J . geol. Soc. London, Vol. 140, 1983, pp. 445-474, 29 figs., 9 tables. Printed in Northern Ireland.

Hydrocarbon generation andmigrationfromJurassicsourcerocks

in the E Shetland Basin andVikingGraben of the
northernNorth Sea

J. C. Goff
SUMMARY: In the E Shetland Basinoilgenerationbegan 65Maago;peakoilgeneration
maturityoccurstoday at 3250 m (0.7% Ro) and was firstreached40-50Maago;theoil
generationthreshold is at 2500111. Highestoilsaturations in theKimrneridgeClayoccurat
0.8% R,; oil expulsion efficiencies are >20-30%. Oil phase migration has probably occurred
through oil wet kerogen laminae,and through interconnected large pores aided by low oil/water
interfacial
tensions. Oil
migratedalongstrong
lateral fluid pressure
gradients,
from
overpressured source rocks in half grabens to Jurassic reservoirs in tilted fault blocks.
In the Viking Graben the Kimmeridge Clay is at oil floor maturity below4500111; oil and
peak oil generation began 7C-80 and 55-65 Ma ago respectively; 40 Ma ago the Kimrneridge
Clay passed through peak generation, and gas generation by cracking of oil had begun. Peak
dry gas generation from Brent coals occurs today below 5000m, and began 40Ma ago. The
FriggFieldgas,probablygeneratedfromlateJurassicsourcerocks,migratedthrough
microfractures in overpressuredmudstonesbelow3500 m; above3500 m methaneprobably
migrated in aqueous solution and was exsolved in the early Tertiary aquifer.

The E Shetland Basin and the Viking Graben (Fig. 1) probably at least partly due to differential compaction
are located in the northern North Sea Basin between of Triassic rocks.
the Shetland Islands andNorway (Fig. 2). The Jurassic The Brent Formation sandstones form fluvialiwave
a
sandstones in the E Shetland Basin contain 10 billion dominateddeltacomplex,upto300mthick, which
barrels of recoverablelightoil;3fieldseachhave prograded acrossarelativelystableshelfatleast
recoverablereservesgreaterthan 1 billionbarrels 12 500 km2 inextent. Major(down to E) faulting, which
(Statfjord,BrentandNinian).The Viking Graben occurredduringBathoniantoOxfordiantimes, cre-
containsmajor gas reserves:dry gas and associated atedthe Viking Grabenandaseries of westerly
heavy oil are trapped in early Tertiary sandstones; the dipping fault blocks and half grabens in the eastern E
Frigg Field has in place reserves of 270 billion m3 of Shetland Basin(Fig.3). ThickBathonianto early
gas and 790 million barrels of heavy oil (Heritier et al. Oxfordianmarinemudstones(HeatherFormation)
1979). Gas condensate has been discovered in deep, conformably overlie theBrentFormation in half
high pressure, Jurassic sandstones. grabens; on the crests of the fault blocks, thin Heather
The aims of this study were to determine when these Formationmudstonesunconformablyoverlieeroded
hydrocarbons were generated from their source rocks, Jurassicrocks. Inthe Viking GrabentheHeather
and how they migrated from these source rocks to the Formation is up to 1km thick.
traps.Boththeseobjectivesrequiredintegration of Further periods of rifting occurred in Oxfordian to
geochemical data with knowledge of the stratigraphy, early Cretaceous time: Kimmeridgianfaultingoccur-
geological structure and history of the study area. The red in the western E Shetland Basin. Late Oxfordian
geological framework of the studyarea,
and
its to
Portlandian,
bituminous,sapropelic, mudstones
development, are reviewed below. (Kimmeridge Clay Formation) were
deposited
The northern North Sea Basin formed during Permo- throughoutthearea,reaching thicknesses of up to
Triassicrifting;thickTriassicredbedsconsisting of 500 m in the E Shetland Basin. Submarine fan sand-
alluvial fan, fluvial and lacustrine clastics were depo- stones were depositedin the north-western E Shetland
sited unconformably on Caledonian basement. Up to BasinduringtheKimmeridgian.MajorearlyCret-
1km of early to middle Jurassic shallow-water sedi- aceous faulting occurred in the northwest E Shetland
ments were then deposited. These comprise Hettan- Basin and possiblyalong thewestern flank of the
gian-Sinemurianfluvial and marginal marinesand- Viking Graben. Thickearly Cretaceousmudstones
stones (Statfjord Formation), Sinemurian to Toarcian (Cromer Knoll Group)are confined tothe Viking
shallow marine shelf mudstones,siltstonesand thin Grabenandsome half grabens of the E Shetland
sandstones(Dunlin Formation),andBajocian
to Basin.Faultingceased by mid-Cretaceous timesex-
early
Bathonian deltaickhallow marine
sandstones cept along the western fault controlled edge of the E
(Brent Formation). Growth faulting occurred during ShetlandBasin;thegeometry of the Jurassicfault
deposition of theserocksalong somefaulttrends, blocks was thus established by 100 Ma ago.

0016-7649/83/0500-0445$02.00 01983 The Geological Society

l0 2"

61"

'l"

60°

FAN
FIG.1. Depth to Base Cretaceous in the study area.
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks. northern North Sea 447
Graben where 2000-2500 m of sediments accumulated.
Palaeocene to early Eocene submarine fan sandstones
and mudstones, mid-Eocene to Oligocene mudstones
and marine sandstones, and Miocene to Recent lignitic
sandstonesandmudstones were
deposited in the
Tertiary basin.
The approach used in this study was first to define
thehydrocarbonsource rocks andtheirpresentday
maturity.Thepresent day thermal regime was then
determined by calculating heat flow in 4 wells located
in contrasting structural positions (Fig. 3). Well A is
located on a shallow fault block, and Well B in a half
graben in the E Shetland Basin. Well C was drilled on
adownfaulted block onthe westernflank of the
Viking Graben; Well D tested a deep fault block in
the axial Viking Graben. A range for heat flow history
at these 4 locations was deduced from their subsidence
histories.
The maturation history of the source rocks in the 4
wells was calculated from their burial history, and the
thermalproperties of theiroverburden, for
both
constantand variableheat flow models.Timing of
hydrocarbon generation was deduced from the
FIG 2 . Location of study area. maturation history using a correlation between calcu-
latedmaturityandvitrinitereflectance.Timing of
Regional subsidence occurred across the E Shetland generation within the study area and as a whole was
Basin and Viking Graben during late Cretaceous time, then estimated from its overall thermal and subsidence
and up to 2500m of deep water mudstones and thin history.
limestones(ShetlandGroup)weredeposited.Max- The efficiency of oilmigration and entrapment in
imumTertiarysubsidenceoccurredovertheViking the eastern E Shetland Basinhas been estimated by

W E

0 0

1 1

€ 2 2
2
i -
L3 1 UPPER

4 -
Early Tertiary Sandstones
Kimmeridge Clay FMN
Hoother F M N
5 Brent FMN

km.
FIG 3. Cross section from the eastern E Shetland Basin to the axial Viking Graben.
448 J. C. Goff
W E dominantly of Type I1 kerogen (Williams & Douglas
1980). The Kimmeridge Clay is rated as an excellent
EAST F R I G G -1 oil source rock, generating gas at high maturity levels.
FRIGG FIELD FIELD TheHeatherFormationmudstonescontain l-2%
TOC which consists dominantly of vitrinite and
inertinite (Barnard & Cooper 1981); they are rated as
CRETACEOUS MUDSTONE
lean dry gas source rocks. The Brent Formation coals
X andvitrinite rich mudstonesare excellentdrygas
S E sourcerocks;thedelta plainfaciescontains upto
a 10 m net of coal. The Dunlin Formation is organically
t lean;mudstones of itslowerand middlemembers
---___= REFLECTANCE 0 km. m contain only 1 % TOC which is dominantly inertinite
VALUE (%l
(Barnard & Cooper 1981). The upper Drake member,
0 EARLY TERTIARY
SANDSTONES H E A FT M
HENR
of Toarcian age, contains 2% TOC but less than 30%
of the organic matter consists of sapropel; it thus has
KIMMERIDGE
CLAY F M N 0 BRENT FMN only limited oil potential.
The richest source rocks in the study area are thus
FIG. 4. Cross section through
VikingGraben the oil proneKimmeridge Clay andthe gas prone
below Frigg Field (after Heritier et al. (1979).
Brent Formation coals and coaly mudstones. Shetland
GroupandHeatherFormationmudstones,although
organically lean,reach thicknesses of 1 and 2 km
comparing the volume of oil generated with the respectively. They are thus capableof generating large
volumetrapped.Themechanism of oilmigration in volumes of gas.
the E Shetland Basin has been deduced by comparing The lithology and TOC content of the Kimmeridge
the volumes of oil and compaction water which moved Clay are very variable. In its type section in southern
throughthesourcerockduringmigration,and by England it consists of carbonaceous illitic clays (<10%
considering the physical conditions within the source TOC), bituminousshales (~30% TOC), oil shales
rock. (~70% TOC) andcoccolithic limestones;the bituminous
Finally the mechanism of oil and gas migration into shale units are up to2 m thick (Tyson et al. 1979). The
the Frigg Field, which lies 2 km stratigraphically above limestones are also bituminous and usually interlamin-
Jurassic source rocks in the Viking Graben (Fig. 4), is ated with the oil shales, which are generally less than
discussed. The variation of pore and fracture pressure, lOcm thick(Gallois1976).Inthe E ShetlandBasin
and of methane solubility, with depth in the Viking the Kimmeridge Clay
alsocontains
thin
beds of
Grabenhasbeenstudiedtodeterminetherelative siltstone, fine-grained sandstone and dolomite.
importance of microfracturesandwatermovement Fuller (1980) reportedanaverageOrganicMatter
during migration. Content for the Kimmeridge Clay in the North Sea
Basin of 3.25% (equivalent to a TOC of 2.7%); the E
Source rocks ShetlandBasinKimmeridgeClay is twice as rich as
this. Organic matter typevaries laterally and vertically
The sourcerockpotential of theCretaceousand within the Kimmeridge Clay. At shallow burial depths
Jurassic
mudstones in the studyarea
has
been (1500-2400 m) close to clastic sediment sources, and
reviewed using Total Organic Carbon (TOC) analyses overstableplatformareas,theKimmeridge Clay
and determinations of Organic Matter Type. Shetland containspredominantlyinertiniteandvitrinite(Bar-
Groupmudstonesarelean,containing vitrinite and nard & Cooper 1981).
inertinite.Cromer Knoll Groupmudstonescontain The high TOC content and sapropel contents of the
1-2 wt% TOC which is predominantly inertinite Kimmeridge Clay
in
the E Shetland Basin
are
(Barnard & Cooper 1981). probably duepartlytodepositionin restrictedfault
‘Jurassic source rocks’ inthenorthernNorthSea bounded half grabens. Oil shalehorizons are best
have weighted average TOC contentsof 5.6 %wt from developed in the middle part of the Kimmeridge Clay
2600-3200m, and 4.9% from 3250-3650m; their onshoreintheUnited Kingdom(Gallois 1976). A
non-soluble organic matter contains80% sapropel and highly radioactive unit occurs at this stratigraphiclevel
20% humicicoalymaterial (Brooks & Thusu 1977). in the E Shetland Basin and Viking Graben (Fig. 5 ) ; it
Jurassicsourcerockswiththesecharacteristicshave frequently has a higher than normal electrical resistiv-
only
been
reported
from
the
Kimmeridge Clay ity, suggesting it is the organically richest unit in the
Formation(Barnard & Cooper 1981; Fuller1980). Kimmeridge Clay. On the crests of the fault blocks in
The Jurassic source rocks analysedby Brooks & Thusu the E Shetland Basin this unit is the only part of the
are thus probably from the Kimmeridge Clay. Imma- Kimmeridge Clay present, indicating it was deposited
tureKimmeridge Clay organicmatter consists pre- during the peak Kimmeridgian transgression.
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassicsource rocks, northern North Sea 449

WELL B
0 GR, A P I . 200

0
WELL D
G R . API. 200

50m

lOOm

Radioactivity > 100 A P I

3 0
FIG.5 . Gamma ray correlation of Kimmeridge Clay from E Shetland Basin to Viking Graben.

Maturity Hydrocarbon/TOCratiodataforthe Kimmeridge

Clay have been correlated with the vitrinite reflectance
The presentdaymaturitydepthgradientinthe E gradient todeterminethe vitrinitereflectancelevel
Shetland Basin and Viking Grabenhasbeendeter- correspondingtopeakhydrocarbongeneration (Fig.
mined fromvitrinite reflectance measurements on 7). The maturity corresponding to peak hydrocarbon
BrentFormation coals and earlyJurassictomid- generation is here defined as the maturity when 50%
Cretaceousmudstones in12wells. The wells were of the potential hydrocarbon yield has been generated.
drilledin the Norwegiansector of theeastern E For a Type I1 kerogen, 70% of the organic matter is
ShetlandBasin,the axialViking Graben,and on capable of conversion tohydrocarbons (Tissot &
shallow fault blocks on the eastern flank of the Viking Welte 1978).When peakhydrocarbongeneration is
Graben E of the study area. The data (Fig. 6) indicate reached,35% of theorganicmatter will thushave
auniformpresentday maturitygradientacrossthe been converted to hydrocarbons. This corresponds to
eastern halfof the study area. For a type I1 kerogen a hydrocarbon/TOC ratio in the source rock at peak
(Tissot & Welte 1978)thisgradientindicates the oil generation of 0.42, if no expulsionhasoccurred
window extends from 2550 to 4500 m, the wet gas zone (assuming 1gm of organic matter is equivalent to
from 4500 and 5400 m,andthatthedry gas zone 0.83 gm of TOC).
occursat depthsgreater
than
5400m. Peak gas However, because some of the generated hydrocar-
generation from coal corresponds to the boundary of bons are expelled from the source rock, the hydrocar-
the medium and lower volatile bituminous coal ranks bon/TOC ratio corresponding to peak generation will
(Hunt 1979; fig. 5.7),correspondingtoavitrinite be less than 0.42. The expulsion efficiency canbe
reflectance of 1.5%. This isequivalent to aburial estimatedfromtheobserveddecrease in TOC with
depth of 5000 m in the Viking Graben. depth for the KimmeridgeClay of 0.7% from about
450 .I. C. Goff
VlTRlNlTE REFLECTANCE, R, ,/,

R, DEPTH, m

S 2550

.7 3250

.8 3500

1.3 4500
I

I
!
2.0 5400

FIG.6. Vitrinite reflectance versus depth for Jurassic to early Cretaceous coals and mudstones.

2900-3400m (assuming the TOC decrease is dueto reflectance range of O.M).8%, an expulsion efficiency
expulsion of generated hydrocarbons rather than early 225% is indicated. The hydrocarboniTOC ratio in the
diageneticprocesses). If <50% of the potential KimmeridgeClay atpeakgeneration would thusbe
hydrocarbon yield is generated over this depth ~ 0 . 3 5which corresponds to a vitrinite reflectance of
interval.
which corresponds to narrow
a vitrinite 0.7% by extrapolation of the graph on Fig. 7.

1
8
0
ry
U-
v
Z
0.4
Y U
W

S- 4
Y

k
a
0.5
W

3 0.6 5z
0.7
>
~~

0.1 0.2 0.3

( f r o m Brooks and Thusu 1977)

ORGANICCARBON
FIG.7. Hydrocarboniorganic carbon ratio versus depth and vitrinite reflectance for ‘Jurassic source rocks’
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 451
WELL F

WELL E

6 ray
marker

IMMATURE O I LF L O O RM A T U R I T Y
PEAK OIL GENERATION ( V I K I N G G R A B E N)
( E. S H E T L A N D B A S I N)
( E. S H E T L A N D B A S I N ) 1.3 % Ro
0.5 % R o
0.8 RO

FIG.8. Kimrneridge Clay log response as a function of maturity.

Organic mattercolouration (Staplin 1969) and Speed 1981);

sourcerockelectricalresistivity(Meissner 1978) can K = K:.
also be used to estimate source rock maturity. From
2600 to 3200 m plant material in the Kimmeridge Clay where K , is the conductivity of water, and K,,, is the
is light to medium brown, indicating it is moderately conductivity of the rock matrix. Rock matrix conducti-
mature;between 3200 and 3650 m itis dark brown vitieshave beendetermined by BP’SGeophysical
indicating it has achieved peak generation (Brooks & Research Division. The standard equation for steady
Thusu 1977). Electrical
resistivity
increasesfrom state conductiveheat flow ( 4 ) acrossauniformrock
2-3 ohmmetresat 2500-2600 mtoamaximum of layer of thickness, L , which has no heat production
10-25 ohm metres at 3500-3600 m (Fig. 8). These data within it is given by:
indicatepeakgenerationhasoccurredbetween 3200
and 3500m at a reflectancelevel of 0 . 7 4 3 % . At a k dT
q=-
reflectancelevel of 1.2-1.3% (base
oil
window dL
maturity) in Well D (Fig. 8), the Kimmeridge Clay is
highly overpressured, and has a very high transit time where dT/dL is the thermal gradientacross the layer in
(115-135 psec/ft) and low resistivity (<3 pm). These the direction of heat flow.
log responses suggest it has a high water content, and Because of the variation of conductivity with lithology
that oil, formerly present in the rock, has cracked to and porosity it is convenient to calculate the heat flow
gas, most of which has been expelled. Low resistivities using the following equation(Oxburgh & Andrews-
thus do not necessarily indicate immaturity. Speed 1981):
Tz- To
Present daythermalgradients q z =-
R,
and heat flow
where qz, T, and R, are the heat flow, temperature
Bottom hole temperatures have been calculated in and thermal resistance at the depth of the temperature
Wells B, C and D from electric logging run tempera- measurement, z. To is the surface temperature.
turemeasurements, drillingmudcirculationhistory, The thermal resistance at depth z is defined as:
and borehole diameter, using the method of Oxburgh
et al. 1972. The temperature for Well A was measured R =LL +L ?+
L >+
. ..
during a drill stem test. Heat flows were derived from K , KZ K3
the bottom hole temperatures and thermal conductiv-
ityestimatesfortherockspenetrated by each well. where L1,2,3,,.are the thicknesses of the rock layers in
The thermal conductivity of a rock ( K ) is a function of the overburden, and K1,2,3... are their thermal conduc-
lithology and porosity; it varies with porosity accord- tivities (Oxburgh & Andrews-Speed 1981).
ing to the following equation (Oxburgh & Andrews- Thermal resistance was calculated as a function of
 452 J . C. Goff
TABLE1: Thermal data for wells
Measured Calculated Surface
Time since Thermal
hole
bottom heatheat
Temperature
Depth
circulation
temperature resistance POW POW
Well (mBRT) ("C) (hrs) ("C) (Wm-'T-') (Wm-') (Wm-*)

150
D 5180 15
057 0.051 3055 153.3
161.5 21
154.4
C 4775 7.15
0.065 0.061 2554 161.7
157.2 12.5
115.6
B 3940 5
0.055 2214 128
121.1 9
94.2
A 2725 0.0580.056 1554 test
Drill stem
temperature

depth in each well using theobservedvariation of mudstone and sandstone, from the following equation:
lithologywith depth,andporosityidepthgradients
derived from density logs and shale density measure- qo = qz + A Z
ments.
Porosity (Q) was calculated from the density where A is the average heat generationhit volume of
measurements using the following equation: rock abovedepth 2. The meansurfaceheat flow
in the 4 wells is 0.060 Wm-2 (Table 1). Thisis the same
4=- P* - P, as the mainland UK averageheat flow (Richardson
P* - P, & Oxburgh 1979).
IntervalthermalgradientsforWells A-D were
where P,,,, P , and P , are the rock matrix, whole-rock calculatedfrom thethermal resistanceprofile and
and water densities respectively,using a matrix density calculated bottom hole temperatures in each well. The
of 2.7gmicc for mudstone and 2.65 gmicc for sand- interval gradients decrease with depth from 37-40"Ci
stone. km for the Tertiary, 31-33"Cikm for the Cretaceous,
Porosityidepth relationships have been modelled for to2627"Cikmforthe Jurassic.Thisdecreasein
each lithologyassuming anexponentialdecreasein intervalgradient with
depth is attributed to the
porosity with depth defined by: decrease inporosity,andthusincreaseinthermal
conductivity, with depth,andtothe distribution of
4 = +tre-z'm heat sources.
where Q" is the surface porosity and m is the Carstens & Finstad (1981) a k a observed a decrease
compactiongradient.Surfaceporosities of 65% for inintervalgradientswithdepthdowntothebase
mudand43%forsandwereselected(Sclater & Cretaceous in the E Shetland Basin andViking
Christie
1980).
Calculated
porosity
gradientsare Graben. They also
calculated
very high Jurassic
shown in Table 2; the variation in porosity with depth intervalgradients>35"C/km.These high apparent
for mudstones in wells C and D is shown in Fig. 9. Jurassicgradientsprobablyresultfromthe lack of
Calculated heat flows in the 4 wells range from 0.051 correction for borehole diameter in the Horner Plot
to 0.061 Wm-'. Heat flow varies with depth because method, used by Carstens & Finstad, to calculate true
of heat generation from decay of ratioactive isotopes bottom hole temperatures. The Horner Plot method
of potassium, uranium and thorium in the sedimentary can underestimate true formation temperature by as
rocks. Surface heat flow (qo) has been calculatedfor much as20% ina 12:" diameter borehole, and by
each well, using average values of heat production for about 5% in an 8" hole (S. W.Richardson,pers.
comm.).
TABLE2: Compaction data for gross lithologies Consider a 500 m Jurassicsectionat 3000-3500 m
depth witha true interval gradient of 26"C/km, and
Compaction truebottomholetemperatures of 113°C at3000m,
Surface
gradient and 126°C at 3500 m. A 20% error in the Horner Plot
porosity
Lithology
Well (metres) derived temperature in 129 hole at 3000 m, and a 5%
error in 8" holeat3500m, will give an apparent
A , B, C, D Sandstone 0.43 5000 Jurassic interval gradient of 59"CIkm (which is more
A, B Mudstone 0.65 2000 than 100% too high!).
C Mudstone 0.65 2350 Average thermal gradients in Wells A, B and C in
D Mudstone 0.65 2500
theeastern E Shetland Basin are 35-36.5"Cikm.
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 453

POROSITY,
5 10 20 30 40 5 0 60
I I I , I I I . 1
0.

1- -
+ +
+ +

+ + +
+ + +*
+ +

.'
+ l + -
Y
2- ++ 7 l +
.l

E-
l

n
W
n 3- : :v
1.
-
1 .
;
* .
.
l
l
"
7 , .
i i . 1 S .

-
4-
. * h . {
V

l
l

5- . 1 ..
' I
7 .
#,C
DENSITY
=SHALE
+=FDC LOG @ , C
DENSITY
.=SHALE
-
D
I I

FIG.9. Mudstone porosity versus depth in Wells C and D

Well D in the Viking Graben has an interval gradient declineswithtimeas theasthenosphere cools.This
of 35"Cikm. Carstens & Finstad (1981) reported aver- decline in heat flow with time can be calculated if the
age gradients of 30-35"Cikm in the central and west- age andamount of stretching is known(McKenzie
ern E ShetlandBasin.Thesedataindicatea fairly 1978, fig. 2 ) . The age of stretching is defined by
uniform present day thermal regime in the study area. periods of normal faulting; the amount of stretching,
p, can be calculatedfrom theamount of tectonic
subsidence that has occurred since faulting ceased.
Subsidence and heat flow history Deposition of sediments in a basin is an additional
McKenzie(1978) proposed that the North Sea Basin important subsidence mechanism (Turcotte 1980). The
formedasa result of stretching,andconsequent subsidence of sediment loadedcrust is two to three
thinning, of the continental lithosphere. He predicted times greaterthanthewaterloaded tectonicsubsi-
thatthethinning of the crustwascausedbylistric dence, depending on the sediment density. The total
normal faulting. In his model an initial fault controlled subsidence is relatedtothewaterloaded tectonic
subsidence occurred which maintained isostaticcom- subsidence by the following equation:
pensation; it increased with the amount of stretching,
p, where
initial lithospheric thickness
p where dToralis thetotalsubsidence, d, is the water
lithospheric thickness immediately after stretching loaded tectonic subsidence, pw is the water density,PS
is thesedimentdensity, p m is the density of the
The initialfaultcontrolled subsidence variesacross mantle.
riftedbasins because of localuplift of tiltedblocks. Geophysical evidence indicates thinned crust below
The fault controlled subsidence in the axial grabens is the northern North Sea aspredicted by McKenzie's
mostlikely to berepresentative of theamount of model. SeismicrefractionstudiesacrosstheViking
stretching. Graben indicate a value of p of about 2 (Sclater &
Cooling of buoyanthotasthenosphere below the Christie1980);gravityprofilesacross the E Shetland
thinned
lithosphere
creates
thermal
a anomaly Basin and Viking Graben suggest the crust has been
reflected by a high surfaceheatflow.Theheat flow thinned from 30 km to 20 km, i.e. p= 1.5 (Donato &
454 J . C. Goff
Tully1981). The initialfaultcontrolledsubsidence A b L , M O D.P.
predicted by McKenzie’s model for /3 = 1.5 is 800 m 180 120 60 0
(Sclater & Christie 1980). The thickness of Bathonian l
to earlyCretaceousmudstones in the axialViking
Graben is about2km (Fig. 3). Thisthickness is Oi F
consistent with an initial fault controlled subsidence of
SUBSIDENCE
about 800m (after removing the effects of sediment
loading).
There are two major problems in applying McKen- Y .. . . . . . . .
zie’s model to determine the heatflow history of the E ’. SEDIMENT’. ’.
Shetland Basin and Viking Graben. Firstly,several
phases of faulting occurred between late Bathonian to
. . L?AOlNG .
. . . . .
earlyCretaceoustime;secondly,waterdepthduring 4
deposition in late Jurassic to early Tertiary time is not
accurately known.
Majorphases of rifting occurred in Bathonianto
early Oxfordian time along the western flank of the
Viking Graben (Fig. 3) and in late Oxfordian to
Kimmeridgian time along the western edge of the E FIG. 10. Subsidence history at Well D since late
ShetlandBasin;bothphases of faulting occurred early Jurassic.
within the E Shetland Basin. Early Cretaceous rifting
occurred in the northern part of the E Shetland Basin
and possibly also along the western flank of the Viking indicatesthatheat flow was probably very variable
Graben (Fig. 3). Fault controlled subsidence ceased at between 165 and 100 Maago.However,Jurassic
the end of the early Cretaceous (100 Ma ago) in the E sourcerockswerenotdeeplyburiedenoughfor
Shetland Basin and Viking Graben except alongthe hydrocarbon generation to occur prior to 100 Ma ago.
easternboundingfaultofthe E ShetlandPlatform. Consequentlyhydrocarbongeneration in the study
Similar diachronous rifting occurred in the E Green- area is insensitive to early variation in heat flow.
land Jurassic rift (Surlyk 1968), with main phases in Twoextremeheat flow modelscan be used to
theBathonian,lateOxfordian,early Kimmeridgian determine the timing of hydrocarbon generation in the
and at the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary. The faulting study area. A constant heat jlow model will underesti-
history suggests that several phases of crustal thinning matematurityatagiventimebecauseitfailsto
occurredbetween 165 and100Ma agoin the study accountfor higherheat flows during theCretaceous
area. and Tertiary than at the present day. A model with a
The water loaded tectonic subsidence at Wells A-D heating event I 0 0 M a ago will overestimatematurity
has
beencalculated
from the
subsidencehistory because it fails to account for early heat loss from the
(correctedforcompaction) by removing the loading crust during late Jurassic and early Cretaceous rifting.
effects of the sediments, assuminglocal
isostatic The true maturity of the source rocks will lie between
compensation. The tectonic subsidence and the subsi- the values predicted by these two models.
dence due to sediment loading for Well D are shown
in Fig. 10. Thermalandmaturationhistory
Modelling of the post-faulting tectonic subsidencein of source rocks
Well D gives a good fit to a stretching event 100Ma
agowith p = 1.5 (Fig.11)assumingconstant water The thermal history of the source rocks is related to
depth in the late Cretaceous and Tertiary. However, thevariation in heat flow,and theincrease in the
sedimentation rates were slow during the Kimmerid- thermal resistance of their overburden, with time. The
gian to early Cretaceous, and water depths were prob- thermal resistance in Wells A-D was calculatedasa
ablymuch greaterthanatthepresentday. A more function of time using the depositional history, and the
realistic model for the tectonic subsidence at WellD is compactiongradients formudstone andsandstone.
obtained with a stretching event 165 Ma ago (corres- Themaximumrangeforthethermal history of the
pondingtothemain Viking Grabenrifting), with a Jurassic source rocks is bounded by the constant heat
stretchingfactor, (p), of 1.5 (Fig.11).Thismodel flow and 100 Ma heating event models.
predictsKimmeridgian to
early
Cretaceous water The thermal history of the source rocks in Well D in
depths of 500-700 m in the Viking Graben, and prog- the Viking Graben is showninFig.12.Sourcerock
ressiveshallowing duringthelateCretaceousand temperaturesrose rapidly
during
late Cretaceous
Tertiary to the present day value of 150 m. burial.DuringtheTertiarytheconstantheat flow
The variation in the age of crustal stretching (and modelpredictsa moderate increase in sourcerock
consequent increase in heat flow) within the study area temperature; the 100 Ma heating event model predicts
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 455
T I M E BEFOREPRESENT, Ma.
120 140 1 160 180 20 40 100
60 80 l

0.5

E
Y Calculated
1.0
W
U
3
m
3
v) 1.5

r2 Theoretical

U
E 2.a

. . .,* ~. . .1
L.<.'.,
Palaeowater Depth predicted from 165 M a stretching event model 1
(neglecting sea level changes 1
2.5
~~ ~~~

FIG.11. Interpretation of tectonic subsidence at Well D.

thatsource rock temperaturesremained relatively The maturation history of the source rocks in wells
constant, because of a decrease in heat flow with time A-D was calculated by integrating time and tempera-
during the Tertiary. A model with a heating event in ture using the following equation (Royden et al. 1980):
thelateJurassic 155 Maagopredictssourcerock
temperatures intermediate between the constant heat
flow and 100 Ma heating event models (see the
isotherm on Fig. 12).
100°C
p = L"
I,'
2""' dt

T I M E , Ma.b.p. where P is the maturity parameter, t = time (Ma) and

150 100 50 0 T = temperature ("C). Thisequation allowsfor the
approximate doubling of the reaction rate of hydrocar-
bon-forming reactions
for
every 10°C increase in
temperature, inasimilar way to 'Lopatin'sTime
1-
Temperature Index' used by Waples (1980) to deter-
mine maturity.
Thematurityparameter, P, wascalculatedasa
E
Y
2- function of timeforeachsourcerock, andas a
function of depth at the presentday in each well, using
i 3-
F theconstantheat flow and 100 Maheatingevent
ii models. The maturation history of the source rocks in
p 4- Well D as predicted by the different thermal models is
shown in Fig. 13. The100Ma heatingeventmodel
predictsearliermaturation of thesource rocks than
5- _-___ ISOTHERM,°C.Ip=lS,lOOMaogo~
theconstantheat flow model.The 155 Maheating
event modelpredicts intermediate maturation levels,
FIG.12. Thermal history of source rocks in Well D exceptfortheBrentFormation maturityprior to
for different thermal models. 90 Ma ago. The maturities predicted by the different
 .
456 J . C. Goff
TIME ,Ma b.p. .
150 l00 0

1-

2-
E
Y

4t MATURITY,

--------p=l.5,
P

155 m.
X\ '

FIG.13. Maturity history of Jurassic source rocks in Well D for different thermal models.

modelsconverge
with
time so that present day despite their
different
structural locations.
This is
maturities
predicted by thedifferentmodelsareconsistent with theuniformmaturitygradient indi-
similar. cated by reflectance
the vitrinite data (Fig. 6).
The maturityidepthgradientcalculated using theInordertodeterminethe timing of generationfrom
100 Ma heating event model is shown in Fig. 14. Note the calculated maturity, vitrinite reflectance has been
thatthegradient is almostthesameforeach well, correlated with P. Vitrinite reflectancemeasurements
P
10 12

E4 X
+v*
+ v
+*

FIG.14. Calculated maturity, for 100 Ma heating event model, versus depth in wells A, B, C and D
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 457
TABLE3: Correlation of vitrinite reflectance with calculated matur-
ity (P), and oil and gas generation from source rocks
Vitrinite P for 100 Ma P
reflectance heating for constant Generation
Ru % event model heat flow model stage

0.5 10.1 threshold

Oil9.7
0.7 11.9 11.5
Peak oil generation
for Kimmeridge Clay
and gas generation
threshold for coal
1.3 15.0 14.4 Oil floor
1.5 15.8 15.0 Peak
gas
generation
for coal
2.0 17.2 16.3 Wet
gas floor

in Wells C and D have been correlated with P value heatingeventmodel.Theonset of oil generation
calculatedatthesamedepths.Vitrinitereflectance (0.5 Ro) predicted by the constant heat flow model is
measurements from other wells have been correlated up to 10 Ma later than predictedby the 100 Ma heating
with P valuesobtainedfromthecalculatedregional event model. For Well D, the top of the Kimmeridge
maturityidepth gradient.
In
this way P has been Clay began to generate oil between 69 and 77 Ma ago
calculated with vitrinite reflectance, and thus genera- and reached peak generation between 53 and 65 Ma
tion stage, for both the constant heat flow and 100 Ma ago.
heating event models (Table 3). Thecorrelation of The maturity distributionof the Kimmeridge Clay at
vitrinite
reflectance with P, calculated using the theend of theCretaceous(65Maago)hasbeen
100 Ma heating event model, is shown in Fig. 15. determined by correlating its maturity 65 Ma agoin
Wells B, C and D, with the present day Cretaceous
thicknessinthese wells (Fig.16).Thiscorrelation
Timing of generation shows that the Kimmeridge Clay had become mature
by theend of theCretaceous,wherethepresent
The timing of oil generationfromthe Kimmeridge Cretaceous thickness is >1700m. The area of mature
Clay in wells A-D hasbeendeterminedfromits Kimmeridgian at the end of the Cretaceous was then
maturationhistoryusingthecorrelations of vitrinite deduced from a Cretaceous isopach map of the study
reflectance with P (Table 4). The constant heat flow area.Thematuritydistribution of the Kimmeridge
modelpredicts later generationthanthe 100 Ma Clay 40 and 20 Maago was estimated using the

TIMEINTEGRATEDTEMPERATURE, R
FIG. 15.Correlation of vitrinitereflectancewithmaturitycalculatedusing100Maheatingeventmodel. (a),
correlation of P and R" in wells C and D; (A), P values correlated with R. from regional vitriniteidepth gradient.
458 J . C. Goff
4: Timing of maturation for Kimmeridge Clay in Wells A-D for different thermal models.
TABLE
a, Heating event 100 Ma ago. b, Constant heat flow
Time reached, Time reached,
Ma before present Ma before present
a b
Maturity, P A B C D Maturity, P A B C D

10.1 - 77 9.7 - 37 53 69 Top Kimmeridge Clay

47 63 79
3 57 3 47 71 Base ’’
_ _
11.9
- - 34 g 11.5
-
_ _
- 27 53 TOP
56 Base
”

’’
12.5 - - 12.1 - _
15.0
_
_
-
-
25
-
:!
- 14.4
_ _
- -
15 44 Top
47 Base
- TOP
’’
’’
- ”
_ - - - - - Base ”

presentdaybaseCretaceousstructurecontourmap Eocene, peak generation was occurring in the trough

and correlations of maturities at these times in wells W of the Ninian Field in the E Shetland Basin. During
A-D with present day depth to the Kimrneridge Clay the Oligocene,peakgeneration wasreached in the
(Fig. 17, Table 5). half grabens of the E ShetlandBasin,and oil floor
The generationhistory of theKimmeridge Clay maturity was attainedin the deepest partsof the Viking
during the Tertiary is summarized in Fig. 18. At the Graben.Bythepresentday,peakgenerationhad
end of theCretaceousthe KimrneridgeClaywas been established throughout the axial region of the E
maturethroughoutthe Viking Graben,and in the Shetland Basin, and a maturity just above or greater
deepest troughs and half grabens of the E Shetland than the oil floor was attained in the Viking Graben.
Basin. In the VikingGrabenpeakgeneration was A generationfronthasthusmoved progressively
reachedduringthePalaeocene.Bytheend of the updip with time within the Kimrneridge Clay from the
M A T U R I T Y , P, OF TOP K l M M E R l D G E CLAY, P, 65 Ma AGO.
7 B 13 9 1210 11
0 7 1 1 1

E
ut-
v)
W
2
Y
v
E 1000
3
SU
a
c
W
I
U

G
0
c
E
v)
W 2000
I
P

FIG. 16. Maturity of Kimmeridge Clay 40 and 20 Ma ago versus present day Cretaceous thickness.
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 459

MATURITY OF KlMMERlDGE CLAY, P

9 10 11 1412 13 i
I 1 1 1 I I

-=P, 40 M a ago, constant heat flow model.

+- P, 40 M a ago, heating event 100 M a ago.
o- - 4 =P, 2 0 M a ago, constant heat flow model.
D- - 4 = P, 2 0 M a ago, heating event 100 M a ago.

FIG.17. Maturity of Kimmeridge Clay 65 Ma ago versus present day burial depth.
deepest parts of the Viking Graben during Campanian The generation history deduced above is consistent
time, to the structurally highest fault blocks in the E with diagenetic studies
in
the
BrentFormation
Shetland Basin at the present day. The zoneof intense sandstone reservoirs in the E Shetland Basin (see Fig.
oilgeneration (0.654.9% R,) hasmovedfromthe 1 for the locations of fields discussed below). Hancock
Viking Graben to the axial E Shetland Basin since the & Taylor (1978) observed an upward transition from
end of the Eocene. authigenic illite to authigenic kaolinite within a thick
oilcolumninan E Shetland Basinoilfield. They
TABLE 5: a. Correlation of palaeomaturity of concluded that oil migration occurred synchronously
KimmeridgeClayfrom100Maheatingevent with illite diagenesis. Sommer (1978) observed a more
model with present burial depth abruptchangefrom illitic cement in the oil/water
transition zone to predominantly kaolinite in the oil
Maturity Present Maturity Present
40 Ma ago 20 Ma ago depth, m
zone in an E Shetland Basin oil well drilled by Total
depth (presumably in the Alwyn area). The youngest
10.1 2800 10.1 radiometric dates obtained for pure illite cements in
11.9 3500 11.9 this well were 45-55 Ma, indicating that this field had
12.5 12.5 3700 filled up by mid-Eocene times. This age of migration is
15.0 4600 15.0 consistent with the calculated age of generation in the
trough W of the Alwyn field (Fig. 18).
b. Correlation of palaeomaturity of Kimmeridge In theThistle Field (Hay 1977),porosityidepth
Clay from constant heat flow model with present gradientswithinindividualoilsaturatedsandstone
burial depth units rangefrom 1.55% porosityloss/100m.These
very rapid reductions in porosity with depth probably
Maturity Present Maturity Present indicateprogressivecessation of diagenesisin the
40 Ma ago depth 20 Ma ago depth, m sandstones as they filled with oil, over a long period of
time. This suggests that oil migration occurred over an
9.7 9.7 2800 extended period of time in the Thistle area, which is
11.5 3600 11.5 consistent with the calculated progressive updip move-
12.1 12.1 3800
14.4 14.4 4800 ment of the oilgenerationfront inthispart of the
northern E Shetland Basin(Fig. 18). Aprobable
 A B

610

a= PEAK
GENERATION

AT BASE OF
620 KlMMERlDGE
CLAY.

l0
C

FIG. 18. Maturity of Top Kimmeridge Clay (A) 65 Ma ago, (B) 40 Ma ago, (C) 20 Ma ago, and (D) at present day.
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassicsource rocks. northern North Sea
palaeo-OWC in the Magnus Field (De'ath et al. 1981)
suggests thatthis field had filled up priortolate
Tertiary tilting, which is consistent with the early onset
of generation in the half grabendowndiptothe W light hydrocarbons and n-alkanes.
(Fig. 18).
The timing of gas generation from Brent Formation
coals in the Viking Graben can be inferred from the
maturation history of this formation inWells C and D .
Maturation analysis in Well D , using the constant heat
flow and 100Ma heatingevent
modelsand
the
appropriate correlations of P and vitrinite reflectance
(Table3),indicatesgasgenerationbegan 70-85 Ma
ago. Peak dry gas generation from the coals in Well D
began 3 0 4 0 M a ago. In Well C, on the flank of the
Viking Graben, gas generation began 27-34 Ma ago.
In the deepest part of the Viking Graben, where the
BrentFormation is buriedto 6 km, gasgeneration
probably began 100 Ma ago.
Source and timing of generation
of Frigg Field hydrocarbons
The FriggFieldoil is a relativelyheavy (24 API),
napthenic oil consistingdominantly of hydrocarbons
with a carbon number >C1,; condensate dissolved in
the overlying drygascolumncomprises87% C,, +
(Heritier et al. 1979). Heritier et d . (1979) sug-
gested, usingpristaneiphytaneratiodataforthe E
FriggField oil,thatthe FriggFieldoil was sourced
from Lower-Middle Jurassic rocks. However, good oil
source rocks have not been described from the Dunlin
andBrentformations in the Viking Graben.An
alternativehypothesis is thatthe Frigg
oil was
generated from the Kimmeridge Clay.
The drainage area of the Frigg Field is estimated to
be at least 1500 km2 from the contour map of the top
of the Frigg Sand published by Heritier et al. (1979).
The KimmeridgeClaywithinthisdrainagearea is
buried below 4 km (Fig. 4). The maturation history of
the Kimmeridge Clay within the drainage area of the
FriggField canbeinferredfromthematuration
history of this formation in Well D (Table4), since
they have had similar burial histories. The Cretaceous
toearlyEocenethickness is 2500m in Well D,
compared to 250G2700m in the main drainage areaof
the Frigg Field. The Cretaceous thickness in Well D is
2100m, which correspondstotheCretaceous thick-
ness in the deepest part of the Frigg drainage area.
The KimmeridgeClaywithinthedrainagearea of
the Frigg Field thus began to generate oil 70-80 Ma
ago. Peak generation was reached 55-65 Ma ago. At
thetimethetrapwassealed, 45 Maago,ithad
reached a maturity of 0.8-0.9 h% equivalent, corres-
pondingto a transformationratio of 7&80%. The
Kimmeridgianhadthusbeen expellingoil atpeak
generation 1&20 Ma ago before the trap was sealed.
The heavy, napthenic, nature of the oil maythus
461
result from migration of a normal light oil into a leaky
trap in which sea water wascirculating,withconse-
quent water washing and biodegradation removing the
The FriggField methanehas a value of 43.3%
(Heritier et al. 1979), which is characteristic of the
carbon isotope composition of methane derived from
sapropelic
organicmatterin
the
maturity
range
0.5-1.3% (Hunt 1979, p. 376).Thissuggests the gas
was sourced from the Kimmeridge Clay and not from
coaly material in the Brent Formation. Unfortunately
there is littleanalytical dataontheformation of
methane from sapropel at maturitiesless than 1.0% R"
(Tissot & Welte 1978, p. 218). However, much of the
methane derived from sapropelic source rocks prior to
peakmethanegeneration from kerogen must be
formed by cracking of previously formed oil remaining
in the rock inthelowerpart of the oilwindow
(0.9-1.3% R"). Hunt (1979 p. 1964) stated that the gas
yield fromsapropelickerogen is1.5-2 times that of
humickerogen
because of thiscracking of the
previously formedoil.TheKimmeridge Claypassed
through the 0.9-1.3% R" maturation interval between
50 Ma ago and the present day, largely after the trap
was sealed.
Volumetric modelling of oil
generation and entrapment
The ratio of oil generated from the Kimmeridge Clay
to oil trapped in Jurassic sandstones has been studied
in the central and eastern areaof the E Shetland Basin
(Fig. 19). The amount of oil generated within this area
wascalculatedusing a GeochemicalMassBalance
Equation. The Geochemical Mass Balance method of
reservescalculationhasbeendiscussed by White &
Gehman (1979). Waples (1979) pointedoutthat a
major problem in quantitative evaluation of oil source
rocks is lack of knowledge of oil expulsion efficiencies.
Inthis section I shalluse theGeochemicalMass
Balance method to determine expulsion efficiency.
The volume of oil generated from a unit volume of
source rock is relatedtotheamount,type,and
maturity of its kerogen. The volume of generated oil
that is ultimately trapped is related to the expulsion
efficiency of oil from the source rock, the migration
efficiency, and the sealing efficiency of the traps.
The average TOC content of the Kimmeridge Clay
is 5.6% wt at 2600-3200m at pre-peakgeneration
maturity. The average TOC content at theonset of oil
generation (2550 m) was thus probably about 6% wt,
whichis equivalenttoanorganicmattercontent of
7% wt. The Kimmeridge Clay source rock is estimated
to have a porosity of 15% at
theonset of oil
generation, using thecompactiongradientformud-
stoneinWellB.Thevolumepercentage of organic
matter in the KimmeridgeClay calculated usinga wt%
organic matter content of 7%, a porosity of 15%, and
462 J . C.
l0 70% (Tissot & Welte 1978). The relative proportions
I of sapropel and humic/coaly material in the Kimmer-
idge Clay kerogen indicate that the oil content of the
hydrocarbons generated from the kerogen during
maturation is about 80%.
The maturity of a kerogen can be expressed by its
‘transformation ratio’, which is defined as the ratio of
theamount of hydrocarbonsgeneratedtothetotal
amount of hydrocarbons that the kerogen is capable of
generating. The transformation ratio corresponding to
peak generation is thus 0.5. The transformation ratio
forthe KimmeridgeClay kerogenasa function of
vitrinitereflectance is giveninFig. 20 basedon the
correlation of peak oil generation with a reflectance of
0.7%.
Generation of a typical E Shetland Basin light oil
(specificgravity = 0.84) from kerogeninvolvesa
volumeincrease of about20%.The volume of oil
generated from a unit volume of source rock is given
by the following equation:
-= - -S Y NAXIS
CLINAL
oilgenerated = bulk rockvolumeorganic matter
of sourcerockcontent by volume
0 10 20 30
Km genetic fraction of oil in
potential hydrocarbon yield
FIG. 19. Oil fields and source rock drainage areas transformationvolumeincreaseon
in the eastern and central E Shetland Basin. generation
oil ratio
For the Kimmeridge Clay, the volume of oil generated
rockmatrix andwaterdensities of 2.7 and 1gm/cc (V,) becomes:
respectively, is 15%.
The amount of organic matter capableof conversion vO -- rock
volume
X 0.15 X 0.7 X 0.8
to hydrocarbons is given by its ‘genetic potential’. The
theoretical genetic potential of a Type I1 kerogen is transformation = o, (bulkrock volumex
ratio transformation ratio)

The eastern E Shetland Basin has been divided into

two drainage areas (Fig. 19). The eastern boundary of
drainage area 1 is defined by the BrentiStatfjord fault
trend, the boundary of drainage areas 1 and 2 by the
Ninian/Hutton fault trend. These fault trendsconverge
to the N. The northern boundary of drainage area 2 is
not well defined, but is probably defined by a series of
faults and dip reversals. The overpressure in the Brent
Formation in theeastern E Shetland Basin is1700-
1900 psi. However, the author has not studied enough
pressuredata todeterminewhetherthere isfluid
commudication within theBrent acrosstheNiniani
Hutton fault trend.
The bulk rock volume of Kimmeridge Clay in each
drainageareahasbeen calculated from anisopach
map based on well controlandgeologicalstructure
maps. Weighted average thicknesses for the Kimmer-
0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 idge Clay are 70 m in Areas 1 and 2a, and 200 m in
V l T R l N l T E R E F L E C T A N C E , Roo/o Area 26.
The oil generated and trapped within each drainage
FIG. 20. Transformationratio as afunction of area is shownin Table 6. Theaverageentrapment/
vitrinite reflectance for Kimmeridge Clay. generation ratio is 25%, which indicates a very high
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 463
Division. Average organic matter contentis 8% by wt;
AT SONIC average hydrocarbon yield during pyrolysis is 30 kg/
wec/ft LITHOLOGY tonne rock, equivalent to a genetic potential of 37%.
-
i0 i Theaverageentrapment/generationratioobtained
using
these data,andtheadditionalsource rock
interval in drainage area 1, is 30%.
3200 The oil entraprnentigeneration ratio in the eastern E
Shetland Basin is 20-30%. Oil expulsion efficiency is
>20-30%, since some oil must be lost as residual oil
along migration paths, and oil generated in the upper
E part of the source rock may have been expelled into
i the Cretaceous mudstones.

i
c
0
0’ 3400 Oilsaturation in compaction
fluids expelled from
KimmeridgeClay
The oilsaturation of the compaction fluids expelled
from the Kimmeridge Clay in the drainage areas (Fig.
19) during migration has been estimated by calculating
the volumes of oil and water expelled. By the end of
3600 theCretaceousthe KirnrneridgeClay was mature in
the deepest parts of the E Shetland Basin; migration is
FIG. 21.Cornpaction.gradientsinKimmeridge thus considered to have begun 65 Ma ago. The volume
Clay and Heather Formation in Well B. of oil generated is (15.4-20.2) X 109m3 (Table 6); the
volume of oil expelled using an expulsion efficiency of
30% is thus(4.6-6.1) X 109 m3. Thewater filled
oil expulsionefficiency fromthe KimmeridgeClay porosity loss fromthe KimmeridgeClayhas been
(>25%)andextremely high migration and sealing estimatedassumingthatthemudstonecompaction
efficiencies. gradientduringtheTertiarywasthesameasatthe
The apparent entrapment/generation ratio for drain- present day.
The
average porosity loss for the
age area 1 is 54%. However, the sonic log response of Kirnrneridge Clay is estimated to be 10% since the end
mudstones in the upper150 m of the Heather Formation of theCretaceous.This porosity loss is amaximum
in Well B (Fig. 21) in drainage area 1 suggests that this value,sincetheKirnrneridgeClay is over-pressured
interval is asourcerock.Itmightbeplacedinthe (under-compacted) in the E Shetland Basin. The bulk
KimmeridgeClay on the basis of itssonicvelocity. rock volume of the Kimmeridge Clay is 280 X 109rn3
Recalculating the amount of oil generated in drainage (Table 6); themaximumamount of water expelled
area 1, including this extra interval, gives an entrap- from the Kimrneridge Clay during oil migration is thus
rnent/generationratio of 25%;theaverageentrap- about 30 X 109rn3. The minimum oil saturation in the
ment/generation ratio becomes 20%. compactionfluidsexpelledduringmigration is thus
Theaverageentraprnentjgenerationratiohas also about 13-17%.
been
calculatedusing
average
values of organic However, 50% of the oil is generated over a limited
richness and hydrocarbon yield determined for imma- maturationrange(0.65-0.8 &% maturity) during
ture Kimmeridge Clay samples from onshore UK and peak generation (Fig. 20). The maturation history of
theNorthSea by the BP’S GeochemicalResearch the KimmeridgeClayinWell C is representative of
TABLE
6: Volume of oil generated and trapped in the central and eastern E Shetland Basin
Weighted Trapped Oil Entrapment1
Drainage Bulk rock average maturity generated oil generation
area volume ( X 109rn3) = transformation ratio X IQ9barrels X 10’ barrels ratio
~

(57) 27 (0.5)1 0.43 (180) 98

0.51 2a 102 33 9.5 0.14
2b
5 24 (127) 97 (0.56)
Total0.55(361) 279
Figures in brackets calculated using additional source rock in upper partof Heather Formation in drainage
area 1.
464 J . C. Goff
deeplyburiedKimmeridgeClayinthe E Shetland tion in the effective porosity of the rock (comprising
Basin. The
Kimmeridge Clay
in
Well C passed the abnormally large rock matrix pores and porosity in
through this maturity range25-5 Ma ago; its maximum the
kerogenlaminae) increases from 35% at a
water filled porosity loss is estimated at l-2% during transformation ratio of 0.1,to 55% at 'quarter'
this time. The minimum oil saturation of compaction generation. These high oil saturations suggest that oil
fluidsexpelledduringpeakgeneration is thusabout may be able to migrate out of the rock at relatively
30-5070. These very high oil saturations indicate that low maturities prior to peak generation.
oil phase primary migration occurred. Oil/water interfacial tension decreases with temper-
ature by 0.2-0.4 dyne/cm"C from 25-70°C (Schowalter
Mechanism of oil migration 1979). At temperatures >70"C the oiliwater interfacial
for lightoilsis <5 dyne1cmi"C. No data is available
Severalmechanisms of oil phaseprimary migration for oiliwater interfacial tension at temperatures of oil
have been proposed: McAuliffe (1979) suggested that generationfromthe KimmeridgeClay (95-140°C).
oil migrates through a 3 dimensional, oil wet, kerogen Clearly very low oil/water interfacial tensions <5 dyne/
network. The high average organic matter content of cm mayexistinsourcerocksinthis temperature
the KimmeridgeClay (15-18 ~ 0 1 % suggests
) that much range.Capillarypressure (the resistantforce to oil
of the rockmay be oilwet.Momper (1978) and phase migration throughwater wetrock) is directly
Meissner (1978) suggested that oil expulsion is a direct proportional to interfacial tension:
consequence of maturation,andthat oilmigrates
2y cos 0
throughmicrofracturescreated by abnormalpore P, =-
pressures resulting from generation. They pointed out R
thatgenerated oil and residual kerogen occupiesa where P, is the capillary pressure, y is the interfacial
greater volume thantheimmaturekerogen. Dickey tension, 13 is the contact angle between oil and water,
(1976) suggested that oil is able to flow through source R is the radius of the pore throat.
rocksatrelatively low oil saturations (l-10% of the The pressure required to inject oil through a pore
totalporosity)becausemuch of theporewater is throat is termed the displacement pressure. Mercury/
absorbed on clay mineral surfaces and is thus not part air displacement pressures for mudstones are >5000
of the effective porosity of therock. Du Rouchet psi and 170C-5000psi for siltstone. For an interfacial
(1981) considered that generated oil is expelled from tension of 5 dynelcmthese correspondto oillwater
kerogen by compaction and that it migrates through displacementpressures of about 20-50 psi forsilty
laminae with relatively large pore throats, or through laminae and >50psi for mudstone (fromSchowalter
microfractures. Momper (1978) noted that about 90- 1979, fig. 23).
95% of the pore volumeof mudstones comprises small These low displacement pressures estimated for the
subcapillary pores (1-3 nm diameter).Abnormally larger interconnected pores of the source rock suggest
large mudstone pores are associated with lenses of silt, thatmicrofractures,createdaroundisolatedkerogen
microvugs, and leached zones. laminae, would tend to inject their oil into the more
Two other factors that may be important in primary coarsely porous laminae of the source rock. The main
migration are creationofporosity by conversion of oil migration routes within the Kimmeridge Clay and
kerogentooil,andthereduction inoil/waterinter- underlying Heather Formation are thus probably the
facial tension with increasing temperature. Thechange continuous oilwet kerogenlaminae,andwaterwet,
in porosity during maturation of the Kimmeridge Clay silty and sandy laminae.
source rock, with 30% oil expulsion, is summarized in The mature Kimmeridge Clay source rocks in the E
Table 7. The total porosity of the source rock at first Shetland Basin areoverpressured. Drilling exponent
decreases as water is expelled from the rock, but then data inWell F indicatesapproximatelynormal pore
increases slightly near peak oil generation. Oil satura- pressuresinthelateCretaceousmudstonesabove
TABLE7: Estimated porosity and oil saturation of mature Kimmeridge Clay
source rock
Transformation Water $filled Oil content Oil saturation
ratio of clay porosity of rock in effective porosityt Total
kerogen (%l (V01 %) (V01 %) porosity
0.1 18 1 35 19
0.25 14 1.l* 55* 15.1
0.5 13 3.5* lO* 16.5
0.15 12 5* 80* 11

* Calculated assuming 30% oil expulsion efficiency.

t Effective porosity = oil-filled porosity +0.1 (water-filled clay porosity)
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 465
3100m.Theestimatedporepressuregradient in- a pore pressure gradient of 0.76 psiift at 4050 m at the
creaseswithdepthto 0.63psi/ftin the Kimmeridge base of the late Cretaceous mudstones.
Clay source rock at 3500 m. The increaseinmudstonetransittimebetween
The Brent reservoirs in the E Shetland Basin were 3950-4070 mnearthe base of thelateCretaceous
probably normally pressured, or slightlyoverpres- mudstones reflectsanincreasing pore pressuregra-
sured, prior to oil migration and Tertiary loading. Oil dient but may also be caused by a change in mudstone
has
probablymigratedalongstrong lateral fluid mineralogy. The transit time of the early Cretaceous
pressuregradientssetupfromactivelygenerating, and late Jurassic mudstones decreases with depth at a
overpressuredsource rocks
in the half grabens, very slow rate (Fig. 24), indicating a further progres-
towards the lower pressured Brent reservoirs. sive downward increase in overpressure to 0.83 psiift
at the base of the Cretaceous. The Kimmeridge Clay
Mechanism of hydrocarbon transit time is abnormally high relative to the overlying
and underlying formations because of its high organic
migration into the Frigg Field matter content. Mud weights required to control the
Primary migrationintothe earlyTertiaryaquifer of porepressure in the Jurassic sandstoneat 5200 m
the FriggFieldrequiresverticalmigration through indicate a pore pressure gradient of 0.89 psiift at the
2000 m of Cretaceous and Palaeocene mudstones(Fig. base of the late Jurassic mudstones.
4).
Possible migration mechanisms include: (1) Theporepressure profile in theCretaceousand
buoyant hydrocarbon phase flow through the intercon- Jurassic mudstones of Well D (Fig. 25) thus comprises
nected largest pores of the mudstone, (2) migration in acompacted ‘caprock’ mudstone (2250-2350 m), a
aqueous solution with exsolution of hydrocarbons in porepressuretransitionzone (2350-2550 m) and a
the
early
Tertiary
aquifer, (3) migration through progressive slow increase in overpressure (2550-5200
microfractures created by abnormal pore pressures. In m). The general formof this profile is characteristic of
orderto assess therelative
importance of these thick
laterally
extensive mudstones buried below
possible migration mechanisms it is first necessary to normallypressuredpermeableoverburden(Bishop
determine the physical conditions in the Jurassic and 1979).Chiarelli & Duffaud (1980) concluded that
Cretaceous mudstones, and the hydrocarbon distribu- overpressuresintheFriggareaareassociated with
tion within them. undercompaction.Bishop numericallymodelled the
evolution of theporepressure of abnormallypres-
sured,compacting,shale masses. The qualitative
Pore pressure
evolution of the pore pressure of the late Cretaceous
Theporepressure
distribution in the Tertiary mudstones as predicted by Bishop’s model is shown in
to Jurassicmudstones below the FriggFieldcanbe Fig. 26.
inferredfromastudy of porepressures inWell D
drilledin the axialViking Graben.Pore pressures
wereestimatedfrom gas
readings,
mudweights Fracture pressure
requiredtobalanceminor flows of formation fluid The Fracture Pressure Gradient is given by the sum
during drilling, and from mudstone sonic transit times. of theleast principalstressgradient andthepore
Low sonic transit times and gas readings indicate the pressure gradient (Eaton 1969):
lateCretaceousmudstonesare normallypressured
above 2350 m (Figs22,23). Between 2350 mand
2500 m transit times are less than those of normally
compactedlateCretaceousmudstones in the Sogn
Grabentothe NNE of thestudyarea (Fig.22). where Z = depth
Between 2400 and 2600 m sonic transit time increases Pf = fracture pressure
from 100-120 psec/ft,whichsuggestsanincreasein P p = pore pressure
porositywith depth. Gas readings increase gradually S = overburden pressure
from 2350-2550m and dramaticallybelow 2550 m. M = Poisson’s Ratio
These twoobservationsindicatethatanabnormal
porepressuretransitionzone occurs from 2350 to This equation was used to estimate fracture pressure
2550 m. gradientduringdrilling of Well D . The variationin
Between 2550m and 3900m mudstone transit time Poisson’s ratio with depth was assumed to be the same
decreases with depth; the transit time diverges from as that reported in the Gulf Coast by Eaton (1969).
thenormalcompactiontrend (Fig.22),indicatinga The calculated fracture pressure as afunction of depth
progressiveincrease
overpressure
in with depth. below 2000 m is shown in Fig. 25.
Between 3950-4000 m the borehole is badly caved and The fracturepressuregradient was also measured
the sonic readingsare
thus
unreliable. Highgas directlyduring formation leak off testsat 2345 and
readings at the base of the l,$’ hole (Fig. 23) indicate 4065 m. Poisson’s ratio was calculated at these depths
466 J . C. Goff

WELL G WELL C WELL D

SONIC SONIC SONIC
TRANSIT TIME TRANSIT TIME TRANSIT TIME
; lJSEC./ FT. > JJSEC./FT.
5 2 9

TOP CRETACEOUS

2.5
t FMN E

-2.5
- ---_
(km)

3.0 UPPER
CRETACEW! -3.0
FMN D

c (km)

3.5
.3.5

V E R T I C ASLC A L E 1:10,000

0
\

U N D E R C O M P A C T E DM U D S T O N E
... ... .
FIG.22. Sonic transit time of Cretaceous mudstones as a function of depth for Well G in the Sogn Graben, and
Wells C and D in the Viking Graben.

using themeasuredfracturegradientandestimated tests, is the pressure required to propagate large scale

pore and overburden pressure gradients (Table 8). fractures.Palciauskas & Domenico (1980) reviewed
Forcomparison Poisson’s Ratioat 2000 mand work on experimental microfracturing of sandstones,
4000 m in the Gulf Coast are 0.42 and 0.47 respective- siltstones and carbonates. They concluded that these
ly (from Eaton’s plot of Poisson’s ratio versus depth). rocktypesbegin tomicrofractureat fluid pressure
about 20% less thanthe‘fracture pressure’.They
Microfracture distribution suggested that thismicrofracturecriterionprobably
also applies to mudstones.
The‘fracturepressure’calculated usingEaton’s The difference in pore and fracture pressure in Well
Method,andmeasuredduringformation leak off D has been calculated to determinewhether micro-
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassicsource rocks, northern North Sea 467
C D
BACKGROUNDGAS BACKGROUNDGAS

= 10 100 l000 1 10 1 0 0 1000

-l2

c
c
C

E‘
Y
t
X”
5
n

d 9 5;,
4

FIG.23. Gas readings in drilling mud in early Tertiary to late Cretaceous mudstones in Wells C and D.

AT S O N I C BACKGROUND GAS POR PRESSURE

4
DO
usec/ft
100 15(
gas units
LITHOLOGY
‘SiBt ---
R AI E N T

E‘
Y

E 4.5
h
n

FIG.24. Pore pressure gradient, sonic transit time and drilling mudbackgroundgasintheearlyCretaceousand
Jurassic section of Well D.
468 J . C. Goff
PRESSURE, psi. thanthefracturepressure(5900psi).Atthe base of
5,000 10,000 15,000 the transition zone (2550 m) the pore pressure (5000
psi) is 26% less than the fracture pressure (6800 psi).
These data indicate the transition zone is not micro-
fractured.
Between the base of the transition zone and 3600 m
theporepressure is 2@25% lessthan thefracture
pressure.Thissuggeststhatthisintervalmaybe
microfractured.Below 3600 mtheporepressure is
within 20% of thefracturepressure which indicates
that active microfracturing is probably occurring.
Within the KimmeridgeClay and Heather Forma-
tion source rocks the pore pressure is within 1G13%
of the fracture pressure. The pore pressure at 5300m
within 20% of the fracture pressure, which indicates
less than the fracture pressure (16 800 psi).
Pore
pressurewithinthe high pressure Brent
reservoirs of the Viking Graben converges updip with
the calculatedseal fracturepressures. Fig. 27 shows
the extrapolated Brent pore pressure updip of Well D ,
andthe
corresponding seal
fracturepressure.At
4500mtheextrapolatedBrentpore pressureequals
the fracture pressure. A Brent pore pressure measure-
ment, reported by Lindberg et al. (1980) in the Frigg
area is within 5% of the calculatedsealfracture
pressureatthatdepth (Fig. 27). Thesedata suggest
that either the microfracture criterionof Palciauskas &
Domenico is incorrect, or that the calculated fracture
pressures are too low, or thatmicrofracturing does not
prevent further increases in pore pressure gradient.
Well C penetrated a high pressure gas condensate
column in the Brent Formation; the pore pressure is
within 10% of the calculated fracture
pressure.
Retention of this gas column in the reservoir suggests
that either its seal is not microfractured, or that the
FIG.25. Pore and fracture pressures in Well D rate of migration intothetrapat leastbalances
leakage of gas through microfractures.
fracturesexistintheoverpressuredCretaceousand
Jurassic mudstones, using this microfracture criterion. Methane solubility
The pore pressure (3400psi) at the top of abnormal Theaqueous solubility of methane in the early
porepressuretransitionzone(2350m) is 42% less Tertiary to Jurassicsection of Well D hasbeen
~. ~. ~ 3 . ~ . ' . ~ . ~ . .' .. .' . '. .. ~. . -. . -. ..l
. . . , .t .. .~.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .
-
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .
. . .t l.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .

CDENSITPRESSUREA
Y~PORE
FIG. 26. Changeindensityandporepressure of CretaceousmudstonesinVikingGrabenduringsuccessive
increments of loading by Tertiary scdimcr.tu (tCj-t3) (based on Bishop 1979).
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 469
8: Calculated values of Poisson's Ratio in Well D
TABLE
Pore pressure Fracture pressure Overburden
gradient gradient pressure gradient
(psiift)(psiift)
Depth (m) (psiift) M

6 0.45 2345 0.89 0.41

0.914065 0.76 0.95 0.44

estimatedfrom
the
calculated
variation
in
pore of the Frigg Field) is shown in Fig. 28b. Cumulative
pressureandtemperature with depth using methane dissolved methane was calculated from the solubility/
solubility data given by Magara 1980 and Jones 1980 depth plot andthemudstone compactiongradient,
(Fig.
28a). Methane solubilityincreases
from 3 assuming all mudstoneporescontained freshwater
standard m3/m3 wateratthetop of theabnormal saturated with methane. The actual
solubility of
porepressuretransitionzoneto 13m3/m3 waterat methane in pore water with a salinity of 35 000 ppm
5400 m. totaldissolvedsolids is 10-20% less thanthe fresh
Cumulative dissolved methane withina 1500 km2 water solubility (Hunt 1979).
area around Well D (equivalent to the drainage area
Volume of gas generated indrainagearea
PRESSURE, psi. of Frigg Field
1,000 15,000
4.5 The amount of gas generated within thedrainage
area of the Frigg Field has been estimated assuming
that the average thickness andmaturity of Kimmer-
idge Clay and Heather formations within the area are
the same as in Well D. The amount of gas generated

Y
E' fromtheHeatherFormation has
been
calculated
assumingitcontainsdispersedcoalymaterial, using
the methane generationimaturity plotforcoal (Hunt
f
c
1979). The amount
KimmeridgeClayhas
of gas generated from
beenestimatedassumingit
the
is
L derived from cracking of oil remaining in the source
E 5 rock after oil generation ceased. Estimated gas yields
from the Heather Formation andKimmeridge Clay are
100 X 1010m3 and (100-200) X 10"m3respectively.
TOP I \ 10 m of Brent coal within a drainage area equivalentto
the Frigg Field would have generated 200 X 101" m3 of
methane assuming the same Brent maturity as in Well
D. However the carbon isotope datasuggests the Frigg
gas was not sourced from Brent coals.

WELL
4.5 Variation inlighthydrocarbon composition
€ and concentration with depth (Fig. 29)
Y Inthe normallypressuredearlyTertiaryandlate
X Cretaceous (2000-2350 m), hydrocarbon concentrations
are low; gas wetness increases from 10% at the top of
k 5- the interval to 30% at the base. In the abnormal pore
g pressuretransitionzone
gasoline rangehydrocarbon
(2350-2550 m)totalgas,
(C&,) concentration,
and gas wetness increase dramatically with depth (Fig.

5.5
' 29).
Very high background gas was measured in the
FIG.27.Convergence of reservoirporepressure 250minterval below theabnormalporepressure
andsealfracturepressure in deep high pressure transitionzone(2550-2800m).Oilshowswerere-
fault blocks. corded in limestone cuttings in this interval. A similar
470 J . C. Goff
l
0
METHANE SOLUBILITY , m3/ m3 WATER CUMULATIVE DISSOLVED METHANE, 10 m3
0 5 10 15 0 200 400

E
Y

f
L,

”
I

FIG.28. (a) Methane solubility, and ( b ) Cumulative dissolved methane as a function of depth in early Eocene to
Jurassic rocks in Well D.
zone of high background gas occurs
below the range 500C15 000 psi (Schowalter 1979). Gas-water
abnormal pore pressure transition zonein Well C. The displacementpressuresare >350 psi for mudstones
much higher background gas values over this interval which have mercury/air displacement pressures B5000
in Well D are due to underbalanced drilling. Analysis psi for this interfacial tension. These data indicate that
of canned cuttings from this interval indicate the gasis vertical gas columns >300 m in height are required to
wet ( 4 0 4 0 % C2-C4); CrC7 hydrocarbonconcentra- inject gas through mudstone pores in the
late
tion exceeds 5000 v01 ppm of rock between 255C2650 Cretaceous section of the Viking Graben. There is no
m. evidence for the existence of such columns; gas phase
Within the late Cretaceous mudstones below 3300 m migration through mudstone pores is unlikely.
total gas and gas wetness increases with depth. Mud Comparison of theporeandfracture pressures
background gas increases
markedlyover
a 50m strongly suggests that gas is migrating through micro-
interval above the top of the Kimmeridge Clay (Fig. fractures below 3600 m. From 3600-5150 m there is a
24). Total gas in the late Jurassic mudstones is nearly positive correlation between total gas and gas wetness
half anorder of magnitudegreaterthan in the whichsuggestsmigration is occurringin gas phase.
Cretaceousmudstones (300M387 m).This reflects The lack of evidence of microfractures above 3500 m,
higherorganicrichness
and
maturity of thelate and especially within the abnormal pressure transition
Jurassic mudstones. zoneand overlyingnormallypressured mudstones,
suggests another migration mechanismoccurs in the
upper part of the late Cretaceous section.
Evaluation of hydrocarbon migration
Any hypothesis for the origin of the Frigg Field gas
mechanisms
must account for its very low wet gas content (3.5%
Methanelwater interfacial tension is about 25 dyne/ ethane, 0.05% propane+butane).This composition
cm in the temperature range 100-300°F and pressure can beexplained by migrationin aqueous solution
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 471

c5- c7
V 0 1 P P M OF ROCK
102 103 5x10

5 < 2350 m

2550 m
*

3 7

E
Y

X-
c
P
Y
0 4

.
5

FIG. 29. Totalgas, gaswetnessand C5-C7 hydrocarbonsincannedcuttingssamplesasafunction of depth in

Well D

within theupperpart of thelateCretaceous mud- Theaqueoussolution hypothesiscanbetested by

stones, and subsequent exsolutionin the early Tertiary
aquifer.Thishypothesisrequiresthatmethanelsatu-
rated pore water exsolves sufficient methane, when it
is expelled into the early Tertiary aquifer, to account
for the in-place reserves of the field.
The amount of gas generated from Jurassic source
rockswithin thedrainagearea of the FriggField
(20G300 X 101"m3) exceedsthatrequiredtosatu-
ratethewater in thelateCretaceousmudstones
between 2250 mand 3500 m (150 X 1010m3)(Fig.
28). This suggests that pore waters in this interval are
saturated with respect to methane.
calculating the amount of pore water expelled into the
aquifer from the FriggFielddrainage area since the
trap was sealed, and the volume of methane exsolved
(Table 9). Thewater loss fromthe Jurassic and
Cretaceousmudstones in the last 40Ma has been
calculated from the mudstone compaction gradient in
Well D. The pressure drop across the early Tertiary
aquifer has been estimated from its thickness (600 m).
The amount of methane exsolved under this pressure
drop has been estimated from Magara's solubility data
for the temperature and pressure conditions prevailing
in the Frigg aquifer in the last 40 Ma. The calculated
472 J . C. Goff
TABLE9: Evaluation of aqueous solubility mechanism for migra-
tion of Frigg Field methane
~~

* Drainage area of field 1500 km2

* Decrease in thickness of late Cretaceous
mudstones since field was sealed 450 m
* Volume of water expelled into early Tertiary
aquifer from below within field (1500 X 106 X 450 m3)
drainage area = 70 X 10" m3
* Pressure drop between top and bottom
of aquifer 900 psi
* Methane exsolved in aquifer due to 0.5 m3/m3 water
this pressure drop = ( 7 0 ~ 1 0X' ~0.5) m3
= 35 X 10" m3.

volume of exsolved methane is more than enough to Conclusions

account for the in-place reservesof the field (27 X 10"
m3). 1. The richest source rocks in the E Shetland Basin
To conclude, the migration mechanism of the Frigg and the Viking Graben are the Kimmeridge Clay (oil
gas probably involves three processes: 1, Migration as and gas) andtheBrentFormation coals(drygas).
gas phase in microfractures in the over-pressured late BathonianandToarcianmudstones may alsohave
Jurassic
mudstones and overlyinglate Cretaceous generated oil. ThickHeatherFormationmudstones
mudstonesatdepthsgreaterthanabout 3500 m.2, are gas source rocks in the Viking Graben.
Migration in aqueous solutionthroughthe
late 2. A uniformpresentdaymaturitygradientindi-
Cretaceous mudstones at depths shallower than about catesthe oilwindow (0.5-1.3% &) extendsfrom
3500m. 3, Exsolution of methane in the FriggField 2550-4500m, and the wet gas zone (1.3-2% R") from
aquiferandsubsequentbuoyant flowof gas tothe 4500-5400 m. Peak oil generation from the Kimmer-
trap. idgeClayoccursatareflectancelevel of 0.7%
An aqueous solubility mechanism for the Frigg Field (3250m). Highest oilsaturationsintheKimmeridge
oil has also been evaluated. About 5 X 109m3 of oil is Clay, inferred from resistivity logs, occur at 0.8% R.
estimated to have been expelled from theKimmeridge (3500-3600 m). Intense gas generation from oil trap-
Clay source rock within the drainage area of the Frigg ped in the Kimmeridge Clay has probably occurred in
Field assuming a source rock thickness of 100m. The the reflectance range 1-1.3% R. (40004500 m). Peak
in-placereserves of the field are -0.1 X 109m3. The dry gas generation from Brent Formation coals occurs
water loss fromtheCretaceousandJurassicmud- atareflectancelevel of 1.5% R. (5000m).Atthe
stones within the field's drainage area is 70 X 10"m3. present day the Kimmeridge Clay is mature over most
About 150 ppm of oil would thus have to be exsolved of the E Shetland Basin and hasreached
peak
from these compaction waters in the trap to account generation throughout the axial region of the basin. In
for the in-place reserves of the field. This amount of the Viking Grabenthe KimmeridgeClay is ata
exsolution requires an oil concentration of the order of maturity close to the oil floor (1.3% Ro).
1000 ppm in the compaction water. Wholeoil solubili- 3. Oil generation from the Kimmeridge Clay began
ties
at
100-150°C, equivalent tothetemperatures 70-80Ma agoin the Viking Graben; 65 Maagothe
prevailing in the Cretaceous mudstones, are<l00 ppm KimmeridgeClay was generatingoilthroughoutthe
(Price1976). Anaqueous solubilitymechanismthus Viking Graben and in the deepest troughs of the E
cannot account for the in-place reserves of the field. ShetlandBasin.Peak oil
generation was reached
However, the heavy
polar
nitrogen and
sulphur 55-65 Ma ago in the Viking Graben; 40 Ma ago peak
bearing compounds in the oil could have migrated by generation had occurred in the deepest troughs of the
this mechanism. E Shetland Basin, and throughout the Viking Graben.
The relatively high anduniform gasoline range 20-40 Ma ago theKimmeridge Clay entered thewet gas
hydrocarbon concentrations in the overpressured Cret- zoneinthedeepest synclines. Generation of gas by
aceousmudstones suggest thatlarge scalevertical cracking of oil in the Kimmeridge Clay of the Viking
migration of hydrocarbons generated from the Kim- Graben occurred during the last 50Ma. Gas genera-
meridge Clay has occurred. The most likely migration tion from Brent Formation coals began 100 Ma ago in
mechanisms are oil migration through microfractured the Viking Graben; peak dry gas generation occurred
overpressuredmudstones below 3500 m, and migra- during the last 40 Ma.
tion throughsiltstonesandtheinterconnectedlarger 4. Oil phase primarymigrationfrom the Kimmer-
mudstone pores in response to low oil/water interfacial idge Clay has occurred in the E Shetland Basin. The
tensions. oil
expulsionefficiency from this source
rock is
 Hydrocarbon generation and migration from Jurassic source rocks, northern North Sea 473
>2&30%. Migration and trapping efficiencies are very (at depths >3500 m). 2, Migration in aqueous solution
high inthe E ShetlandBasin: 20-30% of the oil through late Cretaceous mudstones at depths shallow-
generatedfromtheKimmeridgeClay is nowreser- er than about 3500 m. 3, Exsolution of methane in the
voired
Jurassic
in sandstones.
Oil
saturation
in FriggField aquifer, and subsequent buoyant flowof
compactionfluidsexpelledfromactivelygenerating gas to the trap. Most of the Frigg Field oil probably
Kimmeridge Clay was at least 30%. Oil migration has did not migrate in aqueous solution. Migration of oil
occurredalong high fluid potentialgradientssetup probably
occurred
through
microfractures,
and
from actively generating overpressured source rocks in throughsiltstoneandthe larger mudstone pores in
the half grabens to normallypressured or slightly response to low oil/water interfacial tensions.
overpressured Jurassic reservoirs, stratigraphically be-
low,butstructurallyupdip of, the sourcerocks.
During primary migration oil probably moved through ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.Theauthoracknowledgesmanyvalu-
porosity created in the kerogen laminae of the source ablediscussionswithBPgeologists,geochemistsandgeo-
rock by oil generation, and through the interconnected physicists, but would emphasize that the views expressed are
his own. In particular he wishes to thank Dr A. M. Spencer
larger pores of the Kimmeridge Clay and underlying for encouragement to publish this paper, Dr J. R. Bloomer
Heather Formation aided by low oiliwater interfacial andDr S. W.Richardsonforinvaluablehelp with the
tensions. geothermalmodelling,
and G.
C. Speers
andDr G.
5. Migration of the FriggField methaneprobably Dungworthfordiscussion of geochemicalprinciples.Anita
involves 3 processes: 1, Migration of gas in gas phase McKearney kindly typed the manuscript. The author wishes
inmicrofracturesin the overpressuredlateJurassic to thank the management of British Petroleum Development
mudstonesandoverlyinglateCretaceousmudstones Ltd. for permission to publish this paper.

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Received 30 Julv 1982

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i ~~

J. C. GOFF,BP PetroleumDevelopment Ltd., BritannicHouse,MoorLane,

London EC2Y 9BU.
Present address: PetroleumEngineeringDivision, Dept. ofEnergy,Thames
House South, Millbank, London SWlP 4QJ.