MICROBIAL ECOLOGY

- the study of the relationships and interactions within microbial communities (e.g. environment-
host-microbe) within a defines space

MICROBIAL ECOLOGY OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

-it infect the blood, blood vessels and heart (cardio), lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes and
lymphoid organs such as spleen, tonsils and thymus . It can also spread to secondary organs.

 Blood
- one of the connective tissues in the cardiovascular system
- Consists of cells and cell fragments (formed elements) suspended in the intercellular
matrix
- Was thought to be sterile but this only applies to relatively healthy individuals
- Robert Koch discovered Bacillus Anthracis in the blood of cattle
- Major route: translocation from microbe enriched organs or via prenatal migration
- Several studies showed that the phylum Proteobacteria dominates the blood microbiota of
healthy humans, followed by Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes
 Phylum Proteobacteria
- a major group (phylum) of bacteria, includes Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio,
Helicobacter, etc.
- gram-negative bacteria, with an outer membrane mainly composed of lipo-
polysaccharides
- dominates the blood of healthy people
 Actinobacteria
- CG (Cytosine-Guanine) bacteria
- are important saprophytes capable of breaking down a wide range of plant and animal
debris in the process of decomposition.
- Streptomyces and Micromonospora are renowned for their prolific production of a
diverse range of bioactive metabolites, including antibiotics, enzymes, enzyme inhibitors,
signalling molecules, and immunomodulators
 Bacteroidetes
- in gut ecosystems
- they contribute to the release of energy from dietary fiber and starch, and they are likely
to be a major source of propionate; however, they are also involved in the release of toxic
products from protein breakdown
 Firmicutes
- are a type of bacteria that live in the human gut. Many members of the Firmicutes
phylum produce an important substance, butyrate, that keeps the colon healthy.
- Under normal circumstances, the circulatory system and the blood should be sterile; the
circulatory system has no normal microbiota. Because the system is closed, there are no
easy portals of entry into the circulatory system for microbes.
 Dysbiosis
- an imbalance in bacterial composition, changes in bacterial metabolic activities, or
changes in bacterial distribution within the gut
- Intestinal inflammation and reduced integrity of the gut barrier, which increases
circulation levels of bacterial structural components and microbial metabolites that may
facilitate cardiovascular disease.
 Microbiota in the blood is still debatable whether it is indigenous
 Gut microbiota functions like an endocrine organ that produces bioactive metabolites:
trimethylamine, trimethylamine N-oxide, short chain fatty acids, bile acids, and
pathways.
 Under normal circumstances, the circulatory system and blood should be sterile, the
circulatory system has no normal microbiota. Because the system is closed, there are no
easy entry in the system for microbes.
 Atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease
- Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the dysfunction of
vascular cells and the accumulation of low-density lipoprotein particles in plaques
- Staphylococcus species, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Streptococcus
species have been identified in both of the atherosclerotic lesions and the gut of the same
individual
 Hypertension
- High blood pressure is a prevalent cause of CVDs worldwide.
- increased Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratios
- overgrowth of Prevotella and Klebsiella bacteria
 Heart failure (HF)
- HF, a disease characterized by a reduced ability of the heart to pump enough blood and
oxygen to meet the body’s needs, is often the end clinical stage of many CVDs
- HF-related multisystem disorder often display impaired intestinal barrier functions, this
may lead to enhanced interaction between the intestinal microtiota with the host intestinal
mucosa.
- patients with comorbid HF are reported to experience Clostridium difficile infection
(CDI) more frequently
- Enhanced populations of pathogenic Campylobacter, Shigella and Salmonella bacteria
were isolated from fecal samples of HF patient
 Atrial fibrillation
- one of the most prevalent and widespread arrhythmias
- overgrowth of Ruminococcus, Streptococcus and Enterococcus
1. STREPTOCOCCAL SEPTICEMIA
 It is the general expression for microbial infection of the blood and blood vessels. It is
considered as “blood poisoning”.
 Bacteria called group A Streptococcus (group A strep) can cause STSS when they spread
into deep tissues and the bloodstream.
 Group A strep bacteria often live in the nose and throat. People who are infected spread
the bacteria by talking, coughing, or sneezing, which creates respiratory droplets that
contain the bacteria. People can get sick if they: Breathe in respiratory droplets that
contain the bacteria.
2. Tularemia
 The Gram negative rod is Francisella Tularensis
 It is transmitted through contact inhalation, ingestion (contaminated rabbit meat), tick and
anthropod bites
 The disease are blood disorder, fever malaise and non-specific symptoms
 Antibiotics and gentamycin are used in therapy
3. Plague
 The Gram negative rod is Yersinia pestis
 It is similar to tularemia and it can be transmitted by rodentreservoir: the rat flea and can
be airborne
 It enters the lymphatic system and causes swelling of lymph nodes: buboes-buonic plague
 In the blood it is septicemic plaque while in lungs is pneumonic plaque
 Its safety pin appearance is bipolar staining
4. Brucellosis
 Also known as undulant fever or the alternating periods if high fever and relief
 Brucella means a small, gram-rods that include B. abortus, suis, melilensis and canis
 On animals, it causes abortion (contagious abortion) and sterility of female
 On human transmission, it is caused by unpasteurized milk and contaminated meat
 It enters the bloodstream and causes symptoms like fevers, chills and malaise
 The prolonged treatment is include tetracycline that is vaccines for animals
5. Anthrax
 It is Gram positive aerobic that is a spore forming Bacillus anthracis
 Its spores are inhaled from the air or through contaminated soil or animals such as sheep
and cattle
 It enters on the bloodstream and causes severe hemorrhaging and spleen, kidneys and
blood rich organs become engorged with blood
 The disease in the lungs called Woolsorter’s disease and pneumonia
6. Relapsing fever
 It is a recurrent period of fever
 The etiologic agent is Borrelia recurrentis which is a spirochete
 It is transmitted through lice and ticks and causes jaundice and rose-colored skins and
infection
7. Lyme Disease
 It is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi which is a spirochete
 It is transmitted by ticks of the genus lxodes that is first discovered in Lyme a
Connecticut
 Bull’s eye rash on the skin causes rash that is called erythema chronicum migrans wich is
the site of tick bite and expand
 After the rash fades, spirochete enter the blood and causes fever and other
symptoms
 On the heart, it causes irregular heartbeat, on occasion there is paralysis (face) and
meningitis (brain)
  And after a few months, arthritis of large joints such as on the hips, ankles,
elbows and knees
 The treatment for Lyme disease are penicillin and tetracycline which are vaccine but for
dogs
8. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
 It is caused by Rickettsia ricketsii
 It is transmitted by ticks of the genus Dermacentor
 It causes maculopapular skin rash (spotted rash) on appendages then spread to trunk
 Very high fever and headaches are the symptoms
9. Epidemic Typhus
 It is caused by Rickettsia Prowazekii
 It is transmitted by body louse of genus Pediculus
 It causes maculopapular skin rash (spotted rash) on appendages then spread to trunk
 The symptoms are very high fever and significant death rate
 The treatment are tetracycline and elimination of lice
10. Endemic Typhus
 Also known as murine typhus that occurs in mice and other rodents
 It is transmitted by rat flea and caused by rickettsia typhi
 The same symptoms as epidemic typhus milder
11. Other rickettsil disease:
a. Ricketsial pox (Rickettsia akari)
 It is transmitted by mites and causes rashes
b. Tsutsugamushi (Scrub typhus)
 It is transmitted by mites and causes fever and skin rash on the Pacific regions of
the body
c. Trench fever (Rochalimaea quintana)
 It is transmitted by lice and common during WWI
d. Ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia canis)
 Cause headache and fever but no skin rash
e. Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE)
 It is transmitted by ticks

VIRAL DISEASES

1. Yellow Fever
 It is transmitted by mosquito Aedes aegypti
 It is an RNA that is icosahedral
 It is spread to lymph nodes and blood (liver)
 It causes very high fever, nausea, jaundice
 It is high mortality rate but 2 vaccines are only available
2. Dengue Fever
 It is just the same as yellow fever and causes fever and break bone fever on severe
muscle, bones and joint pains
 It is a successive exposure that causes dengue hemorrhagic fever
3. Infectious mononucleosis
 It is caused by herpes virus believed to be the Epstein-Barr virus which is a chronic
fatigue and a syndrome
 It has the ability to remain latent in B-lymphocytes
 It is transmitted by saliva
 It causes sore throat, mild fever, enlarged spleen, high infected B-lymphocytes (Downey
cells)
4. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
  It is the end stage of the disease and appearance of opportunistic infections such as
Candidas low T. lymphocytes and a wasting syndrome
 It is the high number of opportunistic microbial infections, destruction of T. lumphocytes
and also known as HIV-very fragile
 It is the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase synthesized DNA using RNA of HIV that’s
why a retrovirus
 It is transmitted from person to person via blood or semen
 It causes swollen of lymph nodes, mild prolonged fever, diarrhea and malaise

VIRUS

1. Chingkungunya fever
 It causes fever, and join pain

PROTOZOAN DISORDERS:

1. Chaga’s disease
 It is also known as American trypanosomiasis and is a potentially life-threatening disease
caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. It is most commonly transmitted by biting
insects knows as “kissing bugs” that are infected with the parasite.
 It damage the heart muscles or peristaltic movement of gl tract
 Its main reservoir are rodents and oppossums
 It is transmitted by the reduuiid bug (kissing bug) feces into the bite wound
 The two current treatments are benznidazole and nifurtimox were both discovered half a
century ago
2. Toxoplasmosis
 It is an infection caused by single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii.
 Mild infection is acquired during pregnancy can be damaging to fetus
 Causes serious in AIDS such as brain damage and vision problems
 Symptoms of toxoplasmosis include fever, swollen, glands and muscle aches
 Its main reservoir is domestic cats
 People can be infected by accidental ingestion of occysts after cleaning a cat’s litter box
when the cat has shed Toplasma in its feces
3. Malaria
 It is a mosquito-borne parasitic infection which is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitos it
causes by Plasmodium spp. which is neither a virus nor bacteria. It is a single cell parasite
which multiplies in the RBC of human and mosquito intestine
 It causes fever and chills at interval (2-3 days), vomiting and headache
 Its main reservoir are humans
 The preferred antimalarial for interim oral treatment is artemether-lumefantrine
(Coartem) because of its fast onset of action
 Its transmission is through ingestion like being infected through a previous blood meal
taken from an infected person
4. Leishmaniasis
 It is a parasitic disease that is found in parts of the tropics, subtropics, and southern
Europe. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease (NTD). Leishmaniasis is caused by
infection with Leshmania parasites which are spread by the bite of phlebotomine sand
flies
 It causes L. donovani (systemic disease), L. tropica (skin sores), and L. libraziliensis
(damage to mucous membranes)
 Its main reservoir are small animals
 It is transmitted by the bite of infected female phlebotomine sanflies
  Some people have a silent infection, without any symptoms or signs. People who develop
clinical evidence of infection usually have fever, weight loss, enlargement (swelling) of
the spleen and liver, and abnormal blood tests
5. Babesiosis
 Is an illness caused by a parasite of the Babesia spp. which infects and destroys the RBC
 It causes fever and chills at interval
 Its main reservoir is rodents
 It is transmitted mainly by ticks such as the lxodes scapularis ticks which are commonly
called blacklegged ticks or deer ticks
6. Shistosomiasis
 It is also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms. It is also caused by
blood flukes (trematode worms) of the genus Schistosoma. 
 It is the inflammation and tissue damage at site granulomas (liver, lungs bladder)
 Its main reservoir are humans and infection occurs when your skin comes in contact with
contaminated freshwater in which certain types of snails that carry schistosomes are
living
 BACTEREMIA

 It is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It can occur spontaneously, during

certain tissue infections, with use of indwelling genitourinary or IV catheters, or after
dental, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, wound-care, or other procedures. Bacteremia may
cause metastatic infections, including endocarditis, especially in patients with valvular
heart abnormalities.
 Asymptomatic bacteremia can occur in normal daily activities such as conducting oral
hygiene and after minor medical procedures. In a healthy person, these clinically benign
infections are transient and cause no further sequelae. However, when immune response
mechanisms fail or become overwhelmed, bacteremia becomes a bloodstream infection
that can evolve into many clinical spectrums and is differentiated as septicemia.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Most episodes of occult bacteremia spontaneously resolve, particularly those caused
by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Salmonella, and serious sequelae are increasingly
uncommon.
 A variety of different bacteria can cause bacteremia. Some of these bacteria can go on to
establish an infection in the bloodstream.
Examples of such bacteria include:
-Staphylococcus aureus, including MRSA
-Escherichia coli (E. coli)
-Pneumococcal bacteria
-Group A Streptococcus
-Salmonella species
-Pseudomonas aeruginosa
 Some common ways in which bacteremia occurs include:
-through a dental procedure such as a routine teeth cleaning or through a tooth extraction
-from a surgery or procedure
-an infection spreading from another part of the body into the bloodstream
-via medical devices, particularly in-dwelling catheters and breathing tubes
-through severe injuries or burns

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

At first, symptoms may seem like any local infection or illness. But then they get worse.
Symptoms can include:
 Fever and chills
 Loss of appetite
 Upset stomach (nausea) or vomiting
 Trouble breathing or fast breathing
 Fast heart rate
 Feeling lightheaded or faint
  Skin rashes or blotches
 Confusion, severe sleepiness, or loss of consciousness

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
1. DIAGNOSIS
o Bacteremia can be diagnosed using a blood culture. To do this, a sample of blood
will be taken from a vein in your arm. It will then be sent to a lab to be tested for
the presence of bacteria.
o Depending on the presumed cause of your infection, your doctor may want to
perform additional tests. Some examples include:
-sputum culture if you appear to have a respiratory infection or are using a
breathing tube
-wound culture if you’ve been injured, burned, or has recently undergone surgery
-taking samples from in-dwelling catheters or other devices
o Imaging tests such as an X-ray, CT scan, or ultrasound may also be used. These
can be used to identify potential sites of infection in the body.
2. TREATMENT
o The treatment for a bloodstream infection requires prompt use of antibiotics. This
can help to prevent complications like sepsis from occurring. You’ll be
hospitalized during treatment.
o When bacteria are confirmed in your blood, you’ll likely be started on broad-
spectrum antibiotics, typically via IV. This is an antibiotic regimen that should be
effective against many different types of bacteria.
o During this time, the type of bacteria causing your infection can be identified and
antibiotic sensitivity testing can be completed.
o With these results, your doctor may adjust your antibiotics to be more specific to
what’s causing your infection.
o The length of treatment can depend on the cause and severity of the infection.
You may need to be on antibiotics for 1 to 2 weeks. IV fluids and other
medications may also be given during treatment to help stabilize your condition.
 SEPTICEMIA

 Septicemia is a disease in which the patient experience chills, fever and prostration
(extreme exhaustion) and has bacteria and or their toxins in their bloodstream.
 Is a serious medical condition characterized by inflammation of the whole body.
 It is caused by bacteria which enter the bloodstream , triggering by immune response
which results in inflammation and a slow shutdown of the body’s system for handling
infection. This medical condition can be deadly, especially if the patient is allowed to
progress into the stage of shock and onset can be alarmingly.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
1. Infectious agent: Septicemia are typically bacteria, but in rare cases, viruses, fungi, or
other microorganisms can also cause the condition. The most common bacteria that cause
septicemia are: Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus pneumoniae Escherichia coli (E.
coli) Klebsiella pneumoniae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Enterococcus species Neisseria
meningitidis Salmonella species.
2. Portal of entry: The portal of entry for septicemia can also vary depending on the
underlying cause of the infection.In many cases, septicemia occurs as a result of an
infection that originated in another part of the body, such as the lungs, urinary tract, or
skin. The bacteria causing the original infection can then enter the bloodstream through a
break in the skin or mucous membranes, such as a wound, cut, or catheter. In other cases,
septicemia can occur as a result of an infection acquired during medical procedures, such
as surgery or the use of invasive devices like ventilators, IV catheters, or urinary
catheters. In these cases, the portal of entry may be the site of the medical procedure or
device insertion.the portal of entry for septicemia is typically through a break in the skin
or mucous membranes, which allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream and cause an
infection. It is important to take steps to prevent infections and treat them promptly to
reduce the risk of developing septicemia.
3. Reservoir: Intracellular replication of Streptococcus pneumoniae inside splenic
macrophages serves as a reservoir for septicaemia.
4. Portal of exit: The portal of exit for septicemia can vary depending on the source of the
infection. In many cases, septicemia occurs as a complication of an infection that
originated in another part of the body, such as the lungs, urinary tract, or skin. In these
cases, the portal of exit may be the site of the original infection. For example, if the
infection started in the lungs, the portal of exit may be through coughing and sneezing,
which can release bacteria into the air.
5. Mode of transmission: Septicemia isn’t contagious and can’t be transmitted from person
to person, including between children, after death or through sexual contact. However,
sepsis does spread throughout the body via the bloodstream.
6. Susceptible host: Sepsis susceptibility may result from maturational, genetic, or acquired
alterations of the immune system. The incidence of sepsis is highest in newborns and an
 increasing body of studies characterize distinct patterns of immune responses in this age
group compared to children and adults.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 High temperature (fever) or low body temperature. A change in mental state – like
confusion or disorientation. Slurred speech. Cold, clammy and pale or mottled skin.
 Early septicemia symptoms are:
-High fever
-Chills
-Weakness
-Sweating
-Drop in blood pressure
 Symptoms of sepsis develop after an infection such as a urinary tract infection, a skin
infection, or pneumonia. It can also occur after surgery or after hospitalization for another
illness. If you experience any of the symptoms of sepsis, go to the hospital.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 There isn’t a single treatment for sepsis. Treatment varies and depends on the cause of the
infection that led to sepsis, as well as the severity of symptoms. Because mild sepsis can
rapidly progress to severe sepsis and then septic shock, doctors must work quickly to
reduce inflammation.
 Common treatments for sepsis include:
1. Antibiotics
- Although various organisms can cause an infection that turns into sepsis, such as
bacteria, viruses, or fungi, the main treatment for sepsis is antibiotics due to the
fact that most cases are caused by a bacterial infection.
2. Antiviral/Antifungal Medication
-As mentioned, after you start treatment with a broad-spectrum antibiotic, your
doctor will run additional tests to diagnose or rule out a bacterial infectionn.
3. Intravenous (IV) Fluids
-Even though sepsis is caused by an infection, medications alone may not be
enough to maintain a healthy blood pressure.
4. Oxygen Therapy
- Because the body demands more oxygen in this state, some patients with sepsis
and septic shock are placed on mechanical ventilators to give their lungs and body
some rest and the ability to heal, warns Brown.
5. Surgery
- Once a doctor determines the source of an infection, surgery may be necessary to
remove it. Situations that may require surgery include the discovery of an abscess
somewhere in the body. This is a pocket of pus usually caused by a bacterial
infection.
 ENDOCARDITIS

 Endocarditis is a life-threatening inflammation of the inner lining of the heart's chambers

and valves. This lining is called the endocardium. Endocarditis is usually caused by an
infection. Bacteria, fungi or other germs get into the bloodstream and attach to damaged
areas in the heart
 Endocarditis occurs when bacteria or other germs enter the bloodstream and travel to the
heart. The germs then stick to damaged heart valves or damaged heart tissue.
Endocarditis is a life-threatening inflammation of the inner lining of the heart's chambers
and valves. This lining is called the endocardium.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Acute bacterial endocarditis is usually caused by staphylococcus aureus bacteria and
occasionally by the bacterial strains brucella and listeria. This form of infective
endocarditis, compared to other forms, is more likely to affect normal heart valves.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 People with bacterial or fungal endocarditis—known collectively as infective
endocarditis—typically have flu-like symptoms, including fever, sweats, chills, and
fatigue. Other symptoms may also develop, such as tiny red spots on the skin, blood
under the fingernails, or blood in the urine.
 A high temperature chills, night sweets, head aches shortness of breath, caught
tiredness fatigue muscle and joint pain.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 Repair of the damaged heart valve
 Replacement of the damaged heart valves with prosthetic ones during aortic valve
replacement surgery.
 Draining of any abscesses and repair of any fistulas that may have developed in the
heart muscle.
 MYOCARDITIS

 Myocarditis is inflammation of your heart muscle (myocardium). This can weaken your
heart muscle, making it more difficult for your heart to pump. This rare condition can
affect people quickly or slowly over time.
 Myocarditis is an inflammation of the heart tissue, specifically the myocardium, the
middle layer of the heart wall. Myocarditis affects your heart's electrical system and
muscle cells, leading to irregular heart rhythms and problems with your heart's pumping
function.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Bacteria notorious for causing myocarditis include legionella, staphylococci, Salmonella,
Shigella, streptococci, Clostridium, tuberculosis, etc. Parasites: Trichinosis,
schistosomiasis. Protozoa: Trypanosoma cruzi (causative agent of Chagas disease) and
Toxoplasmosis gondii.

B. SIGNS AND SYMTOMS

 Chest pain or discomfort, or a feeling of tightness in the chest. Shortness of breath, either
at rest or when active, or in certain positions, such as lying down and unusual tiredness.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 For a weak heart, medications can help remove extra fluid from the body and reduce the
strain on the heart. Some types of medications that may be given are diuretics, beta
blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor
blockers (ARBs). Medications to treat chronic conditions.
 PERICARDITIS

 Is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the pericardium, which is the

thin sac-like membrane that surrounds the heart. The pericardium has two layers, and
when they become inflamed, they can rub against each other, causing chest pain.
Pericarditis can be acute or chronic and can range from mild to life-threatening.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Pericarditis is an inflammation of the pericardium, which is a thin sac-like membrane that
surrounds the heart. It can be caused by various factors, including infections, autoimmune
disorders, and cancer. In this response, we will focus on the chain of infection, portal of
entry and exit of transmission of pericarditis caused by infectious agents.

Chain of Infection
1. Infectious Agent: The infectious agents that can cause pericarditis include bacteria
(such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus), viruses (such as
Coxsackievirus and adenovirus), fungi (such as Candida and Aspergillus), and
parasites (such as Toxoplasma gondii).
2. Reservoir: The reservoir for these infectious agents can be humans or animals. For
example, Streptococcus pneumoniae is commonly found in the upper respiratory tract
of healthy individuals, while Toxoplasma gondii can be found in cat feces.
3. Portal of Exit: The portal of exit for these infectious agents can be through
respiratory secretions (such as coughing or sneezing), feces, blood, or other bodily
fluids.
4. Mode of Transmission: The mode of transmission for these infectious agents can be
through direct contact (such as touching an infected person or animal), indirect
contact (such as touching contaminated surfaces), droplet transmission (such as
inhaling respiratory droplets from an infected person), airborne transmission (such as
inhaling airborne particles from an infected person), or vector-borne transmission
(such as through the bite of an infected mosquito).
5. Portal of Entry: The portal of entry for these infectious agents can be through the
respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, skin, or mucous membranes.
6. Susceptible Host: The susceptible host for pericarditis caused by infectious agents
can be individuals with weakened immune systems, underlying medical conditions, or
those who have had recent surgery or invasive procedures.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Pericarditis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the pericardium, which is the
sac-like membrane that surrounds the heart. The inflammation can cause chest pain and
 other symptoms that can be mistaken for a heart attack. Here are some of the signs and
symptoms of pericarditis:

1. Chest pain: The most common symptom of pericarditis is chest pain, which can be
sharp or dull and is usually felt behind the breastbone or in the left side of the chest. The
pain may worsen when lying down, taking deep breaths, coughing, or swallowing.
2. Shortness of breath: Pericarditis can cause fluid to build up in the space between the
pericardium and the heart, which can make it difficult to breathe.
3. Fatigue: Pericarditis can cause fatigue or weakness due to decreased blood flow to the
heart.
4. Fever: In some cases, pericarditis can cause a fever.
5. Dry cough: A dry cough may occur due to irritation of the lining around the lungs.
6. Swelling: Swelling in the legs or abdomen may occur if fluid builds up in these areas.
7. Rapid heartbeat: Pericarditis can cause a rapid or irregular heartbeat.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION:
 Pericarditis is the inflammation of the pericardium, a thin sac-like membrane that
surrounds the heart. It can be caused by various factors such as viral infections, bacterial
infections, autoimmune diseases, cancer, and trauma. The most common symptom of
pericarditis is chest pain, which can range from mild to severe and may worsen when
lying down or taking deep breaths. Other symptoms include fever, fatigue, cough, and
shortness of breath. The medical intervention of pericarditis depends on the underlying
cause and severity of the condition. In most cases, treatment aims to relieve symptoms
and prevent complications. The following are some of the medical interventions for
pericarditis:

1. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): These are the first-line treatment

for pericarditis. NSAIDs such as ibuprofen and aspirin can help reduce inflammation and
relieve pain. However, they should be used with caution in patients with a history of
gastrointestinal bleeding or kidney disease.

2. Colchicine: This medication is often used in combination with NSAIDs to reduce the
risk of recurrence of pericarditis. Colchicine works by inhibiting inflammation and
preventing the formation of scar tissue in the pericardium.

3. Corticosteroids: These medications are reserved for patients who do not respond to
NSAIDs or colchicine or have a contraindication to these drugs. Corticosteroids such as
prednisone can help reduce inflammation but may have significant side effects such as
weight gain, mood changes, and increased risk of infection.

4. Pericardiocentesis: This procedure involves removing excess fluid from the

pericardial sac using a needle inserted through the chest wall. Pericardiocentesis is
usually reserved for patients with large pericardial effusions or cardiac tamponade, a life-
threatening condition in which the fluid compresses the heart and impairs its function.

5. Surgery: In rare cases, surgery may be necessary to remove the pericardium

(pericardiectomy) if the inflammation is chronic or recurrent and causes significant
symptoms or complications. In conclusion, the medical intervention of pericarditis
depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Treatment aims to relieve
symptoms and prevent complications, and may include NSAIDs, colchicine,
corticosteroids, pericardiocentesis, or surgery.
 LYMPHADENITIS

 Is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the lymph nodes. The lymph

nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that are part of the lymphatic system, which
helps to fight infection and disease within the body. When the lymph nodes become
inflamed, it can be a sign that the body is fighting an infection or disease.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Lymphadenitis is an inflammation of the lymph nodes, which are part of the immune
system and help to fight off infections. It can be caused by a variety of infectious agents,
including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Understanding the chain of infection, portal of
entry and exit transmission of lymphadenitis is important in preventing its spread.

B. SIGN AND SYMPTOMS

 Lymphadenitis is a medical condition that occurs when the lymph nodes become
inflamed. The inflammation can be caused by a bacterial or viral infection, cancer, or an
autoimmune disease. The signs and symptoms of lymphadenitis may vary depending on
the underlying cause, but some common ones include:

1.Redness and warmth: In some cases, the skin over the affected lymph nodes may
become red and warm to the touch.
2.Pain: Lymphadenitis can cause pain in the affected area, especially when you touch or
move the affected lymph nodes.
3.Fever: A fever is a common symptom of lymphadenitis, particularly if it is caused by a
bacterial infection.
4.Fatigue: You may feel tired or weak if you have lymphadenitis, especially if your body
is fighting off an infection.
5.Night sweats: Some people with lymphadenitis may experience night sweats, which are
episodes of sweating that occur during sleep.
6.Swollen lymph nodes: One of the most noticeable symptoms of lymphadenitis is the
swelling of the lymph nodes. The swollen nodes may be tender to the touch, and they
may feel like small, soft lumps under the skin.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 Lymphadenitis is a medical condition characterized by the inflammation of the
lymphnodes, which are small, bean-shaped structures that play a crucial role in the
immune system. This condition can be caused by various factors, including bacterial or
viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.
 The treatment of lymphadenitis depends on its underlying cause. In cases where the
condition is caused by a bacterial infection, antibiotics are often prescribed to eliminate
 the bacteria and reduce inflammation. In some cases, surgical intervention may be
necessary to drain abscesses or remove infected tissue.
 In addition to medical interventions, there are several self-care measures that can help
alleviate the symptoms of lymphadenitis. These include resting and avoiding strenuous
activities, applying warm compresses to the affected area, and taking over-the-counter
pain relievers such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen.
 It is important to note that lymphadenitis can sometimes be a symptom of a more serious
underlying condition, such as cancer. Therefore, it is essential to seek medical attention if
you experience persistent swelling or inflammation of the lymph nodes.
 Overall, the treatment of lymphadenitis requires a thorough understanding of its
underlying cause and may involve a combination of medical interventions and self-care
measures
 LYMPHADENOPATHY

 It refers to the swelling of lymph nodes which can be secondary to bacterial, viral, or
fungal infections, autoimmune disease, and malignancy. The lymph glands are part of the
immune system and help fight infections and other disease. They are enlarged when the
body is fighting infection or other diseases.
 Lymphadenopathy reflects disease involving the reticuloendothelial system, secondary to
an increase in normal lymphocytes and macrophages (in response to an antigen). Most
lymphadenopathy in children is due to benign, self-limited disease such as a viral
infection. Other, less common etiologies responsible for adenopathy include nodal
accumulation of inflammatory cells in response to an infection in the node
(lymphadenitis), neoplastic lymphocytes or macrophages (lymphoma), or metabolite-
laden macrophages in storage diseases (Gaucher disease).

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 There are several potential causes of lymphadenopathy, ranging from infectious,
autoimmune, malignant, and lymphoproliferative. There is a wide range of infectious
etiologies, including bacterial, fungal, viral, mycobacterial, spirochetal, and protozoal
organisms.
 Infectious diseases that cause generalized lymphadenopathy include HIV disease,
toxoplasmosis, secondary syphilis, and tuberculosis.
 Other causes include autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus), cancer,
and sarcoidosis.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 A painful, warm, or red lump under your skin
 More tired than usual
 Skin rash
 Unexplained weight loss
 Enlarged spleen (organ that filters blood)
 Fever or night sweats

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 Blood tests: It may show if you have an infection or other medical condition.
 An x-ray, ultrasound, CT, or MRI of your lymph nodes may be taken. You may be
given contrast liquid to help the lymph nodes show up better in the pictures. Tell the
healthcare provider if you have ever had an allergic reaction to contrast liquid. Do not
enter the MRI room with anything metal. Metal can cause serious injury. Tell the
healthcare provider if you have any metal in or on your body.
 A lymph node biopsy: It is a procedure used to remove a sample of tissue to be tested.
Healthcare providers may remove lymph cells through a needle or remove one or more
lymph nodes during surgery.
 LYMPHANGITIS

 It is the inflammation of lymphatic channels due to infecious or noninfectious causes.

Potential pathogens include bacteria, mycobacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
Lymphangitis most often results from an acute streptococcal infection of the skin. Less
often, it is caused by a staphylococcal infection. The infection causes the lymph vessels
to become inflamed. Lymphangitis may be a sign that a skin infection is getting worse.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

A. Throbbing pain is usually present at the site of bacterial invasion from a wound,
cellulitis, or abscess.
B. Malaise, anorexia, sweating, chills, and fever of 38–40°C develop quickly, often
with a rapid pulse.
C. Fever and chills.
D. Enlarged and tender lymph nodes (glands) -- usually in the elbow, armpit, or
groin.
E. General ill feeling (malaise)
F. Headache.
G. Loss of appetite.
H. Muscle aches. Red streaks from the infected area to the armpit or groin (may be
faint or obvious)
I. Throbbing pain along the affected area.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
1. Antibiotics by mouth or IV (through a vein) to treat any infection. Pain medicine to
control pain.
2. Anti-inflammatory medicines to reduce inflammation and swelling.
 AIDS/HIV INFECTION

 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic, potentially life-threatening

condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By damaging your
immune system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight infection and disease.
 AIDS is the late stage of HIV infection that occurs when the body’s immune system is
badly damaged because of the virus.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus is the causative agent for Acquired
Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). 

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

The symptoms of HIV vary depending on the stage of infection.
The disease spreads more easily in the first few months after a person is infected, but many
are unaware of their status until the later stages. In the first few weeks after being infected
people may not experience symptoms. Others may have an influenza-like illness including:
 fever
 headache
 rash
 sore throat

The infection progressively weakens the immune system. This can cause other signs and
symptoms:
 swollen lymph nodes
 weight loss
 fever
 diarrhoea
 cough

Without treatment, people with HIV infection can also develop severe illnesses:
 tuberculosis (TB)
 cryptococcal meningitis
 severe bacterial infections
 cancers such as lymphomas and Kaposi's sarcoma

HIV causes other infections to get worse, such as hepatitis C, hepatitis B and mpox

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 There is no cure for HIV infection. It is treated with antiretroviral drugs, which stop the
virus from replicating in the body.
 Current antiretroviral therapy (ART) does not cure HIV infection but allows a person’s
immune system to get stronger. This helps them to fight other infections.
 Currently, ART must be taken every day for the rest of a person’s life.
 ART lowers the amount of the virus in a person’s body. This stops symptoms and allows
people to live a full and healthy life. People living with HIV who are taking ART and
who have no evidence of virus in the blood will not spread the virus to their sexual
partners.
 Pregnant women with HIV should have access to and take ART as soon as possible. This
protects the health of the mother and will help prevent HIV from passing to the fetus
before birth, or to the baby through breast milk.
 Antiretroviral drugs given to people without HIV can prevent the disease.
 When given before possible exposures to HIV it is called pre-exposure prophylaxis
(PrEP) and when given after an exposure it is called post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). 
People can use PrEP or PEP when the risk of contracting HIV is high; people should seek
advice from a clinician when thinking about using PrEP or PEP.
 TETANUS (LOCKJAW)

 Tetanus is an acute neuromuscular disease induced by a bacterial exotoxin called

tetanospasmin, with painful muscular contractions, primarily of the masseter the muscle
that closes the jaw) and neck muscles, spasms, and rigid paralysis.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Infectious agent Tetanus is an infection commonly known as “lockjaw” caused by
Clostridium tetani bacterium . When the bacteria invade the body, they produce a poison
(toxin) that causes painful muscle contractions. It often causes a person’s neck and jaw
muscles to lock, making it hard to open the mouth or swallow.

Chain of Infection
A. Reservoir: Tetanus is universally distributed in cultivated soil, and in the gut of
humans and animals. Spores can usually be found wherever there is
contamination with soil. Reservoirs and Mode of Transmission. Reservoirs
include soil contaminated with human, horse, or other animal feces (C. tetani is a
member of the Indigenous intestinal flora of humans and animals.) Spores of C.
tetani are introduced into a puncture wound, bum, or needlestick by
contamination with soil, dust, or feces. Under anaerobic conditions in the wound,
spores germinate into vegetative C. teton cells which produce the exotoxin in
vivo. Person- to-person transmission does not occur.Tetanus is transmitted
indirectly. However, spores may be introduced through contaminated puncture
wounds, lacerations or burns, or contaminated injected ‘street drugs’. Tetanus can
result from minor wounds that are considered too trivial for medical consultation.
B. Portal of Entry: Tetanus enters the body by puncture wound
C. Susceptable host: Any one with open wound, surgeries in rere cases and unsterile
birth. Host are human and animals

B. SIGN AND SYMPTOMS

 The average time from infection to appearance of signs and symptoms (incubation
period) is 10 days. The incubation period can range from 3 to 21 days.
 The most common type of tetanus is called generalized tetanus. Signs and symptoms
begin gradually and then progressively worsen over two weeks. They usually start at
the jaw and progress downward on the body.
 Signs and symptoms of generalized tetanus include:
 Painful muscle spasms and stiff, immovable muscles (muscle rigidity) in your
jaw
 Tension of muscles around your lips, sometimes producing a persistent grin
 Painful spasms and rigidity in your neck muscles
 Difficulty swallowing
 Rigid abdominal muscles
 Progression of tetanus results in repeated painful, seizure-like spasms that last
for several minutes (generalized spasms). Usually, the neck and back arch, the
 legs become rigid, the arms are drawn up to the body, and the fists are
clenched. Muscle rigidity in the neck and abdomen may cause breathing
difficulties.
 These severe spasms may be triggered by minor events that stimulate the senses — a
loud sound, a physical touch, a draft or light. As the disease progresses, other signs
and symptoms may include:
o High blood pressure
o Low blood pressure
o Rapid heart rate
o Fever Extreme sweating

C.MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 There’s no cure for tetanus. A tetanus infection requires emergency and long-term
supportive care while the disease runs its course. Treatment consists of wound care,
medications to ease symptoms and supportive care, usually in an intensive care unit.
 The disease progresses for about two weeks, and recovery can last about a month.
 Care for your wound requires cleaning to remove dirt, debris or foreign objects that
may be harboring bacteria. Your care team will also clear the wound of any dead
tissue that could provide an environment in which bacteria can grow.
 Antitoxin therapy is used to target toxins that have not yet attacked nerve tissues. This
treatment, called passive immunization, is a human antibody to the toxin.
 Sedatives that slow the function of the nervous system can help control muscle
spasms.
 Vaccination with one of the standard tetanus vaccinations helps your immune system
fight the toxins.
 Antibiotics, given either orally or by injection, may help fight tetanus bacteria.
 Other drugs. Other medications might be used to regulate involuntary muscle activity,
such as your heartbeat and breathing. Morphine might be used for this purpose as
well as for sedation.
 LEPTOSPIROSIS

 Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that affects humans and animals. It is caused by

bacteria of the genus Leptospira. In humans, it can cause a wide range of symptoms,
some of which may be mistaken for other diseases. Some infected persons, however, may
have no symptoms at all. DISEASE A bacterial disease that affects humans and animals.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Leptospira spp., the causative agents of leptospirosis, is obligate aerobic, gram-negative
spirochete bacteria. Leptospirosis is caused by Leptospira interrogans, a corkscrew-
shaped bacterium (spirochete). Background: Leptospirosis is a potentially serious
bacterial illness that is most common in the tropics where the organism survives well and
people have regular contact with fresh water and animals.

B. SIGNS AND SYMTOMS

 Leptospirosis can lead to kidney damage, meningitis (inflammation of the membrane
around the brain and spinal cord), liver failure, respiratory distress, and even death.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 Leptospirosis is treated with antibiotics, such as doxycycline or penicillin, which should
be given early in the course of the disease. Intravenous antibiotics may be required for
persons with more severe symptoms. Persons with symptoms suggestive of leptospirosis
should contact a health care provider.
 SCHISTOSOMIASIS/ SNAIL FEVER

 It is also known as bilharzia, is a parasitic infection caused by several species of

flatworms belonging to the genus Schistosoma. It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical
regions, particularly in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and
adequate sanitation facilities. The parasite has a complex life cycle that involves
freshwater snails as intermediate hosts and humans or other mammals as definitive hosts.
The infection occurs when cercariae (larval stage) released by infected snails penetrate
the skin of people who come into contact with contaminated water sources, such as
rivers, lakes, or irrigation canals. The cercariae then migrate through the bloodstream to
reach the veins surrounding the bladder or intestines, where they mature into adult worms
that mate and produce eggs. The eggs are either excreted in the urine or feces of infected
individuals, contaminating the environment and perpetuating the transmission cycle.
Chronic infections can lead to various complications, including anemia, liver fibrosis,
bladder cancer, and cognitive impairment.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by several species of flatworms belonging to
the genus Schistosoma. The chain of infection for Schistosomiasis involves several
stages, which include the transmission of the parasite from an infected host to a
susceptible host, the entry of the parasite into the new host, and its exit from the host.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 In the early stages, infected individuals may experience itching and a rash at the site
where the parasite entered the body (usually the skin). This is known as swimmer’s itch
or cercarial dermatitis. As the parasite migrates through the body and reaches the
bloodstream, symptoms may include fever, chills, cough, and muscle aches.
 As schistosomiasis becomes chronic, it can lead to a range of more serious symptoms
and complications. These can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood in the urine or
stool, liver enlargement, and damage to various organs such as the liver, spleen, and
bladder. Chronic infection can also lead to anemia, malnutrition, and stunted growth in
children.

C.MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 There are several medical interventions available for treating Schistosomiasis. The choice
of treatment depends on the species of Schistosoma causing the infection, the severity of
the disease, and the individual’s age and health status.
a. Praziquantel- is a broad-spectrum anthelmintic drug that is effective against all
species of Schistosoma. It works by paralyzing the worms’ muscles, causing them to
detach from the blood vessels and be eliminated from the body. Praziquantel is safe and
well-tolerated, with few side effects. It can be administered orally as a single dose or in
multiple doses over several days.
b. Oxamniquine- is effective against Schistosoma mansoni, but not other species of
Schistosoma. It works by damaging the worms’ DNA, leading to their death and
elimination from the body. Oxamniquine is less commonly used than praziquantel
because it has more side effects and requires a longer treatment course.
c. In addition to drug therapy, supportive care may be necessary to manage the symptoms
of Schistosomiasis. This may include treatment for anemia, fluid and electrolyte
imbalances, and liver damage. Prevention of Schistosomiasis is also important, which
includes avoiding contact with contaminated water sources, wearing protective clothing,
and practicing good hygiene.
 DENGUE HAEMORRHAGIC FEVER

 Severe dengue haemorrhaguc fever (previously dengue haemorrhagic fever and dengue
shock syndrome) is characterised by severe plasma leakage, severe bleeding, and severe
organ involvement manifested as elevated liver enzymes, impaired sensorium, and
myocarditis.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Dengue is caused by a virus of the Flaviviridae family, Flavivirus genus, which includes
viruses such as yellow fever virus, West Nile virus (WNV), and tick-borne encephalitis
(TBE) virus.
 Viral hemorrhagic fevers are spread by contact with infected animals or insects. The
viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fevers live in a variety of animal and insect hosts.
Most commonly the hosts include mosquitoes, ticks, rodents or bats

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Commonly reported clinical symptoms include
o sudden onset of high fever,
o severe headache and retro-orbital pain
o myalgia
o arthralgia
o maculopapular rash
o minor haemorrhage
o pain behind the eyes
o severe joint and muscle pain
o fatigue
o nausea
o vomiting
o skin rash, which appears two to five days after the onset of fever
o mild bleeding (such a nose bleed, bleeding gums, or easy bruising)

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 There is no specific medicine to treat dengue infection. If you think you may have dengue
fever, you should use pain relievers with acetaminophen and avoid medicines
with aspirin, which could worsen bleeding. You should also rest, drink plenty of fluids,
and see your doctor. If you start to feel worse in the first 24 hours after your fever goes
down, you should get to a hospital immediately to be checked for complications.
 To protect yourself:
 Use mosquito repellents, even indoors
 When outdoors, wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants tucked into socks
 When indoors, use air conditioning if available
  Make sure window and door screens are secure and free of holes. If sleeping areas
are not screened or air conditioned, use mosquito nets
 If you have symptoms of dengue, speak to your doctor.

DENGUE SHOCK SYNDROME

 Severe dengue is a serious illness that can cause fluid to leak from your blood vessels into
your body, leading to symptoms like difficulty breathing, low blood pressure, and
abdominal pain. It can also cause bleeding, liver damage, confusion, and heart problems.
This illness used to be called dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome.

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Dengue, an acute febrile illness, is caused by infection with any of 4 related positive-
sense, single-stranded RNA viruses of the genus Flavivirus, dengue viruses 1, 2, 3, or 4.
 Severe dengue happens when your blood vessels become damaged and leaky. And the
number of clot-forming cells (platelets) in your bloodstream drops

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

The most common dengue shock syndrome symptoms include:
 Shock
 Bleeding
 Abdominal Pain
 Rapid Breathing
 Altered mental status

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
 PRECAUTIONS
 Prevent mosquito bites
 Seek medical attention
 Follow your treatment plan
 Stay well-hydrated
 TREATMENT
 Fluids
 Medication
 Blood Transfusion
 Oxygen therapy
 Closed monitoring
 FILARIASIS

 It is commonly known as elephantiasis, is a painful and profoundly disfiguring

disease. It is caused by infection with parasites classified as nematodes
(roundworms) of the family Filariodidea that are transmitted through the bites of
infected mosquitos. Filariasis is an infectious disease that spreads through mosquito
bites. Some people have no symptoms. Others may have inflammation, swelling or
fever. Filariasis can lead to lymphedema (fluid retention) or hydrocele (swelling in
the scrotum)

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 The causative agents of lymphatic filariasis (LF) include the mosquito-borne filarial
nematodes Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, B. timori   An estimated 90% of LF
cases are caused by W. bancrofti (Bancroftian filariasis).
 
B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
 Signs may include gross enlargement and swelling of an area of the body because of
the accumulation of fluid. The arms and legs are the areas most often affected. An
entire arm or leg may swell to several times its normal size resembling the thick,
round appearance of an elephant's leg. Some people with filariasis have no
symptoms. Other affected individuals may have episodes of acute inflammation of
lymphatic vessels (lymphangitis) along with high temperatures, shaking chills, body
aches, and swollen lymph nodes.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
The main goal of treatment of an infected person is to kill the adult worm.
-Diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC), which is both microfilaricidal and active against
the adult worm, is the drug of choice for lymphatic filariasis. The late phase of chronic
disease is not affected by chemotherapy. Ivermectin is effective against the microfilariae
of W. bancrofti, but has no effect on the adult parasite.
 MALARIA

 Malaria is a life-threatening disease primarily found in tropical countries. It is both

preventable and curable. However, without prompt diagnosis and effective treatment, a
case of uncomplicated malaria can progress to a severe form of the disease, which is
often fatal without treatment.
 Malaria is not contagious and cannot spread from one person to another; the disease is
transmitted through the bites of female Anopheles mosquitoes.  Five species of parasites
can cause malaria in humans and 2 of these species – Plasmodium
falciparum and Plasmodium vivax – pose the greatest threat. There are over 400 different
species of Anopheles mosquitoes and around 40, known as vector species, can transmit
the disease.
 This risk of infection is higher in some areas than others depending on multiple factors,
including the type of local mosquitoes. It may also vary according to the season, the risk
being highest during the rainy season in tropical countries. 

A. CAUSATIVE AGENT
 Malaria is an acute febrile illness caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are spread to
people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.  Infected mosquitoes
carry the Plasmodium parasite. When this mosquito bites you, the parasite is released into
your bloodstream.

B. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Signs and symptoms of malaria are similar to flu symptoms. They include:
 Fever and sweating.
 Chills that shake your whole body
 Headache and muscle aches
 Fatigue
 Chest pain breathing problems and cough
 Diarrhea, nausea, and vomitting
 As malaria gets worse, it can cause anemia and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and
whites of the eyes).
 The most severe form of malaria, which may progress to a coma, is known as cerebral
malaria. This type represents about 15% of deaths in children and nearly 20% of adult
deaths.

C. MEDICAL INTERVENTION
Some parasites are resistant to malaria drugs. Some drugs are given in combination with
other drugs. The type of parasite will determine what type of medication you take and how
long you take it.
Antimalarial drugs include:
 Artemisinin drugs (artemether and artesunate). The best treatment for Plasmodium
falciparum malaria, if available, is artemisinin combination therapy
 Atovaquone (Mepron®)
 Chloroquine. There are parasites that are resistant to this medication.
 Doxycycline (Doxy-100®, Monodox®, Oracea®)
 Mefloquine
 Quinine
 Primaquine