Lect 9-10

Water Resources Engineering (CEB-703)
Design of Channels
through alluvial soils
Lecture 9
CEB-703 – Lecture 9
Design Parameters
2
Important Terms Related to Canal Design
3

• Alluvial soil
4

• Non-alluvial soil
5

• Silt factor
6

• Coefficient of Rugosity (n)
7

• Mean Velocity
8

• Critical Velocity
9

• Critical Velocity Ratio (C.V.R.)
10

• Regime Channel (Equilibrium Channel)
11

• Hydraulic Mean Depth
12

• Full Supply Level
13

• Economical Section
14
Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Kennedy’s Theory
15

Kennedy’s Theory
16

Kennedy’s Theory
17

Kennedy’s Theory
18

Lacey’s Theory
19

Lacey’s Theory
20

Lacey’s Theory
21

Lacey’s Theory
22
Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

Examples
Design an irrigation channel to carry 50 m3/s of discharge. The channel is
to be laid at a slope of 1 in 4000. The critical velocity ratio (m) for the soil
is 1.1. Use Kutter's rugorsity coefficient as 0.023.
1)Determine the critical velocity, Vo

• Assume depth, D = 2m
• Vo = 0.936 m/s
2) Determine the cross - sectional area

• A = Q/ Vo = 53.419 m2
23

Examples
3) Determination of channel dimensions

A = y(b+Zy) = 53.419 m2, y = 2m
• b = 25.710 m
• P = 30.182 m
• R = A/P = 1.77 m
24

Examples
4) Compute the mean velocity flow, V

V = 1.016 m/s
5) Compare the mean velocity, V and critical velocity, VO

V = 1.016m/s > VO = 0.942m/s (should be equal)
Thus, repeat the computation
25

Examples
In order to increase the critical velocity, Vo, we have to increase

the depth. Assume, depth D = 3m
• Vo = 1.21 m/s
• V = 1.16 m/s
Thus, try again
26

Examples
Design a regime channel of or a discharge of 50 m3/s and silt factor 1.1
using Lacey's Theory.
1. Compute the mean Velocity of flow
27

Examples
2. Compute the cross-sectional area: A = Q/V = 56.3 m2

3. Compute the wetted perimeter: P = 33.56 m
4. Compute the hydraulic mean depth: R = 1.675 m
28

Examples
5. Determine the dimensions
y = D = 1.85 m
b = 29.42 m
S = 1/5470
29
Water Resources Engineering (CEB-703)
Structures for Water
Control & Distribution
Lecture 10
Contents: CEB-703 – Lecture 10
• Water intake to field
• Water level in field channels
• Water distribution in the canal
network
• Flow measurement
• Protective and other canal
structures
• Common problems in structures
• Maintenance and repair works
• Structures and minor scheme
extension
Annexes:
• How to determine discharge
• Discharge-head relationship
31
Different types of structures
32
Water intake to a field
33

• Common methods
✓ Breach
- Temporary opening in embankment
- No capital cost
- Disadvantages:
o frequent opening and closing of
breaches weakens the
embankment;
o opening and closing a breach
changes the cross-sectional
shape of the field channel; and
o there is no discharge control
34

• Common methods
✓ Gated intake
- Made of wood, masonry or concrete
- Controls the water inflow
- More expensive than breach
35

• Common methods
✓ Spile
- Short pipe, commonly made of a hard
plastic such as PVC, but clay pipes are also
used
- The pipes are buried in the canal
embankment
- Good water intake control can be obtained
either by adjusting the water level in the
field channel (using of a water-level
regulator or by closing off individual spiles)
- Disadvantages: Spiles can become blocked
with mud or plant debris, and that the pipes
can be expensive 36

• Common methods
✓ Syphons
- Curved pipe, often made of a plastic
such as PVC
- The pipe is filled with water and laid over
the channel bank
- Good water flow control is possible by
changing the number of syphons, the
diameter of the syphons, or both.
- For efficient operation, the water level in
the field channel needs to be some 10
cm above the field
- Disadvantage is the price of the pipes
37

• Common methods
✓ Pumps
- Used when water level in the field
channel is lower than the level of the
field to be irrigated
- Very high capital costs for the
equipment as well as operating costs
- In order to allow efficient operation of
the pump, the water depth and
discharge in the field channel must be
comparatively large + much larger than
is required for the other four methods
38

• Selection of methods
✓ Difference in water level in the field channel and the field
- < 5cm: gated intake, breach
- Between 5cm and 15cm: spile, breach
- >15cm: syphon
✓ Design control - gated intake, spile (adjust diameter),
syphon (adjust number)
✓ Irrigation method - should match the irrigation method:
o Border or basin irrigation, the water can enter the field at
one point – breach or gate
o Furrow irrigation requires more delivery points, as each
furrow should have its own delivery point – spile or
syphons
39

✓ Design control
✓ Irrigation method
✓ Irrigation schedule - duration and frequency of water supply
to the field
- Short duration: gated intake or spile because it can be
opened and closed easily as many times as needed
- Long duration: syphon or breach
- Equal water intake (among farmers): syphons or spiles are
recommended because the total discharge is determined by
the number and diameter of tubes, and so is easier to
control than when breaches or gated intakes are used
40

✓ Design control
✓ Irrigation method
✓ Irrigation schedule
✓ Field location
- If the field to be irrigated is situated in the upper part of a
channel, then the use of a breach should be avoided
because breaches can seriously damage the shape of a
channel and thus affect the delivery of water to farmers
downstream
- When a large opening is needed, a gated intake is much
more practical
41

• Discharge
✓ Breaches or gated intakes: 10 to 30 L/s
✓ Single syphon or spile: 0.5 and 2-to-3 L/s
42
Water level in field channels

• Water level and intake
device Breach or Gated intake
✓ Hydraulic head (h):
o h = a - c for the open
device
o h = a - b for the closed
device
Spile or Syphon
43

• Water level and intake device
✓ If h increases, then the Breach or Gated intake
discharge through the device
will increase.
o For open types, if h
increases by 10%, the
discharge increases by
some 15% Spile or Syphon
o For closed types if h
increases by 10% the
discharge will increase by
only 5%
o Larger difference in open
types 44

• Water level control
✓ If the discharge through a field intake is too low to satisfy the
farmer’s needs, they can either enlarge the opening of the
intake, or raise the water level upstream of the intake, according
to local conditions.
✓ When a concrete or masonry structure is used for an intake
device, the opening cannot be enlarged. In this case another,
larger structure should be constructed.
✓ When a breach is used, the opening can be enlarged by
excavating more out of the canal embankment. To obtain a
higher total discharge using spiles or syphons, the number must
be increased or larger diameter pipes used.
45

✓ If the water has not yet reached the maximum level possible in
the channel, the level could be raised by using a check
structure (temporary or permanent)
46

✓ A check structure obstructs the flow in the canal and
consequently the water level will rise
✓ Check structures can be very useful, because the farmer whose
turn it is can be given the full channel discharge
✓ When the discharge in a field channel is large, several farm plots
can be irrigated simultaneously: example, a discharge of 60 l/s
can be shared by two farmers, each receiving 30 l/s, by using a
check structure and maintaining the water level
✓ However, control of the water level and hence the flow into
fields will be more difficult as the number of farmers irrigating at
the same time increases
47

• Water level control: check structure
48
Water distribution in canal network

• Proportional distribution - flow in a canal is divided equally
between two or more smaller canals (proportional to field area)
49

• Proportional flow division structures
Flow is fixed - if the flow in the source canal changes, the flow in
the branch canals will also change 50

Flow division can be

adjusted according
to changes in either
water supply in the
source canal or
water demand in the
branch canals
51

52

53

• Rotational distribution - whole flow in an irrigation canal is
diverted to the branch canal in turns
✓ Division of the time - portion of the time during which a branch
canal carries water is proportional to the area served by that
canal
54

• Rotational distribution
✓ Division of the time
55

✓ Diversion structures - rotation schedule or on an ‘on demand’
basis must be equipped with gates at the offtake
56

✓ Diversion structures - rotation schedule or on an ‘on demand’
basis must be equipped with gates at the offtake
✓ Therefore, under rotational distribution, a canal which receives
water should have the same capacity as the supply canal, as
flow is not divided.
✓ In Exercise 3, each secondary canal should have a capacity of
170 l/s, which is equal to that of the main canal
57

• Delivery on demand
- Instead of water delivery based on areas, as in proportional or
rotational supply, delivery can be based on requests from
farmers or a group of farmers
- Because the demand varies, the duration or the size of flow, or
both, need to be controlled to accommodate this variation
- Note that the possibility of water losses increases when demand
is relatively small compared to the canal capacity
58

• Delivery on demand
- In order to be able to adapt flows to the
requests cross regulators are needed in
the canal network
- By making the opening smaller or larger,
the size of the flow can be set
- To ensure equitable and efficient
distribution, measurement is required at
the flow regulating point
59

• Fixed delivery to tertiary canal
- Main canals and secondary canals in an irrigation scheme
may carry variable flows, which in turn affects the tertiary
canal flow
- But water levels in tertiary canals should be kept constant as
far as is possible to avoid overtopping and under supply
- To obtain a constant discharge in a tertiary canal, attention
should be paid to controlling the water level in the
secondary canal
60

- Water in a secondary canal can easily be maintained at a
more-or-less constant level by installing a long-crested weir
61

- Small canal offtakes
62
Flow Measurement
• The formula by which
the discharge through
an intake can be
determined depends on
the type of structure
and on whether the flow
is free or submerged.
• The variables used in
the formula are the
difference in water level,
h1 or h2 , and the area
of the opening
63
Flow Measurement
64
Flow Measurement
• Weirs
65
Flow Measurement
• Flumes
66
Flow Measurement
• Flumes
67
Flow Measurement
• Flumes
68
Flow Measurement
69
Flow Measurement
70
Flow Measurement
71
Flow Measurement
72
Canal structures protection

• When is canal protection needed?
73

• Stilling basins
✓ Basin with protected walls and floor and which is filled with
water
✓ Function is to convert the energy of fast flowing water into
turbulence and absorbed by the basin volume
✓ Required downstream of structures where flow velocities can
be high
74

• Spillways
✓ Structure that guides excess water safely to the drainage
system
The water level in the canal has just reached the crest
of the spillway, and if it rises more, water will spill over
and be guided to the drainage system of the scheme
75

• Drop Structures
✓ In order for a canal to have a gentler slope than the field, it
is split into sections, and part of each section is constructed
in cut, and part in fill, with each section having a bed level
which is lower than the canal section upstream of the
section concerned
76

• Drop Structures
✓ Bed levels should not be excavated much lower than the
field, nor should the bed be much higher than the field
✓ So, in order to avoid large volumes of cut and fill, the drop in
bed level is limited and will not exceed some 0.30 to 0.80 m.
✓ Drop structure can also include a stilling basin, especially if
the canal is unlined or the drop in level is relatively large, say
0.50 m or more
77

• Canal lining
✓ Erosion protection for sudden
change in flow
78

• Crossing Structures - used to pass over or under obstacles
in the field
✓ Aqueducts - self-supporting canal sections used to carry
water across drainage canals, gullies or depressions. They
can be constructed from wood, metal or concrete
79

in the field
✓ Culverts and inverted syphons - buried pipes used to carry
irrigation water underneath roadways, drainage canals,
natural streams or depressions (flow through culverts is
either free water or submerged, while in syphons the flow is
under pressure)
80

in the field
✓ Bridges - a structure that enables people or traffic to cross a
canal
81
Canal Structures: Common Problems

• The main problems, which in many cases result from
incorrect operation and lack of proper maintenance, that
affect the proper functioning of hydraulic structures can be
simply summarized as:
✓ Leakage
✓ Erosion
✓ Siltation
✓ Rot and rust (corrosion)
82
83

• Solutions:
✓ Leakage - structure can be equipped with vertical cut-
offs. They hinder the water flow along and underneath the
structure. The cut-offs are part of a structure and can be
driven into the bed and the embankments of a canal.
84

• Solutions:
✓ Erosion - a stilling basin is needed to dissipate the energy
of the incoming water. The basin should be constructed
immediately downstream of the weir or pipe. It is usually
part of the structure.
✓ Siltation - Siltation is difficult to avoid. Depending on the
local conditions, large sand traps could be constructed at
the upper end of the main canal. Deposition of sand will
be concentrated in these traps and can be removed by
regular cleaning
✓ Rot and rust - routine maintenance is necessary to avoid
these problems, or to reduce their effect to a minimum.
85
Other Chapters:
• Maintenance and repair works

• Structures and minor scheme extensions
86

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Water Resources Engineering (CEB-703)

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Important Terms Related to Canal Design

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial soil by

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

1)Determine the critical velocity, Vo

2) Determine the cross - sectional area

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

3) Determination of channel dimensions

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

4) Compute the mean velocity flow, V

5) Compare the mean velocity, V and critical velocity, VO

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

In order to increase the critical velocity, Vo, we have to increase

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

1. Compute the mean Velocity of flow

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

2. Compute the cross-sectional area: A = Q/V = 56.3 m2

4. Compute the hydraulic mean depth: R = 1.675 m

Unlined Canal Design on Alluvial Soil

Different types of structures

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water intake to a field

Water level in field channels

Water level in field channels

Water level in field channels

Water level in field channels

Water level in field channels

Water level in field channels

Water distribution in canal network

Water distribution in canal network

Water distribution in canal network

Flow division can be