ANIMAL NUTRITION

DIET

Diet: The nutrients an animal consumes everyday is called its diet

Balanced diet: A diet which contains all the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water in correct amounts and proportions required for
metabolism and to provide energy.

Factor Dietary needs

Age Children require more protein per kg of body weight than adults. Children need less
total dietary energy (kJ) than adults. The amount of energy that young people need
increases towards adulthood as this energy is needed for growth. Energy needs of
adults decrease as they age.

Activity levels Higher levels of physical activity will increase demand for nutrients. The more
active, the more energy required for movement as muscles are contracting more and
respiring faster

Pregnancy The amount of carbohydrate (energy) in the diet increases as energy is needed to
support the growth of the developing foetus as well as the larger mass mother
needs to carry around. Extra calcium and iron are also needed in the diet to help
build bones, teeth and blood of the foetus

Breastfeeding Energy requirements increase and extra calcium is still needed to make high quality
breast milk

Gender Males generally use more energy than females

The essential nutrients are:

● Carbohydrates
Vitamins are organic and
minerals are inorganic. Both
● Fats (lipids) are required in small amounts
● Proteins
● Vitamins
● Minerals
● Fibre (Dietary fibre)
● Water

Nutrients Dietary importance Source

Carbohydrates Source of energy Rice, Potatoes, wheat,
cereals, bread

Fats Insulation and concentrated energy storage Meat, eggs, milk, butter,
cheese

Proteins Growth and repair of muscles, enzymes, Fish, meat, egg, pulses
hormones, membranes, antibodies

Fibre Prevents constipation, encourages peristalsis. Vegetables, whole grains

Maintains bulk to undigested food passing
through the digestive system to constantly push
the food through

Water 70% of the body. Tissue fluid, cytoplasm, blood Water, juice, milk, fruits
formation, transport, allows enzymes to work.
Needed for chemical reactions to take place in
cells.

Vitamin Importance / Function Deficiency disease Sources

C To make stretchy protein collagen, Scurvy - Causes pain in joints Citrus fruits
found in skin, hair, gums and and muscles and bleeding (oranges,
bones. Keeps tissues in good repair from gums and other places limes), green
vegetable

D Helps the body to absorb calcium Rickets - Bones become soft Butter, egg
for making strong bones and teeth and deformed (This is yolk (and can
because vitamin D is needed be made by
for absorption of calcium into the skin when
the body which is a key sunlight falls
component of bones and on it)
teeth)

Minerals Importance / Function Deficiency disease Sources

 Calcium For strong bones and Brittle bones and teeth, poor Milk and other dairy
(Ca) teeth, and for blood blood clotting products, bread
clotting

Iron (Fe) For making haemoglobin,
the red pigment which
carries oxygen
Anaemia - In which there are Liver, red meat, egg yolk,
not enough red blood cells so leafy dark green
the tissues do not get enough vegetables
oxygen delivered to them
(this is because iron is a key
component of haemoglobin)

Causes of scurvy and rickets:

Scurvy - Deficiency of Vitamin-C in diet (lack of citrus fruits and green vegetables in diet)
Rickets - Deficiency of Vitamin-D in diet (lack of sunlight, fish, eggs, butter in diet)

● Malnutrition is a condition caused by not eating a balanced diet

● There are different types of malnutrition depending on the cause of the imbalance
● They include:
○ Starvation
○ Coronary heart disease
○ Constipation
○ Obesity

Type Cause Effect

Starvation Taking in Body starts to break down energy stores - first fat and then muscles tissue,
insufficient leading to severe weight loss and eventually damage to heart and immune
nutrients or system, increasing the risk of many diseases
taking in less
energy than is
used

Coronary Excessive Fat deposits build up in arteries supplying the heart, reducing flow of blood
heart disease saturated fat (arteries become narrower and stiffer) to the heart muscle cells which cannot
and work properly due to lack of oxygen. The deposits also cause blood clot,
cholesterol which may result in a heart attack and eventually death

Constipation Lack of fibre in Food lacks bulk for muscles to push it through the alimentary canal and so
diet risk diseases such as bowel cancer are increased

Obesity Taking in Extra energy stored as fat weight increases and contributes to development
excessive of many diseases such as heart disease and diabetes
 nutrients or
taking in more
energy than is
used

● In many countries in the world, droughts, natural disasters, wars and a poor economy
can lead to mass malnutrition in large areas of the country
● The two types of malnutrition most common in these situations are termed ‘protein
energy malnutrition’ (PEM)and they are:
○ Kwashiorkor – caused by a lack of protein in the diet, most common in children
under 2. Often caused by poverty as high protein foods tend to be more
expensive and scarcer. Children suffering from kwashiorkor are always
underweight for their age but they often have a swollen abdomen as their diet
may contain a lot of carbohydrate
○ Marasmus – the most severe form of PEM, where there is a lack of both protein
and energy in the diet. People suffering from this have a much lower body
weight than normal and look emaciated

ALIMENTARY CANAL
Ingestion: the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
Mechanical digestion: the breakdown of large food particles into smaller pieces without any
chemical change to the food molecules
Chemical digestion: The breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules by making chemical changes to food molecules so that it can be absorbed into the
bloodstream and be used by the cells
Absorption: the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine
into the blood
Assimilation: the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they
are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion: the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through
the anus

Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is the loss of watery faeces from the anus (It happens when not enough water is
absorbed from the faeces)(If it is severe and continues for a long time, it can lead to death.
Severe diarrhoea can cause the loss of significant amounts of water and ions from the body,
causing the tissues and organs to stop working properly)

Treatment of diarrhoea: Oral rehydration therapy (mixture of water, modest amounts of sugar
and mineral salts, specifically sodium and potassium. It prevents dehydration)
There are many causes of diarrhoea, one of which is infection with Vibrio cholerae bacteria.
This causes the disease cholera. Ingested via infected water or food, if it enters the small
intestine it can cause illness

Cholera is a disease caused by bacterium.

Cholera: Cholera bacteria attach to the wall of the small intestine and release toxins.The
toxin stimulates the cells lining the intestine which causes chloride ions from inside the
cells to be secreted into the lumen of the small intestine. The chloride ions accumulate in the
lumen of the small intestine and lower the water potential there. This causes the osmotic
movement of water out of the cells into the gut, causing diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of
salts from blood.

Large quantities of water are lost from the body in watery faeces. The blood contains too little
chloride ions and water

Site Function

Mouth This is the location of ingestion. Mechanical digestion of food occurs as

we chew on it with our teeth. Chemical digestion occurs due to amylase
enzymes in our saliva which break down starch into maltose. Food
converted to bolus by teeth, tongue and lubricated in saliva to be easily
swallowed during mastication (chewing)

Oesophagus Round clumps of food (boluses) are passed down the esophagus via
peristalsis from the mouth to the stomach. Peristalsis is the contraction
and relaxation of the esophagus wall muscles (circular and longitudinal
antagonistic muscles) which creates a wave-like motion that pushes the
food down the canal. Connect mouth to stomach

Function

Salivary glands Produce saliva, transport to mouth by salivary ducts

Stomach Secretes pepsin to digest protein. Secretes hydrochloric acid to kill

bacteria. Provides an acidic pH (for enzymes) to work. Food is
mechanically digested by churning actions. The muscles contract and
relaxes to churn the food to liquefy it by mixing it with enzymes and
mucus during mechanical digestion. The mixture is called chyme

Small intestine First section is called Duodenum and is where the food coming out of the
stomach finishes being chemically digested by enzymes produced here
 (Covered in villi and also secreted from pancreas. Semi liquid food mixes with pancreatic
to to increase juice
absorption of
digested food) pH of small intestine is Slightly alkaline (around pH 8-9)

Second section is Ileum. Absorption of digested food molecules into

blood takes place. The ileum is long and lined with villi to increase the
surface area over which absorption can take place

Large intestine Colon - Reabsorbs water from remaining water to produce faeces
undigested food and also bile salts to return back to the liver.
Rectum - Stores faeces
Anus - Have two sphincter muscles. Exit for faeces (faeces are removed)

Pancreas Produces all three types of digestive enzymes Amylase, protease and
lipase
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, transported
into the small intestine by pancreatic duct. Most enzymes in the
pancreatic juice have an optimum pH of around 7. The pH of pancreatic
juice is slightly alkaline, and this is to neutralize the acidity of the food
coming from the stomach.

Liver The liver produces a substance called bile which is stored in the
gallbladder. Bile has the function of emulsifying fat into droplets to
increase the surface area for lipases to come and digest them in the small
intestine (Mechanical digestion). Bile is also basic which assists in
neutralizing the acidity of the food coming from the stomach.

Gall bladder Stores bile - transported in to duodenum by bile duct

PHYSICAL DIGESTION
Physical digestion - The breakdown of large food particles into smaller pieces without any
chemical change to the food molecules

● Physical digestion increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in
chemical digestion
● It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of the
stomach and the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum
● Teeth are held firmly in the bone of the jaw
● They are used for chewing to increase the surface area of the food so that it can be
exposed to saliva and other digestive juices and broken down more quickly
 Dental decay:
Tooth decay:

Tooth decay and gum disease are both caused by bacteria

● Many bacteria live in the mouth and most are harmless, however some form a sticky
film with saliva, called plaque, which coats teeth and the areas where they attach to
gums
● To begin with, plaque is soft and easy to remove, however if it hardens and forms
tartar, it cannot be removed by brushing

Gum disease:

If plaque is not removed, the bacteria in it may infect gums. The gums swell, become
inflamed, and may bleed when you brush your teeth. This is usually painless, but if
bacteria are allowed to spread they may work down around the root of the tooth. The
tooth becomes loose, and needs removing.

● Tartar around the edges of teeth and gums can allow bacteria to work their way into
roots, causing gum disease and loss of teeth
● If sugar is left in the mouth after eating, bacteria in plaque will feed on it
● They use it in respiration and turn it into acids
● The acids gradually dissolve the enamel coating of the teeth, working its way into the
dentine
● Dentine is softer than enamel and so dissolves more easily and quickly
● This is tooth decay and if not dealt with, can cause painful infections and loss of teeth

Dental health:

● Reducing the amount of sugar eaten can prevent tooth decay

● Brushing teeth regularly removes the buildup of plaque that can cause gum disease
and removes the sugars in the mouth so bacteria cannot turn them into acids and
cause tooth decay
● Teeth should be brushed with a fluoride toothpaste as this helps to strengthen
enamel and reduce damage from acids
● Regular visits to a dentist ensures that any signs of gum disease or tooth decay can
be dealt with promptly
 *Teeth are embedded
in bone and the
gums*

Fig: Structure of a teeth

In one set (lower or upper)

Incisors - 4
Canines - 2
Premolars - 4
Molars - 6
 Structure Description

Enamel Hardest substance made by animals. Covers the tooth and

provides a tough surface for biting and chewing

Dentine Bone-like structure under the enamel. Contains cytoplasm and

tubes running from the pulp cavity outwards which are filled with
blood vessels and nerves

Pulp Hollow middle of the tooth. Contains nerves and blood vessels
which supply the cytoplasm in the dentine with food and oxygen

Nerves Allow teeth to sense pressure and pain

Blood vessels Blood vessels supply the periodontal ligament with nutrients

Cement Covers the root of the tooth. This has fibres growing out of it

Crown The part of the tooth which can be seen is the crown. The crown
is covered with enamel

Root The part of tooth which is embedded in the gum is called the root

Fibres Fibres attach the tooth to the jawbone but allow it to move
slightly when biting or chewing

Gum The gums are part of the soft tissue lining of the mouth. They
surround the teeth and provide a seal around them. This is where
the teeth is embedded in

Teeth Function

Incisors Biting and cutting off pieces of food (chisel shaped)

Canines Holding and cutting the food (pointed)

Premolars Tear, crush and chew the food (larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the
edges)

Molars Grind and chew the food (larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges)
 ❖ The stomach has strong muscular walls. The muscles contract and relaxes to churn the
food to liquefy it by mixing it with enzymes and mucus during mechanical digestion.
The mixture is called chyme

❖ Bile breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known as emulsification.
This increases the surface area for chemical digestion. The larger surface area allows
lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Chemical digestion - The breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules by making chemical changes to food molecules so that it can be absorbed into the
bloodstream and used by the cells.

● The role of chemical digestion is breaking the bonds holding the large molecules
together to make smaller and smaller molecules by the use of enzymes.
● Chemical digestion is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different areas of
the digestive system.

Nutrient Enzyme that breaks it Small molecules produced

down

Starch Amylase Simple reducing sugars

Protein Protease Amino acids

Fats and oils Lipase Fattys acids and glycerol

Enzyme Site of action Produced in (Secreted)

Amylase Mouth, Duodenum Mouth (salivary gland), Pancreas

Protease Stomach (Pepsin), Stomach, Pancreas

Duodenum (Trypsin)

Lipase Duodenum Pancreas

Carbohydrase

● Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal in the mouth and the duodenum (from
the pancreas) and digests starch to maltose (a disaccharide)
● Maltose is digested by the enzyme maltase into glucose on the membranes of the
epithelium lining the small intestine

Proteases

● Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main enzymes
produced:
○ Pepsin is produced in the stomach
○ Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum

● Describe the functions of hydrochloric acid in the stomach

➢ Provides acidic pH for enzymes to maintain optimum pH for enzyme (pepsin)
activity for enzyme (pepsin) to work at its fastest rate. The optimum pH for
pepsin is around pH 2
➢ The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as it denatures the
enzymes in harmful microorganism in food, meaning they cannot carry out any
cell reactions to maintain life

● Amylase breaks down starch into maltose. Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose
on the membranes of the epithelium lining the small intestine. Maltase is a membrane-
bound enzyme found in membranes of the epithelial cells in the small intestine
● Pepsin and Trypsin are proteases. Pepsin breaks down protein in the acidic conditions
of the stomach. Trypsin breaks down protein in the alkaline conditions of the small
intestine. These enzymes have different optimum pH, since in the stomach the
conditions are very acidic (ph 1.5), whereas in the small intestine the pH is about 6-7.
These enzymes will stop working in the wrong pH as they will become denatured.

● Bile is an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic mixture of food and gastric juice
entering the duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.
The enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH than
those in the stomach
 ● Bile has two main roles:

➢ It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid/ acidic mixture of food and

gastric juices entering the duodenum which comes from the stomach.The
enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH than
those in the stomach thus to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action bile is
needed

➢ It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones to increase the surface area
for the chemical digestion. This is known as emulsification. The larger surface
area allows lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty
acids faster.

Function of Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice: Kill bacteria in food and giving an acidic pH for
enzymes

ABSORPTION

Small intestine is the region for the absorption of digested food.

Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules from the digestive system into
the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)

Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but most absorption of water
also happens in the small intestine

Absorption takes place in the second section of the small intestine, the ileum

(After large food molecules get digested by enzymes, the small soluble nutrients diffuse into
the small intestine walls and then into the blood. Sometimes the concentration of nutrients i.e.
glucose may be higher in the blood than in the small intestine. In such cases diffusion cannot
be relied upon. Instead, active transport is used for absorption. Absorption is defined as the
movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood. It
can either be done through diffusion or active transport)

The inner walls of the small intestine have finger-like structures called villi which greatly
increases the internal surface area of absorption.

Structure of villus:
 ● Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase surface area for faster absorption
of nutrients
● Wall of villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short distance for
absorption to happen by diffusion and active transport (Increase diffusion rate)
● Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and amino
acids away from the small intestine in the blood. (Monosaccharides, amino acids, water,
minerals and vitamins and some fats, pass into the blood, to be taken to the liver and
then round the body)
● Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and glycerol
away from the small intestine in the lymph

How is the Ileum Adapted for Absorption?

● The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded
surface with millions of villi (tiny, finger like projections)
● These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing
absorption to take place faster and more efficiently. (This gives plenty of time for
digestion to be completed and for digested food to be absorbed as it slowly passes
though