ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Structure of Carbon

A carbon atom has four valence electrons. This means carbon

can share 4 electrons with other atoms i.e. it can form four
covalent bonds with other atoms. It can form bonds with other
carbon atoms, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the halogens.
Bonding in organic compounds
As a result of four valence electrons, carbon atoms can bond
to other carbon atoms in an unlimited way. When carbon
atoms bond with each other a variety of structures can form.
Single bonds
Single bonds can form between adjacent carbon atoms. In a
single bond, a carbon atom shares one pair of electrons with
another carbon atom. This leaves three other electrons per
carbon atom available for bonding with other atoms. For
example, ethane (C2H6) has a single bond between the two
carbon atoms, represented by a single line:

CH3CH3

Organic compounds containing only single bonds between

adjacent carbon atoms are known as saturated compounds.
Double bonds
Double bonds can form between adjacent carbon atoms. In a
double bond, a carbon atom shares two pairs of electrons with
another carbon atom. This leaves two other electrons per carbon
atom available for bonding with other atoms. For example,
ethene (C2H4) has a double bond between two carbon atoms,
represent by two lines:

CH2CH2
Organic compounds containing one or more double bonds
between adjacent carbon atoms are known as unsaturated
compounds.
Unbranched vs. branched chains
Unbranched or branched chain of carbon atoms can form of
different lengths:

Rings
Rings of carbon atoms can form. For example, cyclohexane
(C6H12) is a ring of six carbon atoms:

The ability of carbon atoms to form covalent bonds with other

carbon atoms forming long chains and rings of carbon atoms is
known as catenation.
Functional groups
Organic compounds contain one or more functional groups. A
functional group is a particular atom, a particular group of
atoms, or a particular bond between two carbon atoms within a
molecule. The functional group determines the chemical
properties of the compound containing it.
The simplest organic compounds are composed to two parts:
- The hydrocarbon part which is composed of carbon and
hydrogen atoms only.
- The functional group.
Formulae of organic compounds
The formulae of organic compounds can be written in a variety
of different ways. The most common methods are:
- Molecular formula. This shows the actual number of each
element in one molecule of the compound. The molecular
formula of butanoic acid is C4H8O2 .
- The fully displayed structural formula. This shows in
two-dimensional diagrammatic form how the atoms are arranged
in one molecule of the compound:

Butanoic acid
- - The condensed structural formula. This shows the
sequence and arrangement of atoms in one molecule of the
compound in such a way that the nature and position of
attachment of the functional group is shown without
 actually drawing the molecule. The condensed structural
formula of butanoic acid is:
CH3CH2CH2COOH
Practice:
Give the condensed structural formula and molecular formula of
this compound:

Condensed structural formula: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

Molecular formula: C5H12
Homologous series
We can classify compounds in groups based on the functional
groups which they contain. These groups are known as
homologous series.
The characteristics of a homologous series are given below.
- All members of the series have the same functional group.
- All members of the series can be represented by the same
general formula.
- Each member of the series differs from the member before or
after by a –CH2- group and by relative molecular mass of 14.
- All members of a series possess similar chemical properties.
Reactivity decreases as molar mass increases, i.e. as the number
of carbon atoms per molecule increases.
- All members of a series show a gradual change in their
physical properties as their molar mass increases. In general, as
molar mass increases, melting point, boiling point and density
increase.
- All members of a homologous series can be prepared by the
same general method.
Naming straight chain members of a homologous series
Because of the great variety of organic compounds, a set of rules
for naming these compounds has been developed by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
The process of naming chemical compounds is known as
chemical nomenclature.
The names of straight chain members of a homologous series
consist of two parts:
- The first part, or prefix, is related to the total number of
carbon atoms present in one molecule. The table below gives
the prefixes for the organic compounds up to ten carbon atoms.
- The second part which is based on the homologous series to
which the compound belongs and relates to the functional group
present. For example, if the compound belongs to the alkane
series, its name ends in ‘-ane’.

Total number of carbon atoms Prefix

1 meth-

2 eth-

3 prop-

4 but-
 5 pent-

6 hex-

7 hept-

8 oct-

9 non-

10 dec-

The table below gives the main homologous series together with
an example of a member of each series containing two carbon
atoms.
Naming the following organic compounds and give their
molecular and condensed structural formula.

Butene
CH2CHCH2CH3
C4H8

Propanol
CH3CH2CH2OH
C3H7OH
Ethanoic acid (Vinegar) Methane (“pup”, “fart”)
CH3COOH CH4

Heptane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
C7H16
Structural isomers

Structural isomers are compounds which have the same molecular

formula but different structural formulae. Therefore their molecules
contain the same number of atoms of each element, but these atoms are
bonded together differently. This phenomenon is called structural
isomerism.

Each structural isomer has a different name.

Structural isomers of straight chain molecules can be formed in two

ways:

- By the chain of carbon atoms becoming branched.

- By the position of the functional group changing.

Forming isomers by branching

Carbon chains can have side branches of one or more carbon atoms. For
example, pentane (C5H12) has three isomers, one of which is the straight
chain isomer and two of which are formed by branching of the carbon
chain as shown below:

SEE DRAWINGS DONE IN CLASS

Forming isomers by changing the position of the functional group

The functional group is usually situated at the right hand end of the
molecule. However, the position of the functional group can change.

Examples

Butene (C4H8) has two isomers because the position of the

carbon-carbon double bond can change as shown below:

Or 1-butene 2-butene

Butanol (C4H9OH) has two isomers because the position of the hydroxyl
group can change as shown below:

1-butanol or butan-1-ol 2-butanol or butan-2-ol

Other examples: Concise pg. 130-132

Naming branched chain isomers

The side chains which branch off from the longest chain of carbon atoms
in a molecule are known as alkyl groups. These groups have the general
formula CnH2n+1 . Alkyl groups are named by adding the suffix ‘-yl’ to
the prefix:

Formula of the alkyl group Name

-CH3 methyl

-C2H5 ethyl

-C3H7 propyl

The name of a branched chain molecule is made up of three parts:

- the first part indicates the number of the carbon atom to which the
side chain is attached.

- the second part is the name of the side chain i.e. the alkyl group

- the third part is derived from the homologous series to which the
compound belongs and the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.

To name branched chain molecules, therefore, the following four steps

should be used.

1) Find the number of the carbon atom to which the side chain is
attached.

2) Determine the name of the side chain. Side chains can have prefixes
like ‘di’ or ‘tri’ if there are 2 or 3 side chains present in the compound.
3) Determine the homologous series to which the compound belongs
and the total number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous carbon
chain.

4) Put the information from steps 1) to 3) together to name the

compound, separating the number by a hyphen.

SEE EXAMPLES DONE IN CLASS

Rates of reaction
The study of the speed at which a chemical reaction occurs is known as
the rate of reaction. During a reaction, the concentration of the
reactants decreases and the concentration of the products increases. If we
can measure the decrease in concentration of a reactant or the increase in
concentration of a product, and know how long it took for the decrease
or increase to occur, we can determine the rate of a reaction.

The rate of a reaction can, therefore, be determined by:

Rate of reaction = (decrease in concentration of a reactant)/(time taken

for the decrease)

Or

Rate of reaction = (increase in concentration of a product)/(time taken

for the increase)

Changes in concentration are not always easy to measure. However,

there are other property changes that can be measured to determine the
rate of a reaction. Some examples are:

- if one of the products is a gas, the volume of gas produced over

time can be measured using a gas syringe. e.g. a reaction between a
reactive metal and an acid.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcuTyVAXzJg

- if one of the products is a gas, if the gas is allowed to escape, the

decrease in mass of the reaction can be measured over time e.g. a
reaction between a carbonate and an acid.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUdepUn1x7A
 - if a precipitate forms, the appearance of the precipitate can be
measured, e.g. the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and
hydrochloric acid.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4IZDPpN-bk

- if there is a change in colour intensity, this can be measured.

- if there is a distinct change in pressure, temperature or pH as the
reaction proceeds, any of these can be measured over time.

Collision theory for reactions

Chemical reactions involve the breaking of original bonds in the

reactants and the formation of new bonds in the products. In order for a
reaction to take place, all of the following must occur:

- The reactant particles must collide with each other in order to

break the original bonds in the reactants so that new bonds can
form in the products.
- the reactant particles must collide with enough energy, known as
activation energy, to break the original bonds in the reactants and
enable the particles to have enough energy to form products.
- the reactant particles must collide with the correct orientation so
that the energy produced by the collision can be passed on to the
original bonds in order to break them.
Not all collisions occur with the required activation energy or with the
correct orientation of particles. Therefore, not all collisions result in a
reaction occurring. Collisions which result in a reaction are called
effective collisions. The rate of a reaction depends on the number of
effective collisions.
Rate curves

See concise page 107

Example

The reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid:

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

If magnesium ribbon is added to hydrochloric acid, the volume of

hydrogen gas given off can be measured in a gas syringe at regular
intervals using the apparatus shown below:

If the volume of gas is plotted against time, the curve below may be
obtained:
As seen in the graph, overall the rate of the reaction decreases. The
gradient is steep at the beginning of the graph indicating the reaction is
rapid. However, as the reaction progresses, the gradient becomes
shallower indicating the reaction is slowing down until the reaction stops
and there is no further change in the volume of hydrogen gas.

The average rate of reaction at different stages in the reaction can be

determined by using the general formula:

Rate of reaction = (increase in the volume of hydrogen)/(time taken for

the increase)

Determine the average rate of reaction in the first minute (60 s):

volume of gas produced in the first 60 s = 28 cm3

average rate of reaction = 28 cm3 / 60 s = 0.47 cm3/s or 0.47 cm3s-1

Determine the average rate of reaction in the second minute:

volume of gas produced in the second minute = (38 – 28) = 10 cm3

average rate of reaction = 10 cm3 / 60 s = 0.17 cm3s-1

Explanation of the shape of rate curves

- The gradient is steepest at the beginning of the reaction indicating

that the rate of the reaction is at its highest. This is because the
concentration of the reactant particles is at its highest at the
beginning of the reaction. The frequency of collision between the
particles is at its highest at the beginning.
- As the reaction proceeds the gradient becomes shallower indicating
that the rate of the reaction is decreasing. This is because the
concentration of the reactant particles is decreasing as the reaction
proceeds. The frequency of collision between the particles is
decreasing as the reaction proceeds.
- After a period of time the curve becomes horizontal, i.e. the
gradient becomes zero, indicating that the reaction has reached
completion and has stopped. One of the reactants has been used up
and there are no more of its particles left to collide. The reactant
which is used up in a reaction is known as the limiting reactant.
The quantity of the limiting reactant determines the quantity of
products produced.

Factors affecting rates of reaction

The rate of reaction is dependent on several factors. There are four main
factors which can affect the rate of a reaction:

- concentration

- temperature

- surface area (particle size)

- presence or absence of a catalyst

Light and pressure can also affect the rate of certain reactions.

Concentration

The general rule is that the higher the concentration of a reactant, the
higher the rate of the reaction.

If the concentration of a reactant is increased, this means that there are

more reactant particles per unit volume. As a result, the particles collide
more frequently which increases the chances of effective collisions,
therefore, the rate of reaction increases.

Temperature

The general rule is that the higher the temperature at which a reaction
occurs, the higher the rate of reaction.

If the temperature at which a reaction occurs is increased, the reactant

particles gain kinetic energy which has the following effects:

- the particles move faster, therefore they collide more frequently

- the particles collide with more energy, therefore more collisions

occur with sufficient activation energy for the particles to react.

Surface area (particle size)

The general rule is the smaller the particles of a reactant, the higher the
rate of reaction.

This only applies to reactions in the solid state. When solids react, the
reaction occurs on the surface of the solid. Small solid particles have a
larger total surface area than the same mass of large solid particles. If
the particle size is decreased, the smaller particles have a greater surface
area exposed to particles of the other reactant. As a result, the particles
collide more frequently which increases the chances of effective
collisions, therefore, the rate of reaction increases.

The effect of surface area and particle size on the rate of a chemica…

Presence or absence of a catalyst

A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a reaction without itself

undergoing any permanent chemical change.

Most catalysts are added to speed up the rate of a reaction. They work by
providing an alternative pathway for the reaction which requires less
activation energy than the normal pathway. As a result, more of the
collisions occur with sufficient energy for the particles to react, which
increases the number of effective collisions in a given length of time.

A few catalysts are added to slow down the rate of a reaction. These are
known as negative catalysts or inhibitors.
Energetics

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Whenever there is a chemical reaction, there tends to be a change in

energy of the system. The energy changes in chemical reactions are
usually in the form of heat energy, however, they may also be in the
form of light, electrical or nuclear energy. We can distinguish between
two types of reaction based on the energy changes which occur.

- If the reaction produces heat, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings to get hotter, the reaction is said to be an exothermic
reaction. Exothermic reactions transfer energy to the surroundings.
- If the reaction absorbs heat, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings to get colder, the reaction is said to be an
endothermic reaction. Endothermic reactions absorb energy from
the surroundings.

Example of exothermic reactions:

- respiration, which releases energy from food in the cells.
- burning of fuel
- neutralization reactions between acids and bases
- reaction between reactive metals and acids

Example of endothermic reactions:

- photosynthesis in plants, which absorbs sunlight energy
- decomposition of compounds when heated e.g. calcium carbonate
must absorb heat in order to decompose into calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.
Bond breaking and bond forming

A chemical reaction involves breaking the original bonds in the reactants

and making new bonds in the products.
- When the original bonds are broken in the reactants, energy is
absorbed.
- When new bonds are formed in the products, energy is released.

Reactants → Products
bonds are broken bonds are formed
energy is absorbed energy is released

- In an exothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break the

existing bonds in the reactants is less than the energy released in
forming the new bonds in the products. The extra energy is
released to the surroundings and the temperature of the
surroundings increase.
- In an endothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break the
existing bonds in the reactants is greater than the energy released in
forming the new bonds in the products. The extra energy is
absorbed from the surroundings and the temperature of the
surroundings decreases.

Enthalpy change

The energy content of a substance is called its enthalpy and is given the
symbol H. The energy content of a substance cannot be measured
directly but it is possible to measure the change in enthalpy that occurs
during a reaction. This is known as enthalpy change and is given the
symbol ΔH and is usually expressed in kilojoules, kJ, or kilojoules per
mole, kJmol-1
The enthalpy change of a reaction is summarized by the following
formula:

enthalpy change of a reaction = (total enthalpy of products) – (total

enthalpy of reactants)

i.e. ΔHreaction = ΔHproducts – ΔHreactants

Exothermic reaction

In an exothermic reaction the enthalpy of the products is less than the

enthalpy of the reactants:

i.e. ΔHproducts < ΔHreactants

Therefore, ΔH has a value less than zero i.e. ΔH is negative. The extra
energy is released to the surroundings and the temperature of the
surroundings increases.

An example of an exothermic reaction is the combustion of methane:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) ΔH = -891 kJmol-1

This tells us that 891 kJ of energy is lost when 1 mol of methane is
completely burned in oxygen.

Endothermic reactions

In an endothermic reaction the enthalpy of the products is greater than

the enthalpy of the reactants:

i.e. ΔHproducts > ΔHreactants

Therefore, ΔH has a value which is greater than zero, i.e. ΔH is positive.
Energy is absorbed from the surroundings and the temperature of the
surroundings decreases.

An example of an endothermic reaction is the reaction of hydrogen and

iodine:

H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g) ΔH = +26.5 kJmol-1

The value of ΔH tells us that 26.5 kJ of energy is gained when 1 mol of

hydrogen iodide is made during the reaction. The overall energy
absorbed by the reaction represented in the equation would be double
this value, i.e. 53 kJ, since it shows 2 mol of hydrogen iodide being
made.

Reversible reactions

In a reversible reaction, if the forward reaction is exothermic, then the

reverse reaction is endothermic and vice versa. The ΔH value given for a
reversible reaction is for the forward reaction. For example, the reaction
between nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia is:

ΔH = -46.1 kJmol-1

This shows that the forward reaction to produce ammonia is exothermic.

Therefore, the reverse reaction is endothermic. It also shows us that
when 1 mol of ammonia is made during the reaction, 46.1 kJ of energy is
released.

Energy profile diagrams

The energy change in a chemical reaction can be illustrated with an

energy profile diagram. The diagram shows the energy content or
enthalpy of the reactants and products, ΔH and the activation energy.
Most reactions need some energy to get them started. The minimum
amount of energy is called the activation energy. This activation energy
can be thought of as the energy barrier of a reaction.
The amount of activation energy does not affect the overall energy
change for the reaction and is not included in the calculation of the value
of ΔH. The general energy profile diagrams of an exothermic and an
endothermic reaction are shown below:

Energy profile diagram for the formation of ammonia

Calculating enthalpy changes

If the change in temperature that occurs during a reaction is measured,

the heat change, known as the heat of reaction, can be determined using
the formula given below:

(J) = (g) x (J/g0C) x (oC)

OR

q = m x c x ΔT

Specific heat capacity of a substance, c, is the quantity of heat required

to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1 oC or 1 K.
Specific heat capacity is usually given the unit joules per gram per
degree Celsius or Jg-1C-1.

Example: The specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J/goC. This means it
takes 4.2 J of heat energy to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1oC.

Measuring heat of reaction

To measure the heat of neutralization and heat of solution a piece of

apparatus known as a calorimeter is used. A calorimeter is an insulated
container which prevents heat released by a reaction escaping into the
surroundings if the reaction is exothermic, or heat from the surroundings
being absorbed if the reaction is endothermic. A simple calorimeter can
be made out of a Styrofoam cup because polystyrene is a good insulator.
Heat of neutralization

The neutralization reaction between strong acid and strong base is an

exothermic reaction. The amount of heat produced per mole of water
formed in the reaction is known as the heat of neutralization.

Example

A volume of 50 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 1.0

moldm-3 and temperature 26.0 oC is added to 50 cm3 of hydrochloric acid
of concentration 1.0 moldm-3 and temperature 27oC. After mixing, the
maximum temperature of the solution is 33.2oC. Determine the heat of
neutralization and draw the energy profile diagram of the reaction.

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Determine the number of moles of water made in the reaction:

1 mol of NaOH is present in 1000 cm3

Therefore x mol of NaOH is present in 50 cm3

= 0.05 mol NaOH

1 mol of HCl is present in 1000 cm3

Therefore x mol of HCl is present in 50 cm3

= 0.05 mol HCl

From equation:

1 mol NaOH reacts with 1 mol HCl to produce 1 mol H2O

Therefore 0.05 mol NaOH reacts with 0.05 mol HCl forming 0.05 mol
H2O

0.05 mol H2O is produced in the reaction.

Determine the heat of neutralization:

Total volume of the solution = 50 + 50 = 100 cm3

Assumption: The density of the dilute aqueous solution is the same as

water (1 g/cm3).

mass of solution, m = 100 g

Average initial temperature = (26 + 27)/2 = 26.5 oC

Final temperature = 33.2 oC

ΔT = 33.2 – 26.5 = 6.7 oC

specific heat capacity of the solution, c = 4.2 J/goC

q = mcΔT

= 100 g x 4.2 J/g0C x 6.7 oC

= 2814 J

= 2.814 kJ

Heat evolve in forming 1 mol H2O = 2.814 kJ/ 0.05 mol = 56.28 kJ/mol

This is an exothermic reaction because temperature increased

Heat of neutralization, ΔH = - 56.28 kJ/mol

INSERT ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAM

Heat of solution

When a solid, liquid or gas dissolves in a solvent, there is usually a

change in enthalpy. This enthalpy change which occurs when 1 mol of
solute dissolves in a solvent is known as heat of solution.

Example

A student dissolves 5.35 g of ammonium chloride in 100 cm3 of distilled

water. The initial temperature of the water is 22.5oC. After mixing, a
minimum temperature of 16.4oC is recorded by the student. Determine
the heat of solution of ammonium chloride and draw an energy profile
diagram for the solution process.

Determine the number of moles of NH4Cl dissolved:

Molar mass of NH4Cl = 53.5 g/mol

Number of moles = 5.35/53.5 = 0.1 mol

Determine the heat of solution:

Volume of water = 100 cm3

Therefore mass of water = 100 g

Final mass of the solution = 100 g + 5.35 g = 105.35 g

ΔT = Final temp. – initial temp. = 16.4 oC – 22.5 oC = -6.1oC

Therefore temperature decrease = 6.1 oC

Heat change = mcΔT

= 105.35 g x 4.2 J/goC x 6.1 oC

= 2699 J = 2.699 kJ

heat change in 1 mol NH4Cl = 2.699 kJ/0.1 mol = 26.99 kJ/mol

i.e. heat of solution, ΔH = +26.99 kJ/mol (THIS IS AN

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION)
INSERT ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAM

NH4Cl(s) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + Cl(aq) -

See other examples in page 114 in the Concise

Electrochemistry
The electrochemical series of metals

When metals are placed in order of ease with which they lose electrons,
i.e. ease with which they ionize, a series known as the electrochemical
series of metals is created.

Potassium is highest in the series, which means that it ionizes the most
easily, forms the most stable ions and is the strongest reducing agent.
Silver is lowest in the series, which means that it ionizes the least easily,
forms the least stable ions and is the weakest reducing agent.

The electrochemical series of metals can be used to predict certain

chemical reactions:
Displacement of metals

A metal will displace a metal below it in the electrochemical series from

a compound containing the lower metal. This is because the higher metal
is a stronger reducing agent, therefore readily gives electrons to the ions
of the lower metal. As a result, the higher metal ionizes and the ions of
the lower metal are converted to atoms, i.e. the ions are said to have
been discharged.

Example

1. Will a reaction occur when a strip of magnesium ribbon is placed

in copper(II) sulphate solution?

Magnesium is higher than copper in the electrochemical series,

therefore, magnesium can displace the Cu2+ ions from the copper(II)
sulphate. Magnesium is a stronger reducing agent, therefore, it gives
electrons to the Cu2+ ions. The magnesium ionizes forming Mg2+ ions and
the Cu2+ ions are discharged forming copper atoms:

Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

The ionic equation is:

Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)

The transfer of electrons is shown in the ionic half equations:

Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)

2. Will a reaction occur if iron filings are placed in a solution of zinc
nitrate?

No, because iron is lower in the electrochemical series.

See concise page 91-93 and handout given in class about:

- Displacement of hydrogen and non-metals

- Electrical conduction
- Metallic and electrolytic conduction
- Electrolyte
- Strength of an electrolyte

Electrolysis

When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte, the electrolyte

is decomposed into simpler substances, i.e. it undergoes a chemical
change known as electrolysis.

Electrolysis takes place in a piece of apparatus known as an electrolytic

cell. An electrolytic cell has three main components.

● A battery or other d.c. power supply that provides the electric

current.
● Two electrodes connected, via wires, to the battery or power
supply, which take the electric current into and out of the
electrolyte. They must be able to conduct an electric current and
are usually made of inert material such as graphite (carbon) or
platinum. The anode is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the cathode is connected to the negative terminal.
● The electrolyte, which is a molten ionic compound or a solution
containing mobile ions.
Mechanism of electrolysis

During electrolysis both anions and cations are discharged i.e. they lose
or gain electrons to form neutral ions. This occurs as follows:

- The anions (negative ions) are attracted to the anode (positive

electrode). The anions lose electrons to the anode to form atoms, i.e.
they are discharged:

An- → A + ne-

Oxidation occurs at the anode. The anode is the oxidizing agent.

- The electrons, lost by the anions at the anode, travel through the
circuit to the positive terminal of the battery. They then re-enter the
circuit from the negative terminal of the battery and travel to the
cathode.

- The cations (positive ions) are attracted to the cathode (negative

electrode). The cations gain the electrons from the cathode forming
atoms i.e. they are discharged:

Cn+ + ne- → C
Reduction occurs at the cathode. The cathode acts as the reducing agent.

Electrolysis of molten electrolyte and some aqueous

solutions
Concise page 95-99
Quantitative electrolysis

The quantity of electricity, or quantity of electrical charge, is given the

symbol Q and is measured in units called coulombs, C. During
electrolysis, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through
electrical wires. Each electron flowing through these wires has an
electrical charge which is extremely small. In fact, the electrical charge
on one electron is so small that when 1 C of electrical charge flows
through a circuit, 6.25 x 1018 electrons have flowed.

The quantity of electricity or electrical charge flowing through an

electrolytic cell during electrolysis depends on two factors.

· The rate of flow of the electrical charge, i.e. current, which is given
the symbol I and is measured in units called amperes, A. A current of 1
amp is equivalent to 1 C, or 6.25 x 1018 electrons flowing for 1 s.

· The length of time, t, that current flows for, measured in seconds,

s.

The quantity of electricity or electrical charge can then be calculated

using the following formula:

quantity of electrical charge ( C ) = current (A) x time (s)

Q=Ixt

One mole of electrons (6 x 1023 electrons) has a total charge of 96500 C.

This value is known as Faraday constant.
Example

Calculate the mass of lead produced at the cathode when a current of 5.0
A flows through molten lead(II) bromide for 16 minutes and 5 seconds.

Determine the quantity of electricity that flows:

Q=Ixt

I = 5.0 A

t = (16x60) + 5 = 965 s

Q = 5 x 965 = 4825 C

Write equation for the reaction at the cathode:

Pb2+ (l) + 2e- → Pb(l)

From the equation:

2 mol of electrons are required to produce 1 mol of Pb

Since 1 mol of electrons has a charge of 96500 C

therefore 2 mol of electrons has a charge of x

x= 96500 x 2 = 193,000 C

Since 193000 C form 1 mol Pb

therefore 4825 C form x mol Pb

x = 4825/193000 = 0.025 mol Pb

Mass of lead = 0.025 mol x 207 g/mol = 5.175 g