Lect 8

Water Resources Engineering (CEB-703)
Irrigation Canal
Lecture 8
CEB-703 – Lecture 8
Contents:
• Canal network and irrigation plan
• Discharge
• Canal network and irrigation plan
• Maintenance and repair works
• Canal lining
• Minor scheme extension and
design
Annexes:
• How to enlarge the capacity of an
existing canal
• How to construct a canal
• How to determine the slope of a
canal alignment
2
Canal network and irrigation plan

• FUNCTION AND PERFORMANCE
✓ Canal network – system of irrigation canals; transports water
from source to fields
3

✓ Canals are positioned in the field so that use is made of the
natural slope, and water flows downhill through the canals and
enters the fields by gravity
4

✓ It is best if the canal bed is lower than the field, as shown in the
figures, but if a canal crosses a depression in the field, the
canal bed may have to be partly raised above the field
5
Discharge
• The more fields that are served by a canal, the more water has
to be transported (rate at which water is transported by a canal
is called its discharge)
• Canal capacity - maximum discharge that any canal can
transport
6
Discharge
• Irrigation demand in a scheme is not constant during the
irrigation season since they are largely affected by the amount
of rainfall and by the water requirement of crops growing in the
scheme (higher demand during land prep, then decreases
during initial stage and increases again during crop
development stage)
• Ways of meeting the changing water demand (NA for
continuous supply):
o Manipulating the control structures or gate settings
o Changing the duration of water delivery to the farms
o Changing the interval between water deliveries
o Combination of these
7
Discharge
• In order to supply the required amounts of water to the crops
and to avoid waste by supplying too much, it is important to
know the discharges in the canals
8
Discharge
• In order to avoid spillage of water and overtopping
embankments, free board is provided between the top of the
canal banks and the maximum water level.
9
Discharge
10
Discharge
• Wetted cross-
section area
11
Discharge
• Wetted cross-section area
• Minimum required free board
levels for small and medium
canals:
o fb = 0.20 m (h1 < 0.40m)
h = h1 + 0.20 m
o fb = 0.5 x h1 (h1 > 0.40m)
h = 1.5 x h1
12
Discharge
• Cross-sections of unlined irrigation canals seldom have a
regular shape and the bed width and the water depth may vary,
even over short distances along the canal
• The same applies for lined canals, however the changes in bed
width and water depth in lined canals are less than in unlined
canals
13
Discharge
• Factors that determine the maximum discharge of a canal
are:
o area of the maximum wetted cross-section – larger area
permits larger flow to pass
o resistance to the flow or roughness of the bed and sides -
water flows more slowly in a rough, poorly maintained
canal than in a smooth, well-maintained canal (due to a
lower flow velocity, the water depth will increase and the
canal will risk overtopping)
o bed slope or longitudinal slope in the direction of water
flow - steeper the slope of a canal, the faster will flow the
water and thus the larger will be its capacity (0.05% and
0.15% to avoid canal scouring and overtopping)
14

• DISCHARGE
The lower limits of bed width b and water depth h1 are valid for canals which have a steep
slope (close to 0.15%) and which are clean and well maintained. The higher limits are valid for
canals with flatter slopes and which are covered with plant growth. 15
Main problems in a canal network

• Technical Problems
i. Water losses
✓ Seepage - water that seeps through the bed and sides of a
canal will be lost for irrigation
• Canal is constructed from material
which has a high permeability
• sides of a canal can sometimes
become very wet difficult to detect
because water goes down OR does
not appear on the nearby ground
surface
• can be reduced by reinforcing the
canal bank or sealing or lining the
canal bed and sides
16

i. Water losses
✓ Leakage - water does not seep, but flows through larger
openings in the canal bed or sides
• Leaks can develop in several ways: • by
rat or termite holes in a canal bed or
sides; • eroded and washed canal bank; •
small tunnels started by seepage water in
a badly compacted or sandy section of a
canal bank; • seepage around structures,
leading to severe leakages; • gates which
are not tightly sealed; • cracked concrete
canal linings, or joints that are not tightly
sealed; or • torn asphalt or plastic lining. 17

ii. Overtopping - water in a canal may rise unexpectedly due to
several reasons:
✓ incoming flow through the canal offtake may be much
greater than the canal capacity
✓ obstacles such as stones, blocks or plant growth in the
canal may dam up the water
✓ outlets from a canal may be closed which should be open
✓ rain or other water may be draining into the irrigation
canal
✓ farmers may make temporary weirs to raise the water level
18

ii. Overtopping
✓ Overtopping causes erosion
of the canal banks and may
lead to serious breaches
✓ It can be avoided by improving the operation of the

system: discharges should be limited and gates should
only be closed and opened according to the planned
schedule
✓ To prevent overtopping, which can happen even in the best
irrigation systems, a spillway - also called an emergency
outlet 19

iii. Canal Erosion
✓ unlined canal are sometimes badly attacked by scouring
water
✓ Canal bends and sections downstream of structures in
particular are susceptible to erosion, since local flow
velocities can be very high and the direction of flow
changes suddenly, causing turbulence
✓ Another problem is that the eroded soil will be deposited ,
known as siltation , in structures downstream of the eroded
canal section
20

iii. Canal Erosion
• Erosion by water can be

prevented by: • reducing
the flow velocity, and •
making the inner canal
banks more stable
• If a canal continues to
suffer from erosion, lining
may be a solution
21

• Canal inspections
✓ In order to prevent major problems such as leakages
and destruction of embankments
✓ Inspection can be done easily and quickly if the
canals are easily accessible
✓ Canal banks should have good pathways, and not be
covered with plant growth
22
Maintenance and repair works

• Canal Maintenance
✓ Usually carried out in between two irrigation seasons,
or at times of low water demand
✓ Consists of cleaning, weeding, desilting, re-shaping,
and executing minor repairs (leaks, joints sealing)
✓ Checking and clearing of canal spillway (overtopping)
23

• Canal Repair
✓ Reshaping an eroded cross-section
24

• Canal Repair
✓ Reshaping an eroded cross-section
25

• Canal Repair
✓ Repair of cracks and gullies in a canal embankment
26

• Erosion Prevention
✓ Reducing the flow velocity
✓ Lining the canal
27

✓ Installing check structures (when it is not easy to
rebuild an existing canal in order to modify its slope)
28

✓ Canal lining
o The limiting flow velocity of a lined canal is higher
than that of an equivalent unlined canal
o Thus, the canal slope can be steeper
o Because the flow velocity in a lined canal can be
higher than that in an unlined canal, the cross-
section of a lined canal can be smaller than that of
an unlined canal carrying a similar discharge (less
costly)
29
Canal Lining
• Advantages
✓ Water conservation (limit losses)
✓ No seepage of water into adjacent land or roads
✓ Reduced canal dimensions
✓ Reduced maintenance
• Cost
✓ Costs of lining can be very high, depending on the
local cost of lining material and of labour, as well
as on the length of canal to be lined
✓ Benefit cost should be greater than the capital cost
and recurring costs
30
Canal Lining
• Types
Concrete, Sand cement,
Compacted clay,
Plastic
• Selection factors:
Local costs, Materials availability,
and Local skills availability
31
Canal Lining
• Types
Concrete, Sand cement,
Compacted clay,
Plastic
• Selection factors:
Local costs, Materials availability,
and Local skills availability
32
Minor scheme extension and design

• New or Extension of land which is adjacent to an existing
irrigation scheme could be considered for incorporation into
the scheme
• Crucial issues:
✓ Location of a water source with good quality and quantity
✓ Topography of the land to determine the method of
irrigation supply (can the water be extracted by gravity or
will it be necessary to install pumps)
33

• Example
An existing irrigation scheme is located along a small
river and the area of the scheme is 80 ha (800 m wide
by 1000 m long). The terrain has a slope to the east and
to the north, although the slope to the north is relatively
flat. The scheme is divided into 8 blocks of equal size,
(10ha each) with a tertiary canal supplying water to each
block. Irrigation water is diverted from the river at a rate
of 200 l/s. This flow is divided over the canal network in
such a way that each block receives 25 l/s. An area
which is located immediately north of the scheme is
being considered for incorporation into the scheme. 34

• Example
35

• Example
✓ Irrigation water need for the extension:
Additional blocks = 200,000/100,000 = 2 blocks
Additional water = 2 x 25 l/s = 50 l/s
Source = 200 + 50 = 250 l/s
36

• Example
✓ The block size should be
equal to that in the existing
scheme so that the farm
ditches can have about the
same length as the existing
farm ditches
✓ Check the slopes:
o if < 0.05% increase it by
trench
o If > 0.15% construct drop
structures
✓ Increase canal capacity
37

• Example
✓ Dimensions of new canals (e.g. 25 l/s, lined rectangular)
• For h1 = 25 to 30 cm < 0.4 m

Thus, h = h1 + 0.2 m
38
Estimating canal capacity

• Actual water level in a canal is lower than free board
level:
39

• Actual water level in a canal is lower than free board
level:
40

• Actual water level in a canal is lower than free board level:
example
V = 0.22 m/s
• h1 = 0.3 m; h = 0.56 m (channel depth)

• Compute hmax = 0.56 – 0.2 = 0.36 m (max water depth)
• Wetted Area = 0.5x0.3x(0.9+0.3) = 0.18 m2
• Q1 = 0.22x0.18x1000 = 39.6 L/s
41

• Actual water level in a canal is lower than free board level:
example
V = 0.22 m/s
• Check: h1 > b/2 and hmax < 1.5 x b --- OK (otherwise these values)
• Side slope = 0.3/0.3 = 1.0
• p = 0.36/0.3 = 1.2
• f (from table) = 1.43
• Qmax = 1.43x39.6 = 56.628 L/s (max safe canal capacity) 42
Enlarging canal capacity

• There are three ways to increase the capacity of a
canal:
o increase the maximum allowed water depth
43

canal:
o increase the bed width
44

canal:
o reduce the bed roughness
- clear and/or lined the canal
- not realistic if canal capacity increase is the only
reason for lining
45

canal:
o reduce the bed roughness
These may be used singly or in combination
46

canal: increase the maximum allowed water depth
Suppose the area which is served by the canal used for previous is
to be extended, the total maximum discharge which will need to be
transported by this canal is 80 l/s. The existing capacity has been
estimated to be 56 l/s, and so must be increased.
• Side slope = 0.3/0.3 = 1.0

• f = 80/39 = 2.05 (use f = 2.06 for table)
• p (from table) = 1.45
• hmax = 1.45x0.3= 0.44 m (< 1.5 x b, OK)
• h = 0.5xhmax = 0.22 (since hmax > 0.4m)
• h = 0.44+0.22 = 0.66 m
47

The existing canal embankment with a height of 0.56 m should be increased
by 0.10 m to give a new height of 0.66 m. This can be attained in two ways:
Option A - Raise the existing canal bank
48

The existing canal embankment with a height of 0.56 m should be increased

by 0.08 m to give a new height of 0.64 m. This can be attained in two ways:
Option B - The existing canal bed can be lowered by 0.14 m to get the
required depth of 0.44 m
49

canal: increase the bed width
Same procedure as increasing water depth is followed (f, which is the ratio
between new capacity and old capacity, is first calculated). Then a table is
used to find factor r. Factor r is the ratio between the new bed width and the
old one.
50

canal: increase the bed width
What should be the new width of the canal bed (side slope = 0.8) if the canal
capacity is increased from 45 L/s to 60 L/s?
• f = 60/45 = 1.33
• r (from table, with ss = 0.7 & f =1.34) =
1.7
• bnew = r x bold = 0.51 m
The canal bed should be enlarged by 0.21 m, from 0.30 m to a new bed
width of 0.51 m, or, in round figures, by 20 cm, from 30 cm to 50 cm. 51
Supplementary
• GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF OPEN CHANNELS
52
Supplementary
53
Supplementary
54
Supplementary
Design a rectangular channel to carry a discharge of 10 m3/s. The channel
will be excavated through graded loam. The topography in the area is such
that a bottom slope of 1 in 4000 will be suitable. Assume bed width (B) is
twice the depth (y).
• n = 0.03 (graded loam)
• Manning’s equation:
• A = 2y2, P = 4y --- R = A/P = 0.5y
𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
- 𝑄= • AR(2/3) = 18.97 = 1.26y2.67
𝑛 • Thus: y = 2.76 m and B = 5.52 m
• fb = 0.5y (since depth > 0.4m)
- AR(2/3) = 18.97 • Total depth = 1.5y = 4.14 m
• Flow A = 15.24 m2
• Flow V = 0.66 m/s 55

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Water Resources Engineering (CEB-703)

Canal network and irrigation plan

Canal network and irrigation plan

Canal network and irrigation plan

Canal network and irrigation plan

Main problems in a canal network

Main problems in a canal network

Main problems in a canal network

Main problems in a canal network

✓ It can be avoided by improving the operation of the

Main problems in a canal network

Main problems in a canal network

• Erosion by water can be

Main problems in a canal network

Maintenance and repair works

Maintenance and repair works

Maintenance and repair works

Maintenance and repair works

Maintenance and repair works

Maintenance and repair works

Maintenance and repair works

Minor scheme extension and design

Minor scheme extension and design

Minor scheme extension and design

Minor scheme extension and design

Minor scheme extension and design

Minor scheme extension and design

• For h1 = 25 to 30 cm < 0.4 m

Estimating canal capacity

Estimating canal capacity

Estimating canal capacity

• h1 = 0.3 m; h = 0.56 m (channel depth)

Estimating canal capacity

Enlarging canal capacity

Enlarging canal capacity

Enlarging canal capacity

Enlarging canal capacity

These may be used singly or in combination

Enlarging canal capacity

• Side slope = 0.3/0.3 = 1.0

Enlarging canal capacity

Enlarging canal capacity

The existing canal embankment with a height of 0.56 m should be increased

Enlarging canal capacity

Enlarging canal capacity

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