively
transparent to infrared radiation. Pluto also exhibits behaviour superficially similar to the anti-
green-house effect. A runaway green-house effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the
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evaporation of all green-house gases into the atmosphere. A runaway green-house effect
involving carbon dioxide and water vapour is thought to have occurred on Venus.
Thus green-house effect can be defined as the process by which the green-house gases in the
Earth’s atmosphere trap heat of the sun and prevents the Earth from freezing in the absence of
sunlight’. Green-house effect is a natural phenomenon which prevents stark temperature
fluctuations on the Earth during day and night.
Causes the Greenhouse Effect
Sunlight makes the earth habitable. While 30 percent of the solar energy that reaches our world
is reflected back into space, approximately 70 percent passes through the atmosphere to the
earth’s surface, where it is absorbed by the land, oceans, and atmosphere, and it heats the planet.
This heat is then radiated back up in the form of invisible infrared light. While some of this
infrared light continues on into space, the vast majority—indeed, some 90 percent—gets
absorbed by atmospheric gases, known as greenhouse gases, and redirected back toward the
earth, causing further warming.
For most of the past 800,000 years—much longer than human civilization has existed—the
concentration of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere was between 200 and 280 parts per million.
(In other words, there were 200 to 280 molecules of the gases per million molecules of air.) But
in the past century, that concentration has jumped. In 2013, driven up by activities such as
burning fossil fuels and deforestation, carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere surpassed 400
parts per million—a concentration not seen on the planet for millions of years. In May 2022, it
reached more than 420 parts per million, which is 50 percent higher than preindustrial levels.
The higher concentrations of greenhouse gases—and carbon dioxide in particular—is causing
extra heat to be trapped and global temperatures to rise.
The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:
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Deforestation:
One of the man-made causes of the Green-house effect is deforestation. Deforestation increases
the amount of carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere. Also, due to the disappearance of trees,
photosynthesis cannot take place. Deforestation is rampant today due to the increase in human
population. The levels of deforestation have increased by about nine per-cent in recent years.
Also, the burning of wood causes it to decay, therefore releasing more carbon-dioxide into the
atmosphere.
Industrial Emission:
Green-house Gases are also released into the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuels, oil,
coal and gas. These materials are used increasingly and rampantly in Industries. Therefore
Industries are also a major cause of the Green-house Effect. Manufacturing of goods also leads to
an increase in the level of green-house gases.
Burning of coal and natural gas to run the factories has led to the dangerous rise of carbon
dioxide and methane. This has a radical impact on the green-house effect and contributes to
global warming. Since the chimneys are tall, fumes get mixed to the air directly and are
responsible for trapping more heat and increasing it.
Electrical Emission:
Another man-made cause of the increase in the Green-house effect is due to the emission of such
gases from all electrical appliances. Refrigerator in the house emits gases. These gases are
known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and are also used in refrigerators, aerosol cans, some
foaming agents in the packaging industry, fire extinguisher chemicals and cleaners used in the
electronic industry all contribute to the green-house effect. Some processes of the cement
manufacturing industries also act as a cause towards the Green-house effect.
Fuel Burning:
Other man-made processes that contribute and are a cause to the Green-house effect are burning
of gasoline, oil and coal. Apart from these, some farming and land-use processes are also a cause
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of the Green-house effect. Most factories also produce many gases which last for a longer time in
the atmosphere. These gases contribute to the green-house effect and also to the global warming
on the planet. These gases are not naturally available in the atmosphere.
The burning of fossil fuels like petrol, diesel i.e. emissions from automobiles increase the
amount of carbon dioxide in the environmental. Other gases like carbon monoxide and sulphur
dioxide are also emitted from the exhaust pipes of vehicles. These gases contribute towards air
pollution, which causes a dramatic addition of green-house gases in the atmosphere.
Population:
Population growth also is an indirect contributor and one of the causes of the Green-house effect.
With the increase in population, the needs and wants of the people increase. Therefore, this
increases the manufacturing processes as well as the industry processes. This results in the
increase of the release of industrial gases which catalysed the green-house-effect. The increase in
population also results in the increase of agricultural processes. Most man-made machines, like
the automobiles also contribute to the green-house effect.
There can be a number of reasons for green-house gases leading to global warming, some
pertaining to human activity. Dramatic and unpredictable climate change is a matter of concern
these days. The extreme temperatures in the climate have affected not only human life, but also
the flora and fauna. Human activities like deforestation, pollution etc. are the main cause of the
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rise in atmospheric temperature, which, according to some claims, is resulting in global

warming.There are natural green-house gases like water vapor, ozone, methane, carbon dioxide
and nitrous oxide that are present in the atmosphere. These naturally existing green-house gases
absorb the heat and maintain the optimum atmospheric temperature. The upper stratum of the
atmosphere is covered by a layer of ozone, which protects the Earth from harmful UV rays of the
sun.
The sun emits different kinds or rays that enter the atmosphere through the ozone layer. Certain
rays are reflected back by this protective layer. The green-house gases circulate the heat evenly
in the environment.
However, these days due to several human activities, a new set of green-house gases have been
added to the atmosphere. These are hydro-fluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride,
chlorofluorocarbons and per-fluorocarbons. The man made green-house gases have a drastic
effect on the ozone layer, since they deplete it and are called ozone holes. These make it easy for
the sun’s harmful UV rays to pass through and affect the life on Earth. There is also a
considerable rise in temperature, making it difficult to survive. Scientists are trying to figure out
ways for bringing down this rapid increase in temperature.
There are many drastic downsides of global warming in the form of melting of icebergs,
increased depletion of the ozone layer and unsteady weather changes. The annual emissions of
green-house gases has risen up and is a cause of grave concern among scientists, since it leads to
a slow but sure path towards the destruction of the planet.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN ERA OF CLIMATE CHANGE
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This essay explores how climate change alters the pursuit of economic development: the
transformation of poor economies and their people into prosperous ones.
This is hardly the first attempt to reconcile the climate agenda with that of economic
development. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals are significant for defining a
dual agenda where development targets for people and planet sit alongside each other in a
unifying framework. Much commentary focuses on the compatibility of the two agendas. A
radical and specious view pits progress on climate change and economic development as strict
substitutes and calls for no less than the unravelling of economic development to save the planet.
Cooler heads point instead to their complementarity the critical role of economic development in
supporting adaptation and the recognition that investments in the green transition will propel
economies rather than sacrifice living standards.
In contrast, this essay takes as its starting point that the goals and salience of economic
development are immutable. The question posed here is how the quest for economic
development changes in a world gripped by a changing climate. The essay argues that climate
change will force three major changes: a reappraisal of the causes of and prospects for
development, the rebirth of the economics of transition, and a reformulation of the problem
development is trying to solve. In a final section, it asks what these changes could mean for
international security and for the community of national and global actors who set policy and
strategy in this field.
THE CAUSES OF AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Why are some countries richer or poorer than others? This is the motivating question that
underpins the study of development economics. A rich literature has sought to identify the “deep
determinants” that best explain comparative economic performance over the long term. That
search has increasingly boiled down to a focus on geography and institutions. A country’s
geography affects its economy through multiple channels including agricultural productivity,
disease vectors, and proximity to markets. A country’s institutions, defined here as the rules and
norms that govern society—including those imposed by external actors—affect the incentives
individuals face to engage individually or collectively in productive activity. Which of the two is
the dominant factor cannot be definitively resolved empirically, and so it is partly a matter of
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opinion. Nevertheless, the majority opinion, and the weight of evidence, backs institutions. These
studies suggest that future analyses on the deep determinant of economic performance could find
a larger role for geography, with geography proving especially important in determining
countries’ economic fortunes during the current and future era of climate change. Furthermore,
they indicate that economic prospects for today’s poor countries will disproportionately decline,
since those countries, on average, begin with higher temperatures and are forecast to record
especially large increases in temperature (see figure 1).
FIGURE ONE
Climate change’s impact on economic performance will not be limited to its effect on average
temperatures. Other extreme weather events such as droughts and fires, as well as sea level
changes, seem just as, if not more, relevant. One way to think about these effects is to consider
how extreme weather events will shape “growth episodes.” Economic performance in the
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medium to long term is episodic in nature for all but the richest countries that remain at the
technology frontier. Virtually all countries have experienced periods of rapid economic growth
and periods of dismal growth. Comparative performance is explained by the superior ability of
some countries to sustain growth; poor countries have a greater propensity to reverse. In other
words, shocks, and how they are managed, play a large part in explaining comparative economic
performance.
If climate change augurs a world of more frequent and intense shocks, sustained episodes of fast
economic growth—so-called growth miracles—will become harder to pull off. The result will be
fewer poor countries succeeding in converging on rich country income levels, compared to a
world without climate change. This comes at a time when convergence has become more
commonplace since the start of the twenty-first century.
TRANSITION ECONOMIES
Every country today faces the challenge of undertaking a green transition: the switch to a zero-
carbon economy with its far-reaching consequences and demands on land, planning,
infrastructure, investment, technology, jobs, and social justice. The attendant disruption will play
out over the next decades, in addition to the disruptive effects of a changing climate.
For a minority of countries whose economies are organized around fossil fuel extraction, a more
fundamental overhaul beckons. There are twenty-one economies for whom coal, petroleum, and
natural gas account for a majority of merchandise exports; in six of these countries, fossil fuels
represent more than 90 percent of those exports (see figure 2).
Even in a world where some nonrenewable energy generation continues, the economic models of
these countries will require reinvention. This will emerge as a central project for economic
development in the years ahead.
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FIGURE TWO :
Here, the economics of transition, which describes the metamorphosis of dozens of economies
from a centrally planned to a market-based system in the late twentieth century, offers both a
partial analogy and playbook.
Central to that analogy is the anticipation of a drastic drop in income. For countries from the
former Soviet Union, economic contractions ranged from 10 to 50 percent in the initial years of
transition, marking a period of painful adjustment with social, political, and psychological
dimensions. Reductions in output of a similar order of magnitude can be expected for the twenty-
one fossil fuel–export economies, though spread over a longer time horizon.
Fossil fuel exporters can also be expected to undertake some of the same reforms required of
transition economies. This includes redefining the role of the state in the economy, from serving
as a source of growth and rent capture via state-owned enterprises to an enabling role that
embraces greater liberalization, including through the removal of price controls and subsidies
connected to the energy sector. Among the fossil fuel-exporting economies, an average of 3
percent of annual income is devoted to pretax subsidies for fuel, compared to under 1 percent in
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all other countries; in Libya, that share is an astonishing 17.5 percent.19 Taken together with the
anticipated drop in income, these reforms signify the need to recalibrate the social floor to an
affordable level and redefine the social contract.
Such reforms are hardly straightforward. Indeed, the process of economic transition proved to be
a humbling experience for the economic profession. The prevailing wisdom that faster policy
adjustment was better has been challenged by the relative success of more gradual reforms in
East Asia, in contrast to the Big Bang approach advocated and adopted in Eastern Europe. The
slow recovery from transition in many countries has prompted analysts to place greater emphasis
on the importance of forging institutions to support economic development—though the absence
of a practical set of policies to support institution-building is telling. The impending transition
for fossil fuel exporters is likely to entail a similarly daunting and poorly signposted course.
FROM DEPRIVATION TO INSECURITY
The past three decades represent an era of historic development progress. That progress is
commonly illustrated by the changing share of the world population living in extreme poverty,
which has emerged as a universal measure and proxy of global economic development. This
indicator stood at 38 percent in 1990 and has since fallen to a mere 8 percent. The above sections
suggest that climate change will act as a brake on economic development—but that does not
mean that the pattern of global poverty reduction is destined to end.
While climate change may reduce economic output in poor countries, this effect is measured
against the counterfactual of a world without climate change; other factors could outweigh the
impact of climate change so that the net effect remains one of ongoing economic progress.
Moreover, we may be arriving at a structural juncture that challenges this inference.
Climate change augurs a fundamental evolution in what is understood as the core challenge of
economic development. Historically, that challenge was one of deprivation. Households,
communities, or governments lacked the resources they required to meet people’s basic needs
and enable them to thrive. Today, the challenge is increasingly one of insecurity. In an era where
shocks, whether localized or global in scope, have become more frequent and intense,
households, communities, and governments lack the means to protect themselves and the
resources they’ve accumulated. We see some evidence of this changeover in divergent—and
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seemingly incongruous—trends, as climate change takes effect. Over the last decade, the share of
people in the world living in extreme poverty has continued to fall, albeit at a slower rate than in
the prior two decades. Meanwhile, the shares of people facing severe food insecurity—that is,
having run out of food or been forced to go without meals for a day or more—and requiring life-
saving humanitarian support have both been trending up. Since 2018, the share of people facing
severe food insecurity has exceeded the share living under the global poverty line (see figure 3).
Deprivation and insecurity are, of course, linked. A significant share of the world’s extreme
poverty is understood to be a transient phenomenon; in Africa, transient poverty is 50 percent
more common than chronic poverty. In 2010, 97 million people—equivalent to 1.4 percent of the
world’s population—were estimated to have been thrown into extreme poverty by out-of-pocket
health spending alone.Indeed, the number of people that will remain in extreme poverty in 2030
is forecast to be 32 to 132 million higher as a result of climate change.
However, the impact of climate change on poverty may turn out to be one of its less salient
features—and quantifying this impact shouldn’t be necessary to validate the importance of
climate change in understanding economic development. Rather, the emergence of climate
17
change should force a reassessment of what indicators we rely on to capture development

progress and what policies are prioritized to promote it.
CONSEQUENCES FOR INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
The preceding sections describe how climate change will alter the pursuit of economic
development in poor countries. These changes have ramifications far beyond both poor countries
themselves and the field of global development. Below are seven hypotheses describing possible
implications for international security. These are intended to provoke discussion rather than to be
conclusive, but they point both to the breadth of these effects and their relevance to the
international security community.
 A growing sense of grievance among the world’s poor countries, pitting the winners and
losers of climate change against each other. This could include the re-emergence of the
Non-Aligned Movement and Group of 77 as prominent factions in the multilateral
system.
 Increased salience of failed states that are deemed incapable of development as a result of
climate change and thus impervious to foreign investment. Failed states act as an
overlapping source of global instability with climate change.
 Spheres of global risk defined more prominently by geography. Strategies for managing
risk will have to respond accordingly, with greater emphasis put on weather patterns and
linkages drawn across national borders.
 Instability in economies whose exports are dominated by fossil fuels. The green transition
in these countries should be expected to generate economic, political, and social
upheaval, with effects potentially reverberating beyond national borders.
 Power derived less from control of natural resources and potentially more from control of
transmission routes for renewable energy and intellectual property of green technology.
Norms regarding the use of green intellectual property are not set in stone and will
determine whether such power is manifested or not.
 More regular deployment of national and international security forces to assist
communities affecting by crises. The normalization of post-disaster reconstruction,
18
alongside humanitarian relief operations, will place greater demands on security forces
and make their work more visible to civilians.
 Increasing application of methods and tools (such as scenario planning and risk
management) drawn from the security field into economic planning and global
development. This has the promise of bringing greater alignment between the two policy
communities.
GREENHOUSE GASES
Earth’s greenhouse gases trap

heat in the atmosphere and warm
the planet. The main gases
responsible for the greenhouse
effect include carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and
water vapor (which are all natural compounds), and fluorinated gases (which are synthetic or
man-made). Greenhouse gases have different chemical properties and are removed from the
atmosphere, over time, by different processes. Carbon dioxide, for example, is absorbed by so-
called carbon sinks such as forests, soil, and the ocean. Fluorinated gases are destroyed only by
sunlight in the far upper atmosphere.
How much any one greenhouse gas influences global warming depends on three key factors. The
first is how much of it exists in the atmosphere. Concentrations are measured in parts per million
(ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt). For example, 1 ppm for a given gas
means that there is one molecule of that gas in every 1 million molecules of air. The second is
the gas’s lifetime—how long it remains in the atmosphere. The third is how effective the gas is at
trapping heat. This is referred to as its global warming potential, or GWP, and is a measure of the
total energy that a gas absorbs over a given period of time (usually 100 years) relative to the
emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide. Radiative forcing (RF) is another way to measure
greenhouse gases (and other climate drivers, such as the sun’s brightness and large volcanic
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eruptions). Also known as climate forcing, RF quantifies the difference between how much of
the sun’s energy gets absorbed by the earth and how much is released into space as a result of
any one climate driver. A climate driver with a positive RF value indicates that it has a warming
effect on the planet; a negative value represents cooling.
List of Green-House Gases in the Atmosphere:
Going through this table will provide you a better picture about the various gases & constituents
of green-house effect.
Green-House Gases Present in the Atmosphere:
Green-house gases (GHG) are gaseous components in the atmosphere that contribute to the
“green-house effect”, the heating of the Earth by means of a similar effect produced by the glass
panes of a green-house. Green-house gases allow light from the sun to enter the atmosphere
surrounding the Earth.
When that sunlight strikes the planet, some of it is reflected back towards space as infrared
radiation, or heat. The GHGs in the atmosphere traps the heat, but the amount of energy sent
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from the sun to the Earth’s surface should be nearly the same as the amount of energy radiated
back into space, leaving the temperature of the planet’s surface constant.
Some GHGs, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide, occur
naturally to some extent in the atmosphere. Human activities add to the levels of these naturally
occurring gases. Green-house gases from industry and agriculture have played a major role in
global warming. The increase in the population of the planet has to have some effect on the
GHGs in the atmosphere, because more people are breathing out carbon dioxide, and
deforestation to make houses for those people has resulted in fewer trees producing oxygen.
The burning of fossil fuels also leads to higher concentration of carbon dioxide, which
constitutes about 76% of all the green-house gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Most of the
increase in carbon dioxide has occurred during the last 50 years. Measurements from Antarctic
ice core samples have shown that carbon dioxide concentrations stayed pretty stable for about
10,000 years, but began rising in the mid-20th century.
Methane gas accounts for about 13% of the GHGs in the atmosphere. Since 1750, the amount of
methane gas in the atmosphere has doubled, and some scientists say that amount could double
again by 2050. Each year nearly 500 tons of methane is added to the air by coal mining, drilling
for oil and natural gas, landfill emissions, wetland changes, and pipeline losses.
New style fully vented septic systems, Livestock and paddy rice farming, CFCs used in
refrigeration systems, and halons in fire suppression systems are also sources of atmospheric
methane. Most GHGs take a very long time to leave the atmosphere, but methane stays in the
atmosphere for only 10 years. However, it traps 20 times more heat than carbon dioxide.
Animals release methane to the environment as a result of herbaceous digestion. It is believed

that the addition of methane from this source has more than quadrupled over the last century.
Termites also release methane through similar processes.
Methane is also released from landfills, coal mines, and gas and oil drilling. Landfills produce
methane as organic wastes decompose over time. Coal, oil, and natural gas deposits release
methane to the atmosphere when these deposits are excavated or drilled.
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The average concentration of nitrous oxide (N2O) in the atmosphere is now increasing at a rate
of 0.2 to 0.3% per year. Sources for this increase include land- use conversion; fossil fuel
combustion; biomass burning; and soil fertilization. Most of the nitrous oxide added to the
atmosphere each year comes from deforestation and the conversion of forests, savanna and
grassland ecosystem into agricultural fields and grassland.
Both of these processes reduce the amount of nitrogen stored in living vegetation and soil
through the decomposition of organic matter. Nitrous oxide is also released into the atmosphere
when fossil fuels and biomass are burnt. However, the combined contribution of these sources to
the increase of this gas in the atmosphere is thought to be minor.
The use of nitrates and ammonium fertilizers to enhance plant growth is another source of
nitrous oxide. Accurate measurements of how much nitrous oxide is being released from
fertilization have been difficult to obtain. Estimates suggest that the contribution from this source
may represent for 50% to 0.2% nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere annually.
Nitrous oxide, primarily used as “laughing gas”, an inhaled anesthetic, is released naturally from
oceans and by bacteria in soils. Nitrous oxide gas production has risen by more than 15% since
1750, and now makes up approximately 6% of the GHGs in the atmosphere. Each year about 7-
13 million tons is released into the atmosphere using nitrogen-based fertilizers, disposing of
human and animal waste in sewage treatment plants, automobile exhaust. Use of Nitrogen-based
fertilizers has doubled in the past 15 years. The nitrous oxide being released into the atmosphere
today will be trapped in there 100 years from now.
Ozone’s role in the enhancement of the green-house effect has been difficult to determine
scientifically. Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the past) levels of
this gas in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of ozone gas are found in
two different regions of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The majority of the ozone (about 97%) found in the atmosphere is localized in the stratosphere at
an altitude of 15 to 55 kilometer above the Earth’s surface. In recent years, the concentration of
the stratospheric ozone has been decreasing because of the buildup of chlorofluorocarbons in the
22
atmosphere . Since the late 1970s, scientists have discovered that total column ozone amounts
over Antarctica in the springtime have decreased by as much as 70% Satellite measurements
have indicated that the ozone from 65° North to 65° South latitude has had a 3% decrease in
stratospheric ozone since 1978.
Ozone is also highly concentrated at the Earth’s surface. Most of this ozone is created as an
artificial byproduct of photochemical smog. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution,
the concentrations of many GHGs in the Earth’s atmosphere have steadily increased. In 1992, the
United Nations held a Conference on Environment and Development to have a treaty aimed at
reducing emission of green-house gases in order to combat global warming.
The treaty is called the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
which was established in 2005. The world’s leading authority on global warming is the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC has predicted that global
warming will have severe impact on human health, natural ecosystem, agriculture, and coastal
communities if steps are not taken immediately to reverse the increasing concentrations of GHGs
in the Earth’s atmosphere.
The IPCC has concluded by consensus that “The balance of evidence suggests a discernible
human influence on global climate”. That “human influence” is the increased level of green-
house gases being released into the atmosphere and stronger steps must be taken towards
reversing the trend before it is too late to repair the damage.
In summary, the green-house effect causes the atmosphere to trap more heat energy at the Earth’s
surface and within the atmosphere by absorbing and re- emitting long wave energy. Of the long
wave energy emitted back to space, 90% is intercepted and absorbed by green-house gases.
Without the green-house effect the Earth’s average global temperature would be – 18° Celsius,
rather than the present 15° Celsius. In the last few centuries, the activities of human have directly
or indirectly caused the concentration of the major green-house gases to increase. Scientists
predict that this increase may enhance the green-house effect making the planet warmer.
Some experts estimate that the Earth’s average global temperature has already increased by 0.3
to 0.6° Celsius, since the beginning of this century, because of this enhancement. Predictions of
23
future climate indicate that by the middle of the next century the Earth’s global temperature may
be 1 to 3° Celsius higher than today.
According to a recent study, an average household in the United States contributes about 35,000
pound of green-house gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere annually. No wonder
we are running towards the dooms day at such an alarming speed.
The term ‘green-house gases’ is used to refer to the gases present in the atmosphere, which
absorb the radiation and emit them within the thermal infrared range. These gases affect the
temperature of the earth significantly. In fact it is assumed that the absence of these gases would
have made the temperature of the earth surface around 59 degree Fahrenheit colder than what it
is at present. The most prominent green-house gases in the Earth’s atmosphere are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and CFCs.
When amount of these green-house gases increase in atmosphere they start to trap the solar
radiations, which eventually leads to a rise in the surface temperature. This heating of Earth’s
surface is known as green-house effect or green-house warming.
Although they heat up the surface of the Earth, they simultaneously cool the stratosphere, which
eventually triggers ozone layer depletion also called as ozone hole. Ozone layer is very important
for us, considering the vital role it plays by barring the UV rays from entering the atmosphere of
the Earth.
Green-house gases are the gases which trap the solar radiations and trigger a rise in temperature
levels on the planet. There are various green-house gases, the most prominent ones being carbon
dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Some other examples are methane, nitrous oxide and,
water vapour.
Water Vapour:
Water vapor is the gaseous form of water, which is produced due to evaporation of water and/or
sublimation of ice. The atmosphere of the Earth witnesses continuous production of water vapour
due to immense amount of evaporation from water bodies. Eventually, this water vapour is
removed from the atmosphere by the process of condensation. Water vapour, approximately
constitutes about 33 to 66 percent of green-house gases, thus becoming the most prominent
24
constituent of green-house gases list. Anthropogenic factors, i.e. human activities do contribute
in formation of water vapour, but the amount of vapour produced in this case is relatively
negligible.
Ozone:
Another gas prominently featuring in the green-house gases list is Ozone constituting
approximately 3 to 7 percent of green-house gases. Ozone absorbs 9 to laum in the IR region.
Ozone, in upper troposphere acts as a green-house gas, while at ground level it acts as an air
pollutant. It is harmful for respiratory system of animals and human. As a green-house gas,
ozone absorbs the infra-red energy that is emitted by the earth. It is assumed that the radiative
forcing of ozone present in troposphere is approximately 25 percent more than that of carbon
dioxide.
Ozone is made of three oxygen atoms (O3). The oxygen we find in our atmosphere is made up to
two oxygen atoms (O2). Because of its chemical formulation, a single atom of oxygen (O) is
unstable. That is, it wants to combine with something else.
That is why oxygen is almost found in pairs, in its O2 (diatomic) form, where it is more stable.
O3 is less stable than O2 because it wants to return to the diatomic state by giving up an oxygen
atom. When enough ozone molecules are present, it forms a pale blue gas. It is an unstable
molecule that readily combines with other atoms. Ozone has the same chemical structure
whether it is found in the stratosphere or the troposphere.
In the troposphere, the ground-level or “bad” ozone is an air pollutant that damages human
health, vegetation, and many common materials. It is a key ingredient of urban smog. In the
stratosphere, the ozone found is that protects life on earth from the harmful effects of the sun’s
ultraviolet rays. Ozone is constantly being formed in the earth’s atmosphere by the action of the
sun’s ultraviolet radiation on oxygen molecules. Ultraviolet light splits the molecules apart by
breaking the bonds between the atoms. A highly reactive free oxygen atom then collides with
another oxygen molecule to form an ozone molecule. Because ozone is unstable, ultraviolet light
quickly breaks it up, and the process begins again.
Ozone in the Troposphere:
25
The other 10% of the ozone in the earth’s atmosphere is found in the troposphere, which is the
portion of the atmosphere from the earth’s surface to about 12 km or 7 miles up. In the
troposphere, Ozone is not wanted. Ozone is even more scarce in the troposphere than the
stratosphere with concentration of about 0.02 to 0.3 parts per million. But even in such small
doses, this molecule can do a lot of damage. And just to confuse things even further, Ozone in
the troposphere is one of the green-house gases. As discussed in the Green-house Effect section,
the naturally occurring green-house gases (including Ozone) are what make earth habitable for
life as we know it. But scientists are very much concerned about the warming effects of
increased green-house gases caused by human activity. So, in the troposphere, accelerated Ozone
levels deal us a double whammy — as a key ingredient in smog and as a powerful green-house
gas.
GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSION
Since the start of the Industrial Revolution and the advent of coal-powered steam engines, human
activities have vastly increased the volume of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. It is
estimated that between 1750 and 2011, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased
by 40 percent, methane by 150 percent, and nitrous oxide by 20 percent. In the late 1920s, we
started adding man-made fluorinated gases like chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, to the mix.
In recent decades we’ve only picked up the pace. Of all the man-made emissions of carbon
dioxide—the most abundant greenhouse gas released by human activities, and one of the longest-
lasting—from 1750 to 2010, approximately half were generated in the last 40 years alone, in
large part due to fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes. And while global greenhouse
26
gas emissions have occasionally plateaued or dropped from year to year (most recently between
2014 and 2016), they’re accelerating once again. In 2017, carbon emissions rose by 1.6 percent;
in 2018 they increased by an estimated 2.7 percent.
Where Do Greenhouse Gases Come From?
Population size, economic activity, lifestyle, energy use, land use patterns, technology, and
climate policy: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), these are
the broad forcings that drive nearly all human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. Here’s a closer
look at greenhouse gas emissions by source.
Electricity and Heat Production
The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas to produce electricity and heat accounts for one-quarter
of worldwide human-driven emissions, making it the largest single source. In the United States
it’s the second-largest (behind transportation), responsible for about 27.5 percent of U.S.
emissions in 2017, with carbon dioxide the primary gas released (along with small amounts of
methane and nitrous oxide), mainly from coal combustion.
Agriculture and Land Use Changes
About another quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions stem from agriculture and other land-
use activities (such as deforestation). In the United States, agricultural activities—primarily the
raising of livestock and crops for food—accounted for 8.4 percent of greenhouse gas emissions
in 2017. Of those, the vast majority were methane (which is produced as manure decomposes
and as beef and dairy cows belch and pass gas) and nitrous oxide (often released with the use of
nitrogen-heavy fertilizers).
Trees, plants, and soil absorb carbon dioxide from the air. The plants and trees do it via
photosynthesis (a process by which they turn carbon dioxide into glucose); the soil houses
microbes that carbon binds to. So nonagricultural land-use changes such as deforestation,
reforestation (replanting in existing forested areas), and afforestation (creating new forested
areas) can either increase the amount of carbon in the atmosphere (as in the case of deforestation)
or decrease it via absorption, removing more carbon dioxide from the air than they emit. (When
trees or plants are cut down, they no longer absorb carbon dioxide, and when they are burned or
27
decompose, they release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.) In the United States, land-use
activities currently represent a net carbon sink, absorbing more carbon dioxide from the air than
they emit.
Industry
About one-fifth of global human-driven emissions come from the industrial sector, which
includes the manufacturing of goods and raw materials (like cement and steel), food processing,
and construction. In 2017, industry accounted for 22.4 percent of U.S. man-made emissions, of
which the majority was carbon dioxide, though methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases
were also released.
Transportation
The burning of petroleum-based fuels, namely gasoline and diesel, to power the world’s
transportation systems accounts for 14 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. In the United
States, with Americans buying larger cars and taking more flights and with low gas prices
encouraging drivers to use their cars more, transportation is the largest contributor of greenhouse
gases. (It accounted for 28.7 percent of U.S. emissions in 2017.) Carbon dioxide is the primary
gas emitted, though fuel combustion also releases small amounts of methane and nitrous oxide,
and vehicle air conditioning and refrigerated transport release fluorinated gases too.
Nationwide, cars and trucks are responsible for more than 80 percent of transportation-related
carbon emissions.
Buildings
Operating buildings around the world generates 6.4 percent of global greenhouse gases. In the
United States, homes and businesses accounted for about 11 percent of warming emissions.
These emissions, made up mostly of carbon dioxide and methane, stem primarily from burning
natural gas and oil for heating and cooking, though other sources include managing waste and
wastewater and leaking refrigerants from air-conditioning and refrigeration systems.
Other Sources
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This category includes emissions from energy-related activities other than fossil fuel combustion,
such as the extraction, refining, processing, and transportation of oil, gas, and coal. Globally, this
sector accounts for 9.6 percent of emissions.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Country
Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, more than 2,000 billion tons of carbon dioxide have
been released into the atmosphere by human activities, according to the Global Carbon Project.
North America and Europe are responsible for approximately half of that total, while the
emerging economies of China and India have contributed another 14 percent. For the remainder,
150-plus countries share responsibility. An analysis of carbon dioxide emissions by country
today shows that China now leads the pack, responsible for 27 percent of all emissions. Next
comes the United States (15 percent), the European Union’s 28 member states including the
United Kingdom (10 percent), and India (7 percent) next. Together, these global powers account
for almost 60 percent of all emissions.
Green-House Effect and Carbon Dioxide:
Over the
several
billion
years of
geologic
history, the
quantity of
carbon
dioxide found in the atmosphere has been steadily decreasing. Researches theorized that this
change is in response to an increase in the Sun’s output over the same time period. Higher levels
of carbon dioxide help in regulating the Earth’s temperature to levels slightly higher than what is
perceived today.
29
There moderate temperatures allowed the flourishing of plant life despite the lower output of
solar radiation. An enhanced green-house effect, due to the greater concentration of carbon
dioxide gas in the atmosphere, supplemented the production of heat energy through higher levels
of long-wave counter-radiation. As the sun grew more intense, several biological mechanisms
gradually locked some of the atmospheric carbon dioxide into fossil fuels and sedimentary rocks.
All life is based on the element carbon. Carbon is the major chemical constituent of most organic
matter, from fossil fuels to the complex molecules (DNA and RNA) that control genetic
reproduction in organisms. Yet by weight, carbon is not one of the most abundant elements
within the Earth’s crust.
In fact, the lithosphere is only 0.032% carbon by weight. In comparison, oxygen and silicon
respectively make up 45.2% and 29.4% of the Earth’s surface rocks.
Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major sources:
 as organic molecules in living and dead organisms found in the biosphere;

 as the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere;
 as organic matter in soils;
 in the lithosphere as fossil fuels and sedimentary rock deposits such as limestone,
dolomite and chalk; and
 in the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide and as calcium carbonate shells
in marine organisms.
Ecosystems gain most of their carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. A number of autotrophic
organisms have specialized mechanisms that allow for absorption of this gas into their cells.
With the addition of water and energy from solar radiation, these organisms use carbon dioxide
to chemical conversion in carbon- based sugar molecules by photosynthesis.
These molecules can then be chemically modified by these organisms through the metabolic
addition of other elements to produce more complex compounds like proteins, cellulose, and
amino acids. Some of the organic matter produced in plants is passed down to heterotrophic
animals through consumption.
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Carbon dioxide enters the waters of the ocean by simple diffusion. Once dissolved in seawater,
the carbon dioxide can remain as is or can be converted into carbonate (CO3-2) or bicarbonate
(HCO3-) certain forms of sea life biologically fix bicarbonate with calcium (Ca+2) to produce
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This substance is used to produce shells and other body parts by
organisms such as coral, clams, oysters, some protozoa, and some algae.
When these organisms die, their shells and body parts sink to the ocean floor where they
accumulate as carbonate-rich deposits. After long periods of time, these deposits are physically
and chemically altered into sedimentary rocks. Ocean deposits are by far the biggest sink of
carbon on the planet (Table 2).
Carbon Dioxide:
Carbon dioxide, a chemical compound, that constitutes of two atoms of oxygen, covalently
bonded to a single atom of carbon, turns into a gas at standard temperature and pressure. The
chemical formula for carbon dioxide is CO2. Carbon dioxide is produced in several processes,
prominent one being respiration in plants and animals (including human beings) and combustion
of fossil fuels.
Carbon dioxide in small amounts is also produced in several geothermal processes, such as
eruption of a volcano. Recent estimates reveal that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
Earth’s atmosphere has increased to 387 parts per million green-house gases.
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Since the beginning of the Industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has contributed to the
increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm, despite the uptake of a
large portion of the emission through various natural “sink” involved it the carbon cycle.
Unlike other gases, carbon dioxide emissions do not result from inefficient combustion:
CO2 is a product of ideal, stoichiometric combustion of carbon. At present, the emissions of

carbon are directly proportional to fossil-fuel based energy consumption. Some 2000 fossil fuel
related carbon emissions have equaled or exceeded the IPCC.
Strengthening of the green-house effect through human activities is known as anthropogenic

green-house effect. This increase in radiative forcing from human activities is attributable mainly
to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.
CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and
tropical deforestation. Measurements of CO2 show that concentration has increased from about
313 ppm in 1960 to about 389 ppm in 2010.
The current observed amount of CO2 exceeds the geological record maxima (□ 300ppm) from
ice core data. The effect of combustion produced by carbon dioxide on the global climate is
called the calendar effect. It was first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius.
Elevated CO2 levels contribute to additional absorption and emission of thermal infrared in the
atmosphere which produce net warming. According to the latest Assessment Report from the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, “most of the observed increase in globally
averaged temperatures since the mid- 20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in
anthropogenic green-house gas concentrations”.
Over the past 800,000 years ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as
low as 180 parts per million (ppm) to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.
The proportion of an emission (e.g. CO2 Remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is
the “Airborne Fraction”. More precisely, the annual AF is the ratio of the atmospheric CO2
increase in a given year to the year’s total emission, and calculates that of the average 9.1 PgC y-
32
1 of total anthropogenic emissions from 2000 to 2006, the AF as 0.45. For CO2 the AF over the
last 50 years (1956- 2006) has been increasing at 0.25 ± 0.21% per year.
Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative effect by elevating concentrations of methane and
tropospheric ozone through scavenging of atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical,
OH) that would otherwise destroy them Carbon monoxide is created when carbon-containing
fuels are burnt incompletely.
Through natural process in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon
monoxide has an atmospheric lifetime of only a few months and as a consequence is spatially
more variable than longer-lived gases.
FIVE MAJOR GREENHOUSE GASES
The most significant gases that cause global warming via the greenhouse effect are the
following:
33
Carbon Dioxide
Accounting for about 76 percent of global human-caused emissions, carbon dioxide (CO2) sticks
around for quite a while. Once it’s emitted into the atmosphere, 40 percent still remains after 100
years, 20 percent after 1,000 years, and 10 percent as long as 10,000 years later. The data
gathered by the weather agency, which is part of the United Nations, showed that the global
average concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) were higher in the year
2005 than ever before. The concentration of CO2 rose by about 0.5% to reach 397.1 parts per
million, according to the agency. N2O rose by about 0.19% since 2004, to total 319.2 parts per
million.
The WMO said that there is no sign that N2O and CO2 are starting to level off. “Levels of
methane, another green-house gas, remained stable since 2005 power plants, automobiles,
airplanes, and ships using coal, oil or gas, are contributing to the rise in carbon dioxide
emissions. The WMO’s statement revealed that there is 35.4% more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere since the late 18th century primarily because of human burning fossil fuels.
The gases released by fossil fuel-burning reappear in the atmosphere, and as a result it also has
concluded that “green-house gases are some of the major drivers behind global warming and
climate change.”
Methane
Although methane (CH4) persists in the atmosphere for far less time than carbon dioxide (about
a decade), it is much more potent in terms of the greenhouse effect. In fact, pound for pound, its
global warming impact is 25 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period.
34
Globally it accounts for approximately 16 percent of human-generated greenhouse gas

emissions. Another prominent gas featuring in the green-house gases list is methane. The
molecular formula of methane is CH4. It is one of the most potent green-house gases with a
global warming potential of 25 averaged over a century. It absorbs radiation in the wavelength
range from 3 to 4 µm and 7 to 8.4 µm.
The capacity of methane to trap heat is 20 times more than that of carbon dioxide. This gas is
produced in large amount during a process known as methanogenesis. It is found that the Earth’s
crust contains huge deposits of methane gas, a part of which is let out in the process of mining,
thus adding to the green-house effect. It is found that the amount of methane in the atmosphere
has gone up from 700 parts per billion in 1750 to 1745 parts per billion in 1998, which
constitutes 4 to 9 percent of green-house gases.
Methane tends to be gradually broken down in reaction with other gases in the earth’s
atmosphere. In recent years it has been noted that methane is being added to the environment
faster than broken down, thus contributing to global warming. It is estimated that the amount of
methane has doubled since the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
Methane (CH4) is a very simple molecule (one carbon surrounded by four hydrogen atoms) and
is created predominantly by bacteria that feed on organic material. In wet areas such as swamps,
wetlands and in the oceans, there is not enough oxygen, and so complex hydrocarbons get
broken down to methane by anaerobic bacteria. Some of this methane can get trapped (as a gas,
as a solid, dissolved or eaten) and some makes its way to the atmosphere where it is gradually
broken down to CO2 and water (H2O) vapour in a series of chemical reactions.
Although methane was detected in the atmosphere in 1948, its importance to climate was only
recently revealed. Methane in the atmosphere was actually a significantly green-house gas – it
absorbs some frequencies of infrared radiation (emitted from the Earth’s surface) that would
otherwise go straight out to space. In combination with other green-house gases (water vapour,
CO2 and N2O), this leads to a surface temperature that is about 30°C warmer than if there were
no atmosphere.
Methane and Climate:
35
In the lower part of the atmosphere, below about 10-12 km (the troposphere), the key cycles are
mediated above all by the presence of , what are called OH radicals – colloquially known as the
atmospheric detergent. All hydrocarbons (e.g. methane) chemical species that are emitted can be
eventually broken down (or oxidized) by these radicals to CO2 and H2O.
An average molecule of CH4 lasts around eight to nine years before it gets oxidized. This a long
time compared to most atmospheric chemicals but is fast enough so that there can be significant
year-to-year variability. Around 10% of the CH4 makes it into the upper atmosphere (the
stratosphere, between 15 and 50 km above sea level) where it also gets oxidized, though through
a slightly different set of reactions.
A key point is that in the very dry stratosphere, the water produced from methane oxidation is a
big part of the water budget and stratospheric water vapor is a green-house gas in its own right!
This indirect process enhances the climate impact of methane changes by about 15%. Methane is
introduced in the environment through the cycle known as Methanogenesis or biomethanation.
Methanogenesis and Green-house Effect:
Methane is both a potential alternate energy source and a potent green-house gas. Methane is
emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emission also
results from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solids, water, landfills and
livestock, mostly cows. Methanogenic bacteria in the ruminant digestive tract are a major cause
of this gas. Each green-house gas differs in its ability to absorb heat in the atmosphere. Methane
traps over 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide and is expected to cause between
15 and 17% of the global warming over the next 50 years.
Role of Ruminants in Methane Production:
According to a report of NBRI the Heat Radiation Balance of the Earth, the livestock and
associated manure management also contribute about 16% of total annual production of
methane. These emissions are the direct result of digestion of fibrous grasses in the rumen of the
animals.
Cows account for about 80% of the global annual CH4 emission from domestic livestock. This
would mean that cows account for 12.8% of the total annual production of methane. Methane
36
(CH4) is released by livestock as a by-product of digestion. The breakdown of carbohydrates in

the digestive tract of herbivores (including insects and human beings) result in the production of
methane.
The initial steps are performed either by facultative anaerobic bacteria such as E. coli which
convert format to H2 and CO2 or by obligate anaerobes like Clostridium or Selenomas which
also do similar conversions Methanogenic archae bacteria (a group separate from true bacteria)
are obligate anaerobes that are very sensitive to oxygen and prefer environments without any
other electron acceptors such as nitrogen.
They perform the final steps in the fermentation and they convert approximately 90-95% H2 and
CO2 produced by the other organisms of methane or they can convert acetic acid to methane.
The energy derived is used to fix the remaining CO2 into cellular materials.These methanogens
are present in ruminants other than cows, such as sheep and wilde beast. Approximately, 10
percent of human beings have these methanogens in their guts as well, probably inherited from
their parents. It has been estimated that 9 to 12% of the energy that a cow consumes is turned to
methane. A cow in a barn produces 542 liters of methane a day and 600 liters when out in a field.
The livestock and associated manure management also contribute about 16% of total annual
production of methane. These emissions are the direct result of digestion of fibrous grasses in the
rumen of the animals. Cows account for about 80% of the global annual CH4 emissions from
domestic livestock. This would mean that cows account for 12.8% of the total annual production
of methane.
Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas: It has a GWP 300 times that of carbon
dioxide on a 100-year time scale, and it remains in the atmosphere, on average, a little more than
a century. It accounts for about 6 percent of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.
Fluorinated Gases
37
Emitted from a variety of manufacturing and industrial processes, fluorinated gases are man-
made. There are four main categories: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
Although fluorinated gases are emitted in smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases (they
account for just 2 percent of man-made global greenhouse gas emissions), they trap substantially
more heat. Indeed, the GWP for these gases can be in the thousands to tens of thousands, and
they have long atmospheric lifetimes, in some cases lasting tens of thousands of years.
HFCs are used as a replacement for ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and

hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), usually in air conditioners and refrigerators, but some are
being phased out because of their high GWP. Replacing these HFCs and properly disposing of
them is considered to be one of the most important climate actions the world can take.
Water Vapor
The most abundant greenhouse gas overall, water vapor differs from other greenhouse gases in
that changes in its atmospheric concentrations are linked not to human activities directly, but
rather to the warming that results from the other greenhouse gases we emit. Warmer air holds
more water. And since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, more water absorbs more heat, inducing
even greater warming and perpetuating a positive feedback loop. (It’s worth noting, however,
that the net impact of this feedback loop is still uncertain, as increased water vapor also increases
cloud cover that reflects the sun’s energy away from the earth.)
Effects of Greenhouse Effect
The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:
Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The main cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the
vehicles, industries and other human activities.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
38
Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the
upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of the
harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change the
climate drastically. The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural
greenhouse gases including chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
Smog and Air Pollution
Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means
and man-made activities. In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more
greenhouse gases including nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation
of smog are automobile and industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the
reaction of these chemicals among themselves.
Acidification of Water Bodies
Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to
the acidification of water bodies. Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and
falls into the river, streams and lakes thereby causing their acidification.
Runaway Greenhouse Effect
This phenomenon occurs when the planet absorbs more radiation than it can radiate back. Thus,
the heat lost from the earth’s surface is less and the temperature of the planet keeps rising.
Scientists believe that this phenomenon took place on the surface of Venus billions of years ago.
This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in the following manner:
 A runaway greenhouse effect arises when the temperature of a planet rises to a level of
the boiling point of water. As a result, all the water from the oceans converts into water
vapour, which traps more heat coming from the sun and further increases the planet’s
temperature. This eventually accelerates the greenhouse effect. This is also called the
“positive feedback loop”.
39
 There is another scenario giving way to the runaway greenhouse effect. Suppose the
temperature rise due to the above causes reaches such a high level that the chemical
reactions begin to occur. These chemical reactions drive carbon dioxide from the rocks
into the atmosphere. This would heat the surface of the planet which would further
accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the rocks to the atmosphere, giving rise to
the runaway greenhouse effect.
 In simple words, increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway greenhouse
effect which would increase the temperature of the earth to such an extent that no life will
exist in the near future.
40
CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research takes place with the purpose of acquiring knowledge to contribute to further
investigation or process to inform action, to prove a theory, or to reach a result. To produce
fruitful experience, the Research must be of high quality. And types of Research
Methodology support to get the best-suited outcome. We can understand the significance
of Research with some fundamental points:
 Research is a way to build knowledge.

 It is an essential requirement to start analyzing, writing, reading, and distributing
information.
 It nourishes and opens up the minds.
 With Research, different understanding issues seem easy.
 Research helps to build confidence and positivity to try on opportunities.
 The importance of Research in any field can’t be ignored. But many skip
researching before starting anything. Lazy students and disinterested academics do
not realize the need for doing research, but it is an imperative procedure to ensure
the safety or positive result of their work. The research covers not only the
education field, but it covers both professionals and non-professionals. Even for
non-professionals, it is meant to acquire knowledge which helps them to sharpen
their skills to survive around intelligence and improve their confidence.
 DEFINITION
 In Research, the world’s’ signifies frequency and intensity, while the ‘search’
syllable is synonymous with discovery. This way, ‘research’ means – the repetitive
and in-depth findings of the objects. In other words, searching for the core of the
items, making some conclusions, discovering new theories, and clarifying those
contributions fall under the process of “research”.
41
 Research is a well-planned and scientific method of finding solutions to a wide

variety of problems. Under the meaning of Research, there is an attempt made to
obtain a solution to the problem by collecting various types of data and systematic
analysis of the multiple aspects of the issues related. Research is a systematic
method, by which new facts are discovered, or ancient facts are confirmed, and
they study the sequences, interactions, causal interpretations, and natural laws that
determine the points obtained. Research, an attempt is made to solve a theoretical
or practical problem. As per the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie,
“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the
observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”
WHAT IS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY?
The techniques or the specific procedure which helps the students to identify, choose,
process, and analyze information about a subject is called Research Methodology. It allows
the readers to evaluate the validity and reliability of the study in the research paper. In
simple words, it describes what you did and what made you reach this obtained result. It is
practical to know ‘how’ the given Research or any specific piece of Research was done.
How a researcher designs a comprehensive study to get a reliable outcome which justifies
the objectives of the course can be figured out by research methodology.
Types of Research are as follows:

 Experiments
 Surveys
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Case studies
 Participant and non-participant observation
 Observational trials
 Studies using the Delphi method
42
PRIMARY DATA
WHAT IS PRIMARY DATA?
Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers directly from main sources
through interviews, surveys, experiments, etc. Primary data are usually collected from the
source—where the data originally originates from and are regarded as the best kind of data
in research.
The sources of primary data are usually chosen and tailored specifically to meet the
demands or requirements of a particular research. Also, before choosing a data collection
source, things like the aim of the research and target population need to be identified.
For example, when doing a market survey, the goal of the survey and the sample
population need to be identified first.
This is what will determine what data collection source will be most suitable—an offline
survey will be more suitable for a population living in remote areas without internet
connection compared to online surveys.
Primary data sources include; Surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaires, focus

groups, interviews, etc., while secondary data sources include; books, journals, articles,
web pages, blogs, etc.
These sources vary explicitly and there is no intersection between the primary and
secondary data sources.
43
I HAVE CHOSEN THE CASE STUDY METHOD BECAUSE
 Case study is a form of qualitative descriptive research that is used to look at

individuals,a small group, participants, or a group as a whole. This qualitative
method of study emphasis detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and their relationships. Researcher have used the case study
research method for many years across a variety of disciplines.
 The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex
issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well
recognized in the fields of business, law and policy. Case studies are largely
qualitative. They analyse and describe phenomena. While some data is included, a
case is not quantitative.
 Case study helps us to apply theory in practise and how to induce theory from
practice. The case method cultivates analysis, judgement, decision-making and
action. A case study is that it simplifies complex concepts.
 Case study are a great way to improve a learning experience because they get the
learner involved, and encourage immediate use of newly acquired skills. They
differ from lectures or assigned readings, because they require participants and
deliberate application of a broad range of skills. Case studies help researchers make
the difference between knowing what to do. And knowing how, when and why to
do it case study help us to understand in detail about the context.
44
SECONDARY DATA
WHAT IS SECONDARY DATA?
Secondary data refers to data that is collected by someone other than the primary

user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information
collected by government departments, organizational records and data that was originally
collected for other research purposes.
Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and,
particularly in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-
quality databases that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their
own.
In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential,
since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change
and/or developments.
However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research, as data may be
outdated or inaccurate.
Secondary data can be obtained from different sources:
Information collected through censuses or government departments like housing, social

security, electoral statistics, tax records, internet searches or libraries, GPS, remote sensing,
km progress reports.
Administrative data and census, Government departments and agencies routinely collect
information when registering people or carrying out transactions, or for record keeping –
usually when delivering a service. This information is called administrative data.
It can include:
45
Personal information such as names dates of birth, addresses, information about schools
and educational achievements, information about health, information about criminal
convictions or prison sentences, tax records, such as income.
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the
members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular
population.
It is a type of administrative data, but it is collected for the purpose of research at specific
intervals. Most administrative data is collected continuously and for the purpose of
delivering a service to the people.
The secondary data is acquired from the sources of research papers, books, websites and
internet.
46
SCOPE OF STUDY
 Through this project researcher get information about how to develop strategies for
mitigating the impact of greenhouse effect.
 Through this project the research get to know about where the greenhouse impact on
different regions and ecosystems.
 Through this research we will get the knowledge about The effects of greenhouse gases
on global temperatures and weather patterns.
 Through this research we will get the information about The consequences of global
warming on ecosystems and biodiversity.
 Through this research we will get the knowledge about The public perception and
awareness of climate change.
47
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
 To study the causes and mechanisms of greenhouse gas emissions and their impact
on the environment.
 To study the impact of human activities on greenhouse gas emissions and global
warming.
 To study the economic impact of climate change on different sectors and regions.
 To study the potential of international policies and agreements in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the effects of climate change.
 To study the potential of renewable energy sources and technologies in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable development.
 To study the carbon footprint of different industries and sectors and identify areas
for improvement.
48
CHAPTER 3. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section shows the literature study collected by the author to support research on the topic of
the issues discussed.
The initial method to increase land productivity is to use chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
However, since the 1990s there has been a decrease in soil fertility, and the dependence of
chemical fertilizers (inorganic) is increasing. Then developed environmentally friendly organic
agriculture; the main characteristic of organic farming is the use of local varieties followed by
fertilizing with organic fertilizers and pest control with natural pesticides. However, with the
characteristics of rice plants planted with flooded soil and high nitrogen inputs, the release of
N2O from the soil through increased denitrification and contributes to global warming. N2O has
a strong infrared absorption capacity and traps radiation from the earth's surface. It is estimated
that N2O has an infrared absorption capacity of around 300 times more than CO2. In the upper
stratosphere, N2O is oxidized to NO by the action of UV light, and NO destroys the ozone layer
which protects living things against UV-sun radiation. Nitrogen fertilization increases both N2O
emissions from continuous flooding and maintenance of midseason drainage because it is
emitted through flooded rice plants. The application of mineral N increases the availability of
substrates for nitrification and denitrification can provide more N available for soil microbes and
will lead to higher N2O efflux.
Rice fields are the largest anthropogenic wetlands on earth and are an important anthropogenic
biological source of atmospheric methane (CH4). CH4 is produced by the decomposition of
anaerobic organic matter, organic amendments and water regimes are two important factors that
control CH4 emissions from rice fields. Plant residues are the main source for the input of
organic matter on agricultural land. Burning straw at the site is usually a common approach for
easy land preparation. However, large-scale straw burning causes severe air pollution which
affects public health. Therefore, burning straw has been banned, and the application of straw is
49
recommended to increase soil fertility. In general, in intensive double rice systems, straw from
the initial rice is usually plowed into the soil. However, this practice stimulates CH4 emissions
because the anaerobic decomposition of fresh rice straw accelerates the reduction process and
releases the organic substrate for CH4 production. In contrast, straw mulch, allowing the straw to
rot on the ground, can reduce carbon input into the soil anaerobic zone and reduce the impact on
soil redox conditions. Continuous flood irrigation is beneficial for CH4 emissions.
Fossil fuels began to be known during the first industrial revolution and until now it continues to
be used to a very wide scale. However, excessive fossil energy consumption from large-scale
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. It is known that CO2 is the root of environmental problems
such as global warming, sea level, and frequent extreme weather . Fossil energy is concentrated
in solar energy with carbon compounds. When carbon is burned, it product CO2 particles that
extentd through the entire atmosphere. The application of mineral N increases the availability of
substrates for nitrification and denitrification can provide more N available for soil microbes and
will lead to higher C02 efflux.
50
CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
The Himalayan mountain range is one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to the impacts
of global warming. Rising temperatures are causing glaciers to melt at an unprecedented rate,
leading to increased flooding, landslides, and other natural disasters that threaten the lives and
livelihoods of millions of people in the region.
The case study also highlights the need for urgent action to address the root causes of global
warming, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to a more sustainable
and resilient economy. This requires a multi-faceted approach that includes policy changes,
technological innovation, and public education and engagement.
In addition to mitigating the causes of global warming, it is also important to prepare for and
adapt to the impacts of climate change that are already underway. This includes investing in
infrastructure, early warning systems, and disaster preparedness and response measures that can
help communities cope with the impacts of flooding, landslides, and other natural disasters.
Overall, the Himalayan case study underscores the urgent need for global action to address the
pressing threat of global warming and its impacts on vulnerable regions and populations around
the world.
Certainly! The Himalayan glaciers are a critical source of freshwater for millions of people in the
region, and their rapid melting due to global warming is already causing water shortages and
other environmental impacts. The case study also highlights the importance of international
cooperation and funding to support climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts in
vulnerable regions like the Himalayas. By taking urgent action to address the root causes of
51
global warming and prepare for its impacts, we can help protect the lives and livelihoods of
people around the world and ensure a more sustainable and resilient future for all.
Another significant impact of global warming on the Himalayas is the increased risk of glacial
lake outburst floods (GLOFs). As glaciers melt, they form lakes that are held back by natural
dams made of ice and rock. However, these dams can become unstable and collapse, releasing
huge volumes of water and debris downstream. GLOFs pose a serious threat to communities
living in the downstream areas, and the risk of such floods is expected to increase as global
warming continues to melt Himalayan glaciers. The case study also highlights the need for long-
term monitoring and research to better understand the complex ecological and social impacts of
global warming on the Himalayas and develop effective strategies to mitigate and adapt to these
impacts.
52
CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS/SUGGESTIONS/CONCLUSION
FINDINGS
 Rising temperatures causing glaciers to melt at an unprecedented rate
 Increased flooding, landslides, and other natural disasters threaten lives and livelihoods
of millions in the region
 Urgent action needed to address root causes of global warming, including reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to a more sustainable and resilient economy
 Increased risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) poses a serious threat to
downstream communities
 Need for long-term monitoring and research to better understand the complex ecological
and social impacts of global warming on the Himalayas and develop effective strategies
to mitigate and adapt to these impacts.
 Melting glaciers are affecting the region's water supply.
 Himalayan glaciers are a critical source of freshwater for millions in the region.
 Rapid melting due to global warming is already causing water shortages and other
environmental impacts.
 Importance of international cooperation and funding to support climate change mitigation
and adaptation efforts in vulnerable regions like the Himalayas.
 Urgent action needed to address the root causes of global warming and prepare for its
impacts to protect lives and livelihoods of people around the world and ensure a more
sustainable and resilient future for all.
53
SUGGESTIONS
 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions to slow the rate of global warming

 Transition to a more sustainable and resilient economy
 Develop effective strategies to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of global warming
 Invest in long-term monitoring and research to better understand the complex ecological
and social impacts of global warming on the Himalayas
 Promote international cooperation and funding to support climate change mitigation and
adaptation efforts in vulnerable regions like the Himalayas
 Raise public awareness and education about the impacts of global warming and the
urgent need for action.
 Encourage the development of green technologies and renewable energy sources to
reduce reliance on fossil fuels
 Implement policies and regulations to reduce emissions from industries and
transportation
 Promote reforestation and conservation efforts to sequester carbon and protect
biodiversity
 Strengthen disaster preparedness and response systems to reduce the impacts of natural
disasters caused by global warming
 Support vulnerable communities in adapting to the impacts of global warming and
building resilience to future climate risks
54
 Foster collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and local communities to co-create

solutions that address the unique challenges of the Himalayas and other vulnerable
regions.
 Encourage sustainable tourism practices that minimize the environmental impacts of
tourism and promote responsible travel
 Support sustainable agriculture and food systems to reduce emissions and build resilience
to climate change impacts
 Invest in green infrastructure and transportation systems to reduce emissions and improve
public health
 Promote international cooperation and funding to support climate change adaptation and
mitigation efforts in developing countries
 Develop and implement climate-smart policies and programs that prioritize the needs of
vulnerable communities and ecosystems
 Foster partnerships between governments, civil society, and the private sector to drive
action on climate change and build a more sustainable and resilient future for all.
55
CONCLUSION
For the states given above the average temperature rise can be compared as given in table and
can be plotted on a graph as given below :
Fig. 1. Variation of increase in temperature due to global warming for the selected states
These temperature variations can be plotted in graph as given below in Fig. 1. From this data it
can be concluded that:
 Global warming is comparatively higher in Himachal Pradesh followed by Delhi.

 Global warming level is lower at Assam.
 For Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab global warming level is on verge of exceeding its
intensity.
56
 For Himachal Pradesh and Delhi it clearly indicates that concentration of greenhouse
gases that is carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide is higher.
 Even minute increase in global warming concentration clearly indicates danger thus
several steps need to be initiated to decrease the uncertain threats of global warming.
 Rise in global warming levels in mountainous regions has led to increase in probability of
occurrence of floods
 Melting up of glaciers around mountainous peaks has led to rise in water levels in low
lying areas.
 For plain tropical areas global warming has led to shortage of drinking water.
 Agricultural yield has decreased around each area under threat of global warming.
 Monsoon cycles have changed from being frequent to very less frequent.
 Due to change in precipitation patterns and decrease in agricultural yield, extreme
changes will occur in market prices of various com- modities and food products.
The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's
heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The
greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live. The
magnitude of the enhanced greenhouse effect is influenced by various complex interactions in
the earth-ocean-atmosphere system which are not included in the discussion above. For example,
as the temperature of the earth’s surface increases more water vapour is evaporated. Since water
vapour is itself a strong greenhouse gas this is a positive feedback which will tend to amplify the
warming effect of (for example) carbon dioxide emissions. Clouds tend both to cool the Earth
because they reflect incoming sunlight, and to warm it by trapping outgoing infra-red radiation.
The net result over the globe of clouds is a cooling, but it is still uncertain whether this overall
cooling will increase or decrease as greenhouse gas concentrations increase. Heat is distributed
vertically in the atmosphere by motion, turbulence and evaporation and condensation of moist
air, as well as by the radiative processes discussed above.
Greenhouse the effect keeps the climate of earth warm by receiving energy of sun in the form of
visible light Earth absortis visible light from the sun and then cast as thermal radiation Sun emits
light both of shorter and longer wavelengths Short wavelength of visible light emitted from the
sun is absorbed whees longer wavelength of infrared radiations is trapped and unable to pass
57
These trapped infrared radiations that escaped from the earth makes the earth surface warmer. It
has been analyzed by the researchers that about 50% of sun energy is absorbed at earth surface
while the remaining is reflected and absorbed by the atmosphere The infrared radiations emitted
from the sun are trapped by gases known collectively as Greenhouse Gases: Joseph Founer
covered the Greenhouse effect in 1824 But it was first experiment by John Tyndall in 1858.
CHAPTER 6- BIBILIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
GREENHOUSE GASES – BERNADO LIAMS
AVIOD CLIMATE DISATER – BILLS GATES
GLOBAL WARMING – JOHN T. HOUGHTON
THE GRRENHOUSE EFFECT – ALEX COOK
THE DISCOVERY GLOBAL WARNING – SPENCER R. WEART
SITES
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/03/books/global-warming.html
https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/50792127-the-greenhouse-effect
https://www.kobo.com/in/en/ebook/the-greenhouse-effect-a-true-book-understanding-climate-
change
https://www.grafiati.com/en/literature-selections/greenhouse-effect/book/
58
https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/GreenhouseEffect.html
http://ogoapes.weebly.com/uploads/3/2/3/9/3239894/greenhouse_effect-_activity_book.
CHAPTER 7- ANNEXURE
Global warming being one of major environmental issues by virtue of which temperature around
surface of earth in Troposphere layer of atmosphere has amplified to considerable extent due to
which speckled changes in climate arrangements occurs rapidly. India being the second most
populated country in the world with population greater than 1.2 billion lying north to equator
sharing its coast line of about 7517 km with Indianocean, Arabian sea and bay of Bengal it
exhibits wide range of temperatures having Himalayan mountains on northern side which
participate in warming surrounding areas by preventing cold waves to blow in on other side.
Thar deserts attract summer monsoon winds, which are held responsible for generation of rainy
season all around India. India has monsoon season from June to September being labelled as
most wet and productive season around earth having annual rainfall as 750 mm-1500 mm across
the region. The effect of global warming has been very tremendous on climate of India which
has led to various disasters (Bashir et al., 2018). For developing countries like India increase in
concentration of greenhouse gases in atmosphere has not been so difficult as there are multiple
sources due to which these gases get released into air, as per 2009 data it has been found that
India is the world’s third largest emitter of CO2 after China and Russia thus it can be said that
rise in temperature and occurrence of global warming to a greater extent around India is
because of the fact that oxides of carbon that have high heat absorbing capacity so as soon as
sunlight falls around earth’s surface
59
,areas with high concentration of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide absorb heat radiations
thereby preventing them to bounce back due to which surrounding temperature gets increased
thereby causing global warming (Noykova and Gyllenberg, 2000).
As per current scenario of global warming it has been found that northern parts of country along
with Himalayas will have greater impact due to warming up of land at a greater rate as compared
to sea. by the year 2020 it has been estimated that warming will be up to range of 1.5 degree
Celsius and by 20250 rate will get doubled that is it will increase up to 3 degree Celsius, along
with it it has been found that amount of precipitation has been found to have a steady rise of 8.9
to 18.6 percent. (Tchobanoglous and Burton, 2003).
Climatic deviations and disasters happen to be emerging as greatest emerging and most
significant issues of 21st century due to increase in global temperatures. (Borghei and
Hosseiny, 2000). For India tackling these issues will be a greater challenge as being a developing
country lot of other problems need to be addressed also as appreciated time and assets will get
replenished in handling such situa- tions and devising new alternate ways for overcom- ing
disasters.
The main objective of this paper to provide an indepth information about current situation of glo-
bal warming in various Himalayan mount clad states along with other northern states of India ,
these states have been chosen as such due to the fact that majority of industrial and agricultural
activities occur in that area.
60

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UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

“A PROJECT REPORT ON GREENHOUSE EFFECT”

NISHAD RAHUL RAJENDRA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MMS (FINANCE)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF. ALSHAMA MOMIN

MATOSHRI USHATAI JADHAV INSTITUTE OF

MANAGEMENT STUDIES AND RESEARCH CENTER, BHIWANDI.

This is to certify that NISHAD RAHUL RAJENDRA, a student of Matoshri

Prof. Alshama momin Prof. Vijay Vanjare Dr.SopanBhamre

(Project guide) ( Coordinator) ( Director)

I would like to acknowledge the following as being idealistic channel and

I take this opportunity to thank the UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI for giving

I would like to express my sincere gratitude toward my project guide Prof.

NISHAD RAHUL RAJENDRA

CHAPTER NO. CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

3. LITERVIEW REVIEW 49-50

4. CASE STUDY ANALYSIS 51-52

 Water Vapor constitute 36% to 70% of greenhouse gases

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

Sources of Green-House Effect:

Causes the Greenhouse Effect

The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

rise in atmospheric temperature, which, according to some claims, is resulting in global

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN ERA OF CLIMATE CHANGE

THE CAUSES OF AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT

FROM DEPRIVATION TO INSECURITY

change should force a reassessment of what indicators we rely on to capture development

CONSEQUENCES FOR INTERNATIONAL SECURITY

Earth’s greenhouse gases trap

List of Green-House Gases in the Atmosphere:

Green-House Gases Present in the Atmosphere:

Animals release methane to the environment as a result of herbaceous digestion. It is believed

Ozone in the Troposphere:

GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSION

Where Do Greenhouse Gases Come From?

Electricity and Heat Production

Agriculture and Land Use Changes

Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Country

Green-House Effect and Carbon Dioxide:

Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major sources:

 as organic molecules in living and dead organisms found in the biosphere;

CO2 is a product of ideal, stoichiometric combustion of carbon. At present, the emissions of

Strengthening of the green-house effect through human activities is known as anthropogenic

FIVE MAJOR GREENHOUSE GASES

Globally it accounts for approximately 16 percent of human-generated greenhouse gas

Methane and Climate:

Methanogenesis and Green-house Effect:

Role of Ruminants in Methane Production:

(CH4) is released by livestock as a by-product of digestion. The breakdown of carbohydrates in

HFCs are used as a replacement for ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and

Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:

Depletion of Ozone Layer

Smog and Air Pollution

Acidification of Water Bodies