The Internet, GIS and Public Participation in Transportation Planning

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The Internet, GIS and Public Participation in Transportation

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Article in Progress in Planning · July 2005

DOI: 10.1016/j.progress.2005.03.004
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Progress in Planning 64 (2005) 7–62
www.elsevier.com/locate/pplann
The internet, GIS and public participation

in transportation planning
Kathy X. Tanga, Nigel M. Watersb,*
a
Department of Geography, Nipissing University, North Bay, ON, Canada
b
Department of Geography, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1. Research background
Transportation plays an important role in a country. A metropolitan or city area’s

economic and social health depends to a large extent on the performance of its
transportation system. Not only does ‘the transportation system provide
opportunities for the mobility of people and goods, but also over the long term it
influences patterns of growth and the level of economic activity through the
accessibility it provides to land.’ (Banister, 2002). Urban transportation system
planning and analysis are an important activity for promoting the efficient movement
of people and merchandise in an area, and for community development as well
(Black, 2003).
Individuals who use an urban transportation system everyday determine, in part, just
how successful a transportation plan really is. In addition, a successful transportation
plan should be attractive to customers not already using the public transportation
system and should lure potential customers away from private transportation. This
is especially important when governments around the world are attempting to meet
the targets on greenhouse gas emissions set by the Kyoto Protocol (Woudsma, 2003).
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C1 403 220 5367; fax: C1 403 282 6561.
E-mail address: nwaters@ucalgary.ca (N.M. Waters).
0305-9006/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.progress.2005.03.004
8 K.X. Tang, N.M. Waters / Progress in Planning 64 (2005) 7–62
Public participation in the transportation planning process is essential for good

transportation planning (Dilley and Gallagher, 1999). However, a successful public
participation program related to community design and transportation planning requires
not only time and money but also the use of appropriate analytical tools and
techniques. Over the past several years, academic research has made an enormous
contribution to applied new techniques in the areas of public participation in urban and
transportation planning (Nyerges, 1995; Moore, 1997; Kikukawa et al., 1999; Meyer
and Miller, 2001). With the development of computer technology, Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) are becoming popular tools for transportation analysis
and planning.
A GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data,
and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and
display many forms of geographically referenced information (ESRI, 1995). That is,
GIS are ‘.computer-based information systems that attempt to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze and display geographically referenced and associated tabular
attribute data, for solving complex research, planning and management problems’
(Fischer and Nijkamp, 1993). GIS are ‘used extensively in various applications such
as land-use mapping, transportation mapping and analysis, and natural resource
assessment. GIS allow efficient and flexible storage, display, and exchange of spatial
data. Like all technologies, GIS are a part of the larger society and co-evolve with it’
(Sadagopan, 2000).
Recently in this journal, Malczewski (2004) has provided a detailed discussion of
the role of geographic information technology in the field of planning. His discussion
included an historical perspective on the evolution of GIS as planners have used it.
Treitz (2004) has edited a special edition of Progress in Planning on the use of
geographic information technologies, specifically remote sensing technologies, as they
can be applied to monitoring land cover and land use change at a variety of different
temporal and spatial scales. Land use and transportation have been inextricably linked
for many years (see Blunder, 1984, for an overview). Since transportation planners
have been required to involve the public more fully in the transportation planning
process (see below) and since they are now routinely using GIS as a fundamental
planning tool one might anticipate the use of Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) as a
new tool in the transportation planner’s arsenal. Indeed PPGIS has become
increasingly popular due to the publication of Craig et al.’s (2002) seminal text
and the rise of the annual PPGIS Conferences which began in 2002. These
conferences are sponsored by the Urban and Regional Information Systems
Association (URISA: http://www.urisa.org/). The Proceedings are available in CD
format from URISA along with an online bibliography maintained by Professor Sieber
from McGill University (http://www.urisa.org/ppgis.htm). The cutting edge of this
research would now appear to be web-based PPGIS (WPPGIS) approaches especially
in industrialized countries where Internet technology is commonly found in the
average person’s home. WPPGIS approaches that are targeted at transportation
planning should include access to remote sensing images, land cover maps and land
use change maps and thus the reviews of these topics provided in this journal by
K.X. Tang, N.M. Waters / Progress in Planning 64 (2005) 7–62 9
Malczewski and Treitz would seem to be important starting points for anyone seeking
to understand the design of web-based, PPGIS in transportation planning.
Of recent contributions to Progress in Planning perhaps the monograph coming
closest to our present interests is that by Ball (2002) who describes the initial steps in
developing a methodology for mapping regions for sustainability using PPGIS. Ball
asserts that the initial forays and experiments in the use of PPGIS methodologies are
likely to provide a way forward in achieving sustainable development as envisaged by
the United Nations Agenda 21 requirements for sustainable development in the future
(http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21toc.htm). Ball
notes that a major concern is attempting to overcome the public’s lack of familiarity
with GIS technology. This is usually addressed in PPGIS projects but it is perhaps of
even grater concern if the public is expected to interact with GIS technology over the
Internet as we are suggesting here. Ball’s concerns are both narrower and broader
than our issues here. They are broader because he is dealing with all the available
methodologies and technologies that can be used to promote public participation in
mapping and because he is concerned with all forms of planning that can be subject
to the criterion of sustainability. They are narrower because he is only dealing with
the issue of sustainability whereas transportation planning is normally conceived as
broader than having a sole concern with sustainability (see the definition of
sustainable transportation at the website of the Canadian Centre for Sustainable
Transportation (http://www.cstctd.org/CSThomepage.htm). Admittedly, some have
urged that all transportation projects should be subjected to a sustainability test.
For example, Barry Wellar (Wellar, 2004) has written to the current Ontario Minster
of Transportation, Mr Harinder Takhar, suggesting just that. By contrast, however,
Black and Nijkamp’s (2002) recent volume on Social Change and
Sustainable Transport has a much broader scope covering globalization, information
technology, and institutional considerations as well as the two primary themes from
the title.
Past research has addressed two broad questions on the inter-relationship between
GIS and society: First, how can broader and more effective use of GIS by the general
public be attained? Second, how can new technologies be developed to address
problems associated with the use of GIS for public participation? (Schroeder, 1997;
Sadagopan, 2000). Together with the use of the Word Wide Web (WWW), GIS could
be further developed to allow many more people to have access to GIS functionality
and to enhance the level of community participation in planning (Chang, 1997;
Sadagopan, 2000; Kingston, 2002a). In addition, Web-based GIS applications can
make complex information more easily understandable to people who are not
sophisticated in the use of technology (Sadagopan, 2000). For example, incorporating
pictures, text, interactive maps and other forms of related data with a user-friendly,
graphic interface and analytical tools on the Internet undoubtedly could help the
public access and understand information.
Literature related to WPPGIS is still limited, especially in transportation planning.
Most case studies and theoretical models that involve PPGIS have tended to concern
environmental management (Stonich, 1998; Kingston et al., 2000; Sieber, 2002)
(http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/slaithwaite/) (http://www.bcsp-web.org/). Recently, Haklay
and Tobon (2003) have discussed the natural and valuable connection between PPGIS
and the Human–Computer Interface (HCI), which is another PPGIS research field. In
our study, the main goal is to use Web-based GIS techniques, which could provide
interactive mapping and spatial analysis capabilities to help the public access and
understand information, and to provide better public participation and collaboration in
the transportation planning processes.
The technical feasibility, design and implementation of a WPPGIS application are
the main concern of our study. Environmental Systems Research Institute’s (ESRI)
ArcIMS 4.0 is used for this project and the project is designed based upon GIS
technologies which provide a map server to allow the geographic information to
be distributed anywhere via the Internet. The primary objective of this monograph is
to explore the use of Web-based GIS technologies for public participation.
Many computer technologies, in particular VBScript, Jscript and Arc
Extensible Mark-up Language (ArcXML), and free online resources such as Bonfire
Studio and Web Wiz Forums are used to design and implement this WPPGIS
application.
In addition, the ability of Web-based GIS to contribute to public participation in
the transportation planning process is discussed and the current state-of-the-art of
Web-based GIS technologies are reviewed. This monograph also explores the theory of
public participation and the potential key issues of Web-based GIS for public
participation.
1.2. Organization of the monograph
This monograph includes six chapters and references. Chapter 1 presents an

overview and a rationale for the study. Chapters 2 and 3 review aspects of the
literature, while Chapters 4 and 5 show how WPPGIS can be applied in an actual case
study.
More specifically, Chapter 2 reviews the related topics and issues of public
participation in the urban transportation planning process, public participation through
GIS and the application of PPGIS in transportation planning. In the first part of this
monograph, background information for transportation planning is reviewed, followed
by an assessment of the theory of public participation in transportation planning. This
assessment includes such topics as the public participation process, the
public participation ladder, and public participation techniques including GIS,
which have been used in many transportation applications for solving
transportation related problems. The PPGIS concept is introduced and discussed in
this chapter.
Chapter 3 evaluates current Web-based GIS applications and technologies. The
Web GIS system architecture in terms of client–server communication is analyzed.
Web-based public participation GIS models are also discussed at the end of this
chapter.
Chapters 4 and 5 describe an application of Web-based PPGIS. Chapter 4
shows the detailed procedure and methodology of this project. In this chapter,
the required analysis and implementation procedures such as the implementation

strategy for the server side program, VB script for the client side program and the
results achieved are described. The system architecture including Web Server and
Map Server are introduced. Discussion and conclusions resulting from this
monograph, as well as the key issues in PPGIS are presented in Chapter 5. Finally,
Chapter 6 explains the limitations of this project and provides recommendations for
further study.
CHAPTER 2
Public participation, transportation planning and GIS
2.1. Introduction
This chapter begins with an overview of the transportation planning process and then
continues with a discussion of the public participation in transportation planning. This
discussion covers the theory, process and techniques used in public participation together
with the role that GIS can play in facilitating participation.
2.2. The general urban transportation planning process
Urban transportation planning and analysis have a long history. Seminal work from the
modern era includes that of Ritter et al. (1951). In the mid 1950s, the primary method for
forecasting future traffic levels involved simple population extrapolations to the forecast
date. The first real conceptual breakthrough came with the work of Mitchell and Rapkin
(1954) who put forward the theory that urban traffic was a function of land use. At that
time, greater emphasis was given to the technical side of studies: data collection, modeling
and related activities.
The four-stage transportation planning model was developed in North America and
the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s (see Dickey, 1975; Wilson, 1974,
respectively) and primarily relates to modeling the journey-to-work and the commute
home. Traditionally, these trips have been seen as placing the highest demand on the
transportation infrastructure of western cities. The four stages involve trip generation,
trip distribution, modal split and assignment (Wilson, 1974: 129–150). Trip generation
is considered under two headings: trip production and trip attraction corresponding to
the origins and destinations of trips, respectively (also generically referred to as ‘home-
based work trips’). Trip production is based on household and personal characteristics
of the travelers for disaggregate models and on socio-economic variables measured at
the level of Transportation Analysis Zones (TAZs) for aggregate models. Cross-
classification, regression and discrete choice, logit models are all used for modeling
purposes. Trip attractions are based on the size and type of the destination facility
(retail, warehousing, office, among many other sub-categories). Here regression models
are popular although spatial regressions and geographically weighted regressions are
conspicuous by their absence. Trip distributions between these origin and destination
zones are usually modeled with entropy maximizing models (Wilson, 1970). Modal
split models that separate the trips by mode (normally between private and public
transportation although walking and cycling are more commonly modeled in European
studies) are based on discrete choice logit models and their variants (e.g. the probit and
dogit and more recently the rubit (ITTE, 1996) and DOGEV models (Fry and Harris,
2002), the latter two allowing for unforeseen, chance dependent components in the
modal choice and brand loyalty, respectively). Traffic assignment strategies vary from
simple All-or-Nothing approaches where traffic is assigned to the most attractive route,
most often based on the shortest travel time, to sophisticated Stochastic User
Equilibrium algorithms that converge on a Pareto optimal solution iteratively (see
Caliper Corporation, 1998). Software for implementing these models may be found at
the websites of Caliper Corporation (http://www.caliper.com/) which makes TransCAD
and at the PTV Vision website where the VISUM software is described (http://www.
english.ptv.de/download/traffic/software/Visum_Flyer_ptv_e_2003_LoRes2.pdf). It is
worth noting that the most recent version of TransCAD, Version 4.7, is now available
and this version allows the creation of web-based applications thus providing another
tool in the arsenal of transportation planners that wish to develop web-based PPGIS for
concerned citizens to use. The Caliper website describes this application in the
following manner:
† Create a map. TransCAD for the Web is based on Caliper’s TransCAD

Transportation Planning Software, and features the tools, wizards, and data you
need to quickly and easily create maps. TransCAD for the Web supports all of the
data structures (such as routes and networks) that are part of TransCAD.
† Choose a Mapplicationw. Use one of the included application templates, or create
your own application by customizing the many web forms and user controls
provided with TransCAD for the Web.
† Set the parameters. For each web form or user control, choose how the application
will work and how it will look.
† Compile and test the application. Compile any source code, then use a local web
server to make sure all of the settings are right.
† Publish the application. Copy the application to one or more servers running
TransCAD for the Web so that anyone on the Internet can interact with your map.
(Source: http://www.caliper.com/web/transcad.htm)
Also of interest is the fact that the latest version of TransCAD is ‘net enabled’ and can
thus be programmed with the various web-based tools that are part of Microsoft’s.NET
world. The ‘white paper’ by Flammia and Rabinowicz (2004) provides details of how to
use TransCAD to develop websites that provide transportation planning information—an
alternative methodology to that described below.
Returning to the 1960s, it may be noted that the Highway Act of 1962 (USA) was an
important evolutionary step in the transportation planning process. This Act required
continuous, comprehensive and synchronized transportation planning for metropolitan
areas. Soon after the passage of this Act, mass transit became a focus of concern, and many
new technologies were investigated. The late 1960s and 1970s saw the advent of increased
concern for the social and environmental aspects of transportation such as population
characteristics, economic and related factors, and for citizen involvement in the
transportation decision-making process (Fox et al., 1968; Dickey, 1975). However, the
importance of public involvement in planning and the increasing linkage to community
development provided a new emphasis for transportation planning from the 1980s
(Dickey, 1975; Meyer and Miller, 2001). Public participation became more and more
significant in the process of decision making for transportation planning. This is true in
both a North American context and for transportation planning projects funded by
international agencies such as the World Bank (see the World Bank website at: http://
www.worldbank.org/transport/roads/pl_sect2.htm).
Meanwhile, the rapid evolution in computer processing capability has had a noteworthy
impact on the transportation planning process. In recent years, the Internet and GIS
technology have had an important influence on the way public participation in
transportation planning occurs and these technologies will likely play significant roles
in the future. When GIS is combined with Web technologies, it allows planners not only to
predict individual movements on a network but also to assess the socio-economic and
environmental impacts and to elicit public concerns with respect to these movements. This
is likely to be one way in which governments solicit public input for such innovations as
new high speed rail lines (for an overview of recent developments and related websites see
http://www.artech.se/wsandblom/archive/hst.html; a complete review of the proposal for
the Calgary–Edmonton high speed rail link may be found at http://www.vanhorne.info/
Reports/HSR%20Full%20Report%20(10%206%202004).pdf). Planners may also be able
to examine fluctuations over time due to adverse weather conditions and to recent changes
in travel patterns such as the emergence of an early evening rush hour to leave the home.
2.3. Public participation in urban transportation planning
Transportation planners must be aware of the public’s opinions, desires and values with
respect to traffic noise, safety concerns, and the environment. If this were so the negative
impacts of transportation planning could be reduced and alleviated. Public participation
may involve hearings and meetings, but it also allows the transportation planner to
recognize both the positive and negative impacts of a transportation plan on a community.
The public generally knows the things that they would like to change and promote within
their community. So, if the public can be involved from the beginning, the planner can take
these public concerns into consideration when designing the transportation plan. That is to
say, early and continuing public involvement allows the planner to know the problems or
impacts up front and to deal with them in the initial stages of the project (FHWA, 2003).
In addition, public involvement helps to build consensus.
It is important to note that a land use system that does not integrate efficiently with its
associated transportation infrastructure will inevitably lead to increased traffic congestion.
The corollary is that transportation infrastructure that complements the land use pattern can
reduce congestion. This has been dubbed ‘smart growth’ or the ‘new urbanism’ and is now
the subject of intense scrutiny. It is reasonable to assume that in most cases smart growth
will lead to reduced traffic congestion, although dissenting voices abound at
many agencies including the Independence Institute (http://i2i.org/SuptDocs/Enviro/
AirPollutionSmartGrowth.htm), the Heritage Foundation (http://www.heritage.org/
Research/SmartGrowth/bg1782.cfm), the National Center for Policy Analysis which
criticises the municipal pioneer of smart growth (http://www.ncpa.org/ba/ba305/ba305.
html), Demographia (http://www.demographia.com/dib-smg.htm) and the Reason Public
Policy Institute (RPPI) (http://www.rppi.org/smartgrowthsubsidy.html) among others.
Those concerned with such issues have always to recognise the bias and prejudice of such
organizations that may be hard to discern at first. Demographia, for example, states that
its goals are to be ‘pro-choice with respect to urban development’ and to allow people ‘the
freedom to live and work where and how they like.’ RPPI seeks to promote ‘choice,
competition, and a dynamic market economy as the foundation for human dignity and
progress.’ By contrast the New Jersey Future organization states its support for smart
growth in unequivocal terms: ‘In New Jersey’s older towns and suburbs, traffic is much less
of a problem than in newly built suburbs because these older communities offer walking,
biking and transit choices for moving around. Such choices are a hallmark of smart
growth.’ (http://www.njfuture.org/articles/2001_smartqanda.html). Similarly, Litman
(2003) argues for the positive impacts of smart growth through integrated land use and
transportation planning. He suggests that smart growth land use policies should include:
More infill, clustered, higher density development.

Development and utility fees that are higher for low-density urban fringe development
(due to their higher public costs).
Mixed land use (e.g. more retail shops, and offices within residential neighborhoods.
More emphasis on transit, walking and cycling.
Less parking.
Traffic calming and traffic speed reductions.
With such dissension among the experts it is essential that the public have their chance
for input to the debate and what better way to do this than through public participation
through a web-based GIS environment.
A final argument for public input is that there is a new interest among the public to be
part of the process. In the past, the public was frequently concerned when new
developments appeared to impinge upon their privacy. This was known as the NIMBY
syndrome, namely the concern that new developments were fine as long as they were Not
In My BackYard. A similar concern is voiced by acolytes of the new acronym: NIMBI.
This new incarnation stands for Now I Must Be Involved (see Massam, 1993). It might
well become the mantra for those advocating public participation and there are already
various websites that promote a NIMBI approach to transportation planning. For example,
the Friends of Red Hill Valley explicitly use the acronym to urge citizens to get involved in
blocking the expressway that threatened the valley near Hamilton, Ontario (http://www.
hwcn.org/link/forhv/newsletter/news03jun/news03jun_now.htm). Similarly, the Edmon-
ton, Alberta, Federation of Community Leagues website advocates a NIMBI rather than a
NIMBY approach to community consultation in the planning process (http://www.hwcn.
org/link/forhv/newsletter/news03jun/news03jun_now.htm).
In summary, there are many significant benefits of involving the public in the
transportation planning process that will lead to better decision outcomes (O’Connor et al.,
1999). In the United States the Local Government Commission has listed the following
five reasons for involving citizens in the planning process (http://www.lgc.org/people/
public.html):
† To insure that good plans remain intact over time. .A plan which involves the public
in its creation will have a long-lasting and stable constituency.
† To reduce the likelihood of contentious battles before councils and planning
commissions.. A proactive planning process which includes a well-designed public
involvement component allows residents to understand exactly what it is they are

getting and assures that most people will be happy with the plan and the individual
projects at build-out.
† To speed the development process and reduce the cost of good projects. Projects, which
are well-designed but have not included public involvement may face opposition which
will slow or stop the project..
† To increase the quality of planning. Professionals are not the only ones generating good
ideas.
† To enhance the general sense of community and trust in government.
As the discussion above indicates, public participation is an essential component of

good planning. It is no longer an option. Indeed, since the 1970s public participation has
been part of the transportation planning process. In the USA, the most notable
development during this period was the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970,
(Dilley et al., 1999). In 1976, FHWA (United States Department of Transportation—
Federal Highway Administration) published its two-volume guidebook, Effective Citizen
Participation In Transportation Planning. (FHWA US Department of Transportation,
Washington, DC, 1976).
In 1991, the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) extended the
opportunity for public involvement in the transportation planning process. In 1994,
Innovations In Public Involvement For Transportation Planning (FHWA/FTA US
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1994) was published, updating
FHWA’s 1976 guide in order to emphasize early and proactive objectives. In 1996, this
publication was superseded as Public Involvement Techniques For Transportation
Decision Making (Report FHWA-PD-96-031, FHWA/FTA US Department of Transpor-
tation, Washington, DC, 1996). This latter report emphasizes giving the public a real voice
in transportation decision-making and describes about 100 different techniques together
with their applications (http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/pittd/cover.htm). Based in part
on methods recommended by FHWA and FTA, the Alaska department of transportation
and public Facilities (ADOT) created a process for gathering the public’s ideas about how
they wanted to be involved and developed a new public involvement procedure in 1996
(Dilley et al., 1999). In Japan, a public-involvement approach was adopted for the new 5-
year road improvement and management program at the national level planning in 1998,
with the goal of including, to an increasing degree, public opinion in the program (Ishida et
al., 1999; Kikukawa et al., 1999).
In the United Kingdom, there have been many recent, high profile examples of the lack
of meaningful public consultation in the transportation planning process. One of the more
infamous was the construction of the M3 ‘Missing Link’ around the ancient city of
Winchester and through the Twyford Down, as described in Bryant’s (1996) provocative
book: Twyford Down: Roads, Campaigning and Environmental Law. Similar was the
outpouring of public protest that accompanied the construction of the Newbury Bypass
road just to the north of Twyford Down in Berkshire, England (http://www.antiroads.org.
uk/newbury/factfile.html). That the protesters are Internet savvy and can use this new
technology to great effect is shown by the existence of the Road Alert website portal that
coordinates opposition to all new highway projects in the United Kingdom (http://www.
roadalert.org.uk/). Opposition to new roads is of long-standing (see Nowlan, 1970) but
what is new is the use of the Internet and ad-hoc websites to organize such protests. If
citizens are using the Internet as a tool of protest then it is necessary for transportation
planners to use the same tools to allow those same citizens to voice their opinions while
options to the official view are still open and financially feasible.
As a result, public participation has increasingly become a recognized component of
successful transportation planning. It will close the gap between public concerns and the
transportation plan developed by the decision-maker. As Dilley et al. (1999) said:
to ignore the issues and concerns of the public is to ignore part of the
problem;..By not providing the opportunity for the public to be involved in
the decision-making process, the department risks losing contact with its customers
and political constituency. Without public involvement, the department appears, at
best paternalistic and, at worst, ‘out of control.’
2.4. The theory of public participation in transportation planning
2.4.1. The process of public participation

It can be seen from the discussion above that the public is demanding to be involved at
each stage of the planning and project development process so as to increase the success of
planning decisions. These demands originate from a variety of causes including frustration
with urban congestion, concern for the natural and social environment, and desire for
sound public investments. Dilley et al. indicated in 1999 that:
to be ‘participate’ means that the public is encouraged and provided with methods to
share with department professionals the standard planning tasks: the identification of
the problem (issues and concerns), the collection of information that relates to the
problem, and the development and evaluation of alternative ways to solve the
problem.
The above statement can be seen as a model to describe the process of public
participation in transportation planning. Other researchers have also proposed similar
phases for public involvement programs (Kingston, 1998; Keever et al., 1999). Of
particular note is the work of Jankowski and Nyerges (2001: 17) who describe a macro-
micro framework for participatory decision strategies. The framework includes three
macro phases in a decision strategy. These are described as: (1) intelligence for deciding
upon values, objectives and criteria; (2) design for generating a set of feasible options; and,
finally, (3) choice about recommendations. Each macro-phase has four micro-phase
activities that are necessary to complete the phase. Respectively, these are: (A) the
gathering of information; (B) the organizing of that information; (C) selecting from that
information; and (D) reviewing what information is necessary to move on to the next
macro-phase. There can be little debate that for web-based PPGIS to be truly successful it
should incorporate this more sophisticated approach to decision-making. The present
monograph is more concerned with the technical challenges of implementing web-based
PPGIS and designing a user-friendly interface that participants and citizens will find
attractive. Once these have been achieved, however, it will be essential to include findings
from the rich body of literature on decision-making within a GIS context (see, for
example, Thill, 1998, and especially Malczewski, 1998, therein) and to incorporate in a
more sophisticated approach to web-based participatory approaches.
In general, the process of public participation in planning can be categorized into the
following four stages:
† Exploring the problem including issues and concerns.

† Exploring and creating solutions and ideas.
† Developing and examining alternatives.
† Feedback and evaluation of alternative ways to solve the problem.
The first step of this four-stage model is necessary so that the public can gain a full
understanding of the problem at hand and so that the planner can listen to the public and
learn about their issues and concerns associated with the study. In addition, having direct
and easy access to the information relating to a decision problem is a key element in this step.
This second step of exploring and creating solutions allows the public to understand the
process and consequences of these solutions. This step also allows the public to propose
those alternatives that might be used by the planner to develop a better decision.
The third step of developing and examining alternatives should aim to minimize
conflict between the public and the planner. As Kingston (1998) indicated:
this is often a difficult task to achieve, particularly if the decision problem is
complex, but it may be possible to identify the best compromise solution which will
ultimately help to maximize the acceptability of the final decision.
The final stage in the model, feedback and evaluation, is important for transportation
planning. Feedback can inform the public about how and why particular decision choice
alternatives have been identified. Evaluation and feedback from the public is also essential
to allow transportation planners and designers to improve their decisions.
It is important to recognize that public involvement in the transportation planning
process may well be mandated as part of the formal transportation planning process.
Specifically, a transportation project may not be able to get approval without citizen
involvement. The California Department of Transportation website describes the relevant
US legislation as follows:
The federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) and its
predecessor, the federal Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act are both
emphatic about the role of public participation in the transportation decision-making
process. The Executive Order 12898 on Environmental Justice (1994), Title VI of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964, Federal Highway Administration and Federal Transit
Administration Interim Policy on public involvement, and a host of other federal laws
and regulations all require public involvement in transportation decision making.
The Organisation for Economic Development and Cooperation also endorses public
participation under one of its nine principles for sustainable development in transportation
as does the Canadian Federal Government (see http://www.iigr.ca/pdf/documents/

1172_Sustainable_Transportat.pdf). In Canada much transportation planning is either a
provincial or municipal responsibility. At the provincial level this public consultation
process may be weak at best especially in jurisdictions that customarily return right of
center governments such as Alberta (see for example the suggested methods for input
discussed at the Alberta Government websites (e.g. http://www.gov.ab.ca/home/Index.
cfm?PageZ617). The Alberta Government continues to collect input at workshops as
opposed to using formal, scientifically designed surveys (see http://www.trans.gov.ab.ca/
Content/doctype182/production/LTHws1loc.pdf), as do many governments, and yet this
has been shown to be far from the best method. Hunt and Mackay (2004; see also Mackay,
2004) note that ‘the attitudes displayed by those self-selected people attending open house
[transportation planning] events [the unveiling of the Transportation Master Plan] in
Edmonton are not representative of the attitudes of the general population of Edmonton.’
Generally, the open house participants were richer and better educated (Mackay, 2004). The
open house is a quick and cheap method of gaining public opinion but it is neither fair nor
representative. Web-based methods for seeking public input may also favor the rich but at
least there is no demand put on the time that the individual needs to spend in providing their
input. They do not, for example, have to go out and spend an evening listening to
government transportation planners who may or may not listen to or record their concerns.
In some instances, the public may simply not be involved in the process for high profile
events such as the transportation improvements for the forthcoming Winter Olympic
Games in Whistler, British Columbia in 2010. The word ‘public’ does not appear on the
website describing their transportation plans (http://www.winter2010.com/Default.htm).
In many cases transportation systems at the national level are planned with defence
interests in mind. The US Interstate Highway System is an example as are the national
highways of South Korea and even the autobahns of Hitler’s Germany. Some projects may
simply result from major conferences such as Vancouver’s SkyTrain which was launched
as a demonstration project in 1986 at the World Trade Fair, Expo86, and is now an
ongoing success (http://www.tsd.org/cbtcprojects.htm) but one that lacked any formal
public consultation process.
2.4.2. The level of public participation

It is necessary to note that there are various levels of public participation. Arnstein
(1969) claimed that citizen involvement in planning represents a redistribution of power
from managers to the public. She divided the eight citizen participation levels into three
classifications: non-participation, degrees of Tokenism and degrees of Citizen power.
Based on the Arnstein Ladder, Weidemann and Femers (1993) presented a new ladder in
which they divided public participation into six different levels:
public right to know; informing the public; public right to object; public
participation in defining interests, actors and determining agenda; public
participation in assessing risks and recommending solutions; and public partici-
pation in final decision.
According to their description, public participation increases with the level of access to
information as well as with the degree to which citizens have rights in the decision making
Fig. 1. The e-participation ladder (based on Kingston, 2002b).
process. ‘The higher levels in the ladder can be reached only by fulfilling the requirements of
the lower steps in the ladder.’ (Sadagopan, 2000). This means that when developing a public
participation project, we must begin with the lowest step, making sure that it is satisfactorily
implemented. Then, the development can continue to the highest possible level. At present,
in most cases, public participation is limited to the right to object (Sadagopan, 2000). But
GIS and current computer technologies (e.g. Internet technology) may provide
opportunities to help public participation move further up in the public participation ladder.
In contrast to more traditional or non-digital methods, new forms of participation based
on Web-based technologies are beginning to evolve. Consequently, an e-participation
ladder has been developed by Kingston (Kingston, 2002b) (Fig. 1). The bottom of this
participation ladder represents online delivery of public services such as access to
government information including transportation planning information. Further up the
e-participation ladder, the communication is two–way making participation more
interactive through the sharing of data and comments (Carver, 2001). The use of the
Web as a delivery mechanism for opinion surveys is one increasingly popular example
(Tsagarousianou et al., 1998).
In summary, the public participation process provides multiple opportunities for the
public to participate in transportation planning. Individual citizens can chose their level of
involvement and can provide their comments before major planning decisions are made.
2.4.3. The techniques of public participation in transportation planning

The Local Government Commission website states that: ‘A successful public
participation program related to transportation planning requires not only the commitment
of time and energy but also the use of tools and techniques that engage residents from a
wide variety of backgrounds’ (http://www.lgc.org/people/public.html). According to the
paper: ‘Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-Making’, published
by the FHWA, the major transitional techniques of public participation in transportation
planning are summarized as following:
† Mailing lists.
† Public information materials.
† Key person interviews.
† Briefings.
† Video techniques.
† Telephone techniques.
† Media strategies.
† Speaker’s bureaus and public involvement volunteers.
† Public meeting/hearings.
† Open houses/open forum hearings.
† Conferences, workshops and retreats.
† Public opinion surveys.
† Online services.
† Drop in center.
In addition, there are several additional techniques for public participation in

transportation planning such as holding special events e.g. transportation fairs, and
finding new ways to communicate such as interactive video displays and/or television,
computer presentations and simulations. The appropriateness of any one of these
techniques will depend upon the level of public participation in the planning process.
Table 1 illustrates some strengths and weaknesses of various public participation
Table 1
Effectiveness of selected public participation techniques (Modified from http://www2.cr.nps.gov/pad/
PlanCompan/PublicPartic/)
Participation Providing Receiving Interaction Giving Broad cross-sec-

technique information information with public assurance tion of opinions?
to public
Public hearings, Good Poor Poor Fair Poor
meetings
Workshops, focus Excellent Excellent Excellent Fair Potentially good
groups
Presentations to clubs Good Fair Fair Fair No assurance
and groups
Advisory committees Good Good Excellent Excellent Chancy to good
Contacts with key Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent No assurance
persons in neighbor-
hood, community
Mail solicitation Excellent Poor Fair Fair Very chancy
Questionnaire surveys Poor to Fair Excellent Poor Poor Potentially good
(depends on
follow-up)
Radio/TV talk shows Good way to Fair (if call- Fair Fair No assurance
and community cable alert people ins allowed)
to other
opportunities
News releases media Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
presentations
Web-based public Good Good Good Good Potentially good
participation
Web-based PPGIS Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Potentially good
techniques. Although, the table is extracted from a discussion of urban park and recreation
recovery planning programs, it could apply to any public participation program relating to
the planning process, including transportation planning.
It can be seen from Table 1 that some of the traditional methods work successfully,
however, others are less effective. In fact, a real world public participation plan rarely
employs more than one or two of these techniques, while the participation program may
apply a combination of techniques that are fit the requirements of the project. Each of these
participation techniques provides opportunities to employ geographic information
technologies including GIS and Web-based GIS to enhance citizen involvement and
support a consensual decision environment (Howard, 1998). This will be discussed in
more detail in Chapter 3.
2.5. Public participation with GIS (PPGIS)
As mentioned above, GIS is increasingly employed in planning research and

development projects that incorporate public participation. Meanwhile, there is also a
rapidly growing network of planning professionals interested in how GIS can amalgamate
with community participation in the context of urban planning (Aitken and Michel, 1995;
Craig and Elwood, 1998; Leitner et al., 2002; Sawicki and Peterman, 2002; Talen, 1999,
2000). Haklay (2001) indicated that:
the origins of PPGIS can be identified to two activities—GIS criticism (epitomized
by the publication of ‘Ground Truth’ (Pickles, 1995)) and the research on
collaborative use of GIS (epitomized by Initiative 17 of the USA National Centre for
Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) (Densham et al., 1995).
Consequently, these two streams of research have produced two distinctive outcomes.
One of the outcomes of the discussions that ‘Ground Truth’ ignited, is the development
of the concept of GIS/2—a more responsive, reflexive GIS that is open to the public. In
other words, GIS/2 is a form of PPGIS (Haklay, 2001). GIS/2 includes an array of
processes of which technology would be one component. ‘The concept involves
redefinition of participant inputs and types, of how data is handled, of system outputs,
moving away from standard measures of completeness and control’ (Schroeder, 1996). In
search of an appropriate name, GIS/2 might also be called ‘integrative geographical
representation’ or even more broadly a ‘dialogical machine’ (Schroeder, 1996).
The second research stream has produced technically oriented ideas and methods for
PPGIS. These include the development of more user-friendly interfaces, network access to
GIS, use of GIS as a communications medium, public access to digital data archives, and
the inclusion of groups often marginalized by the costs or expertise requirements of
information technology (NCGIA, 1996: http://www.ncgia.maine.edu/ppgis/cover.html).
This research coincides with the evolution of Internet technologies. In some GIS projects,
however, there is an implicit assumption that by connecting a GIS to the Internet the main
issue of public access is solved (Haklay, 2001).
As a result, an overly, concise definition of the various dimensions of PPGIS is unlikely
and probably not desired for this study. Rather, PPGIS may be seen as a new window
through which to view the whole of GIS practice in its social setting. For this monograph,
a broad definition of PPGIS is chosen: ‘Public Participation GIS have been conceived
broadly as an integrative and inclusive process-based set of methods and technologies
amenable to public participation, multiple viewpoints, and diverse forms of information.’
(Krygier, 1998). Increased public involvement in the definition and analysis of
questions tied to location and geography is the domain of PPGIS. This approach
facilitates the meaningful introduction of appropriate forms of spatial information and
related technology for widening public participation in the policy-making process
(NCGIA, 1996: http://ncgia.spatial.maine.edu/ppgis/xdoc.html).
CHAPTER 3
The theory of web-based PPGIS
3.1. Introduction
In this chapter, an overview and definition of web-based GIS is given and the linkages
between public participation, GIS, PPGIS and WPPGIS and related technologies are
explained. The current state-of-the-art in online mapping is discussed along with the
importance and use of mark-up languages. Finally, all aspects of a WPPGIS model are
described.
3.2. Background of web-based GIS
Definitions of Public Participation, GIS, PPGIS and the Internet have already discussed
in Chapters 1 and 2. Given these definitions of Public Participation, GIS and the Internet, a
number of integration approaches are possible (Fig. 2).
Web GIS (Internet GIS). Web GIS is the combination of the Internet and GIS, that is to
say, a conventional GIS using the Internet as a basic information infrastructure for spatial
data dissemination and simple analysis. Because of the nature of the Internet, Internet GIS
is regarded as an interactive, distributed, dynamic, cross-platform and client/server
computing system, and it has the capability of accessing various forms of GIS data and
functions in an interoperable environment (Plewe, 1997; Peng, 1999).
Web-based PPGIS. As discussed previously, new forms of participation based on
Web-based technologies have been presented as the e-participation ladder. Generally,
these new forms include three parts, which are online public participation including
PPGIS Public
GIS Participation
Web
PPGIS
Online PP
Web GIS
Internet
Fig. 2. GIS, public participation, internet and their integrations.

online discussion, Web surveys and online decision support systems. Online public
participation promises a number of improvements. For example, access to relevant
information is available from any location that has Web access. This information is also
available at any time of the day thus avoiding the problems associated with holding
meetings in the evenings. The concept of ‘24/7’ access (i.e. 24 h a day, 7 days a week)
opens up opportunities for more people to participate in public consultations (Kingston,
2002a).
There are many successful Web-based PPGIS applications. Some of these focus on
community development and others focus on information accessibility and exchange.
For example, A Virtual Slaithwaite, developed by the School of Geography, University
of Leeds, with a Java package called GeoTools, gives residents a map of their
village (http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/slaithwaite/). Users can view information by
clicking on the shapes, and add comments regarding that feature to the map. Another
example is Bradford Community Statistics Project using AutoDesk software, (http://
www.bcsp-web.org/) which includes a GIS component where users have access to local
information and all standard Web-based GIS tools such as zoom in/out. Moreover, this
system allows users to draw areas with the mouse and obtain statistical reports
associated with the area. Registered users can save these areas and access them later. A
third example involves the information interchange about urban planning between local
government and the public. Local governments have allowed for public access by
distributing their planning process, geographic information and decisions made on the
Internet. They also allow the public the right to object by providing an email link to
forward their comments.
3.3. Web-based GIS system architectures
As the Internet has become an important resource for acquiring and disseminating
information, a number of Internet GIS products have been brought to market. These
include ESRI’s ArcIMS, Intergraph’s Geomedia WebMap, MapInfo’s MapGuide, and
CARIS Internet Server among others. Typically, Web-based GIS users can use a Web
browser to navigate maps and to complete basic spatial analysis. In other words, for any
Web-based GIS application, users enter specifications such as location, thematic layers, or
search requests on the Web page to set up their environment for mapping or searching.
They can also click buttons and icons to start display commands such as zoom in, zoom
out, identify, pan, and query, among others. The requests from the user are sent to clients
by way of HTML forms. The form is passed to the Web server and a gateway at the Web
server passes the request to a GIS server. In summary, underlying these Web-based GIS
products, there are two basic approaches to deploying GIS applications on the Internet:
server-side and client-side applications.
3.3.1. Server-side applications

Server-side Internet GIS depends on the server to perform analysis and to generate
output (Peng, 1998). That is, the application server processes the requests and delivers the
result in a standard Web format (e.g., HTML) back to the client. In a server-side
application, a Web browser is used to generate requests, send them to the application
server, and display the results. In such an application, having the main software and
databases on the server side that link with the Web server through a Common Gateway
Interface (CGI) script significantly simplifies development, deployment and maintenance
of the Internet GIS software (Peng, 1998).
Despite the simplicity and universality of CGI scripts for GIS applications, they suffer
from the drawback that they have a limited user interface and poor performance. In a GIS,
there can be many applications in which users need to drag windows or select multiple
features before an action takes place. It is difficult or impossible to do this with a standard
Web interface like the CGI form. Additionally in a server-side application, some simple
operations such as zooming, panning, or turning a layer on or off must be sent to the server
and then returned. This may result in many such requests, which can cause poor
performance and an over-loaded server.
3.3.2. Client-side applications

The alternative is the client-side approach that allows the data and software to be
transferred to the local client side where all processing is executed at the front-end (Plewe,
1997; Peng, 1999). Client-side applications run in the form of Java applets, plug-ins or
ActiveX controls on the Web browser (Huang et al., 2001). To implement any of the
previous solutions, software must be transferred to the client side. As with plug-ins, the
primary advantage of client side applications is the ability to enhance the user interface
and improve performance. Client-side solutions can be implemented with all the features
and capabilities allowed by a modern graphical user interface (GUI), including window
display changes or core GIS operations that can be performed locally.
However, downloading the software and data to the client is usually time consuming.
Moreover, to some extent, the processing of data on the client machine may not be as
efficient as on a powerful server, and ActiveX controls can only be used by Microsoft’s
Internet Explorer (IE). Huang et al. (2001) summarized the advantages and disadvantages
of these two approaches (see Table 2).
Table 2
Comparison of client and server side applications (Huang et al., 2001)
Server-side solution Client-side solution (Java-based)

Advantages Can adhere to all Internet/Web standards Modern GUI and flexible interaction
Can utilize existing GIS functions Vector data can be used
Centralizes administration of data and GIS Good performance for operations that occur
application software locally
User support minimal Less Internet traffic
Comparatively mature and simple Not restricted to Internet document/graphics
standards
Can be installed on demand, no permanent
disk space is used
Disadvantages Poor interface Time consuming for downloading data and
software
Lack of interactivity Difficult for complex data processing
Creates many requests
3.3.3. A hybrid approach

A combination of the two approaches can be implemented as a hybrid system. Such an
integrated system can enhance the strengths of both solutions in the sense that it can
provide a flexible and user-friendly interface, as well as make better use of the power of
the server. This is also beneficial to the balancing of workloads on both sides (Huang and
Li, 2002). In this approach, specific processes are assigned to either the client computer or
the server computer based on which assignment of tasks would provide the greatest overall
efficiency (Wright, 2002). For example, if basic map operations such as zooming and
feature selection are handled locally, they will generate quick and efficient performance
because they no longer require a round trip to the server side as is the case with the CGI
approach. In general, complex spatial data processing tasks or those that involve heavy
database use should be performed on the server side, while tasks that involve greater
control by the user can be assigned to the client (Foote and Kirvan, 1997).
3.4. Web-based GIS technologies
Web-based GIS is an effective medium for PPGIS. However, Web-based GIS

applications are not a single technology. They embrace the networking communication
and file transfer protocols of the Internet: TCP/IP (Internet protocol) and HTTP (Hyper
Text Transfer Protocol). In addition, they adopt standard HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up
Language) browsers as application shells, making this the common enabling architecture
for sending files, text, bitmap graphics etc. and for housing technologies such as GIS Plug-
ins which handle special data types (Autodesk, 1997). These technologies associated with
Web-based GIS including Web programming languages, client-server techniques, and
GIS server packages are reviewed as follows.
3.4.1. Mark-up languages

While most people in the industrialized world have heard of HTML, its predecessors
have largely escaped the public view. The development of mark-up languages began with
the GML (General Mark-up Language), which subsequently developed into the SGML
(Standard Generalized Mark-up Language). SGML deals with the structural mark-up of
electronic documents. It was made an international standard by ISO in October 1986.
SGML provides a specification for how mark-up can be added to textual information. Thus
‘mark-up is added to raw textual documents to clarify the content and interpretation of
text, to associate logical hierarchical structures with the text, and to provide instructions on
how the text should be formatted, and/or integrated with other types of data such as
images’ (http://db.uwaterloo.ca/trdbms/intro/sgml.html). HTML is a subset of SGML,
while XML is another component of the original SGML.
3.4.1.1. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML). HTML documents are SGML documents
that are suitable for representing information from a wide range of domains (Berners-Lee
and Connolly, 1995). HTML is the medium of communication for publishing hypertext on
the World Wide Web. It is a non-proprietary format based upon SGML, and can be
developed by a wide range of tools, from plain text editors to sophisticated authoring
tools (http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/). HTML also allows embedding of pictures, and other
hypermedia information. The hyperlinks in an HTML document define links between a

text fragment or image and another document. HTML allows for some interaction through
the use of menus, text fields, and buttons. These characteristics of HTML among others,
contributed to the success of the Web (Sadagopan, 2000). For Web-based GIS
applications, however, HTML certainly is not enough to automate spatial processing
via the Internet. As Waters (1999) indicated, there were several problems with using
HTML for Web-based GIS applications and XML is one of solutions. With projects like
GML (Geography Mark-up Language) by the Open GIS Consortium, XML is fast
becoming an essential tool for GIS.
3.4.1.2. XML. Extensible Mark-up Language (XML). XML is the Web’s language for data
interchange, whereas HTML is the Web’s language for rendering. XML is a simple,
flexible text format derived from SGML. Originally designed to meet the challenges of
large-scale electronic publishing, but it is now playing an increasingly important role in the
exchange of a wide variety of data on the Web and elsewhere (http://www.w3.org/XML).
Although development of XML started in 1996, the technology is not that new. As
mentioned above, XML originally was derived from SGML which was developed in the
early 1980s, and widely used for large documentation projects. (Bos (2003) notes that the
designers of XML took the best parts of SGML and produced something that is no less
powerful than SGML, and indeed much easier to use. Some evolutions, however, are hard
to distinguish from revolutions. And it must be said that while SGML is mostly used for
technical documentation and much less for other kinds of data, with XML it is exactly the
opposite’. Consequently, XML has become the universal standard for structured web
documents and for maximal independence from networks and platforms.
3.4.1.3. ArcXML. With the release of ArcIMS, ESRI’s map server software, GIS users
were also introduced to ArcXML. Arc Extensible Mark-up Language (ArcXML), is
the customization language for ArcIMS and a derivative of XML and a relative of
HTML, but unlike HTML, ArcXML is a meta-mark-up language that describes
structured data content rather than displaying information. ArcXML files are editable
text files that have an AXL extension. It is designed as the protocol for data exchange
between the ArcIMS Spatial Server, Application Server, and Application Server
connectors (http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/1000/arcims.html).
3.4.1.4. SVG and GML. XML is not only a standard for data exchange in the Internet, but
also it is the foundation of all further ‘dialects’ such as SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics),
GML (Geography Mark-up Language) and so on. SVG defined by the W3C is an XML
language for describing two-dimensional vector-based graphics for the Web and other
applications. SVG allows for three types of graphics objects: vector graphic shapes, such
as circles, rectangles and paths consisting of straight lines and curves, text and raster
images, which can be positioned relative to other features in the image. GML is an XML
grammar written in an XML Schema for the modeling, moving and containing of
geographic information. It is uses various objects to describe geographic properties such as
features, coordinate reference systems, geometry, topology, time, and other attributes
(http://xml.coverpages.org/geographyML.html). It was developed by the OpenGIS
Consortium (OGC) and is different from the SVG standards. GML can be transformed into
SVG through XSLT (eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformations). This technology
has already attracted the attention of GIS developers, users and researchers (MRF, 2002;
George, 2002; Maddirala, 2003). Moreover, there is an extension for ArcView GIS 3.x
named SVGMapper that can export View and Shape files into SVG format. SVG Viewer,
which has to be installed to view SVG documents in the Web browser, can be downloaded
from Internet.
3.4.2. Server based techniques and extensions
3.4.2.1. Common gateway interface (CGI). CGI was the first generation technique applied
to the Internet GIS (Xia and Chao, 1995). CGI is a standard for interfacing external
applications with information servers, such as HTTP or Web servers (http://hoohoo.ncsa.
uiuc.edu/cgi/intro.html). As mentioned before, HTML is a static text file, and it is designed
for displaying text and image data in Web browsers instead of processing the data, so it
cannot produce dynamic information, such as that used for GIS data processing (Yuan,
2000). A CGI program, conversely, is executed in real-time, so that it can output dynamic
information. It can be written in any language that allows it to be executed on the system,
such as C/CCC, Fortran, PERL, a Unix shell, Visual Basic, and AppleScript, among
others (http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi/intro.html).
The biggest advantage of the CGI approach is its browser independence due to its use of
standard HTML. Also the existing proprietary GIS systems can be easily extended to be
GIS servers. However, the use of static maps in raster form, displayed in a Web browser
but not providing any analysis functions, severely limits the facilities available to end
users. The inability of the CGI approach to provide vector data and GIS functionality
directly to clients means that it does not meet the requirements of Web GIS developers
(Yuan, 2000).
3.4.2.2. ASP and ASP.NET. Active Server Pages (ASP) is another solution to the problem
of processing input from HTML forms on Web servers. ASP lowers the barrier to entry for
Web developers by allowing HTML and server-side scripts to be freely mixed in ASP files
(Prosise, 2002). ASP is becoming more and more popular as the favorite server side
technology for developers. ASP in itself is not a language; instead it uses VBScript or
JavaScript. Intrinsic objects available to those scripts abstract the low-level details of
HTTP and make it exceedingly easy to write code that generates HTML content
dynamically (Prosise, 2002). When an Active Server Page is requested, ASP parses the
page and executes the scripts contained inside it. Scripts are used to access the input that
accompanies the request by employing the ASP Request object. They then write HTML to
the HTTP response using the ASP Response object. Because ASP is a server side scripting
language, all the code is executed on the server and only the output generated is shown to
the browser.
ASP scripts are interpreted rather than compiled, so they are slow and cannot really
lend themselves to robust object-oriented programming techniques. Moreover ASP lacks a
complete encapsulation model and thus reusable ASP controls that encapsulate
sophisticated rendering and behavioral logic cannot be constructed without using COM
(Common Object Model) (Troelsen, 2002; Prosise, 2002).
ASP.NET has all the merits of classic ASP and can deal with each of the limitations
found in classic ASP. First, ASP.NET does not use interpreted scripting languages. It
allows you to use ‘real’ programming languages such as VB.NET, C#, and similar
languages. Next, ASP.NET provides numerous ways to decrease the amount of code you
need to write to begin a Web application. Web pages can be built around Web controls and
event handlers that are used to simplify your coding efforts (Troelsen, 2002). Therefore,
ASP.NET is likely to become popular as a new Web programming model. As Prosise
(2002) said:
Just as Active Server Pages (ASP) revolutionized Web programming in the 1990s
with an easy-to-use model for dynamically generating HTML on Web servers,
ASP.NET advances the state of the art in Web programming by introducing reusable
server controls that render HTML to browser clients and fire events that can be
processed by server-side scripts.
3.4.3. Client-side techniques and extensions

Client based techniques are necessary in order to satisfy the need for active Web pages.
There are three separate client-side extensions emerging today, namely Java/Microsoft.
NET, ActiveX controls and Plug-ins.
3.4.3.1. Java and Microsoft.NET. Java is a new generation, object-oriented (OO) language
developed by SUN Microsystems, a company best known for its high-end UNIX
workstations. It inherited the advantages of other object-oriented languages such as CCC
and Smalltalk but discarded the weak points of them, such as complexity and security
problems. Java was designed as a compact language that was portable across operating
systems and platforms at all levels, which means that Java programs can run on any
machine that has the Java virtual machine (JVM) installed (Lemay et al., 1997). In other
words, Java is platform independent, which is one of the most important issues in the
heterogeneous Internet.
The .NET software released by Microsoft recently is another technology that attempts
to compete with Java in terms of the Internet and highly distributed systems. As a general-
purpose development platform, the.NET system was designed from inception to use many
open Internet standards and offers strong support for highly scalable distributed
applications, in particular XML Web services (Jones et al., 2002). In other words,
Microsoft.NET is a set of software technologies for connecting information, systems, and
devices through the use of XML Web technology. It provides a highly productive,
standards-based, multi-language environment for integrating existing investments with
next-generation applications and services as well as the flexibility to solve the challenges
of deployment and operation of Internet-scale applications.
(http://www.microsoft.com/resources/casestudies/CaseStudy.asp?CaseStudyIDZ
11305)
Currently, mainstream GIS market products such as ESRI’s ArcIMS, Intergraph’s
GeoMedia Web Map and Autodesk’s MapGuide support the .NET technologies.
These companies believe that they provide their clients with the means to incorporate GIS
technology easily into their applications and to help clients to reduce dramatically
development time and to build more powerful applications by using Microsoft Visual
Studio.NET and the Microsoft.NET Framework.
(http://www.intergraph.com/gis/newsroom/press02/net_tgm_rlsf.asp; http://usa.auto-
desk.com/adsk/servlet/item?siteIDZ123112&idZ805811)
In addition, there are two dominant tools for client side scripting JavaScript and
VBScript. These languages provide Web developers with additional programming
power that enables them to make browsers with new functionality. This allows the
client can take on more of the responsibility of processing (Pappas and Murray,
2002). That is, the client to side scripts can significantly lessen the processing
requirements located on the server and reduce the Network traffic. While JavaScript
has a strong C or Java-based flavour, VBScript offers VB programmers the familiarity
of a popular language. VBScript is bundled with Microsoft’s IE and also easily
integrates Microsoft’s ActiveX controls in a Web environment (Pappas and Murray,
2002).
3.4.3.2. ActiveX. Another Internet client programming technique is Microsoft’s

ActiveX, which is developed through the Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)
control. ActiveX can extend a standard browser’s functionality by loading the
ActiveX components at run time. ActiveX is not a single language. Instead, it is
better viewed as a language-neutral technology that enables software to work together
in a networked setting. Thus, regardless of the language used for development, the
components still communicate appropriately. ActiveX defines how the software
components should communicate. These qualities enable programmers to create
interactive applications and Websites using an open development framework. By
using HTML !OBJECTOs and ActiveX controls with VBScript, developers quickly
can incorporate components that suit their needs and build powerful client-side
applications (Spenik, 1997). ActiveX controls are very similar to Plug-ins (Peng,
1999); however they can only be used by Microsoft’s Internet Explorer (IE).
3.4.3.3. Plug-ins. Internet GIS based on plug-ins represent a second generation Web-
based GIS (Xia and Chao, 1995). As mentioned early, server side techniques such as
CGI only provide clients with very limited GIS functionality. To solve this problem,
some GIS functions should be moved to the client side and the basic vector data
format should be supported. Plug-ins implement this principle by installing GIS
software extensions to the Web browser and exchanging information with the browser
during the user’s operations (Yuan, 2000). Plug-ins are software modules that apply to
specific file-types when a Web page is loaded. They are used to perform basic
operations such as zooming and panning within a Web browser, thus easing the over-
loaded server (Huang et al., 2001).
Many Web GIS vendors have their own plug-in solutions. For example, Autodesk
MapGuide has MapGuide plug-ins (Autodesk, 1997); Intergraph GeoMedia Web Map has
the ActiveCGM Plug-in for Netscape (Intergraph, 2000). As with plug-ins, the primary
advantages of client-side applications are the abilities to enhance the user interface
and improve performance (Huang and Li, 2002). However, plug-ins need to be installed
locally, therefore, the compatibility of different platforms and version changes cause
problems and inconvenience when systems are updated. Plug-ins need to be downloaded
and installed in advance and this is not convenient for a casual user (Yuan, 2000; Huang
et al., 2001).
The large volume of spatial data and the large number of required transfers, and the lack
of GIS functionality supporting Web browsers represent a bottleneck in Internet GIS
services. Many efforts were made to overcome the bottleneck problem and eventually a
compressed, vector data formatted and self-contained intelligent document became the
preferred solution (Autodesk, 1997; Intergraph, 2000). These intelligent documents were
designed to be efficient for network transfers and they include the Map Window File
(MWF) used by AutoDesk MapGuide and the Map Definition File (MDF) used by
Intergraph GeoMedia Web Map. They can comprise all the necessary information,
including general map properties, security information, map layer properties, raw map
data and user interface specifications. By expanding the standard browser’s functionality,
map documents can be intelligent in terms of containing self-processing tools and relevant
information (Autodesk, 1997; Intergraph, 2000).
Since all the information is stored in one file, a single update operation can update both
the application and its associated data. The file, together with its “meta-information”
becomes an intelligent document that contains data on how the client application that loads
the document will act during the document’s presentation (Autodesk, 1997).
Intelligent documents can be efficient in terms of geodata publishing, but the GIS
functionality is still limited. Web browsers cannot support all geoprocessing functions.
In this case, other approaches are needed (Yuan, 2000). It is worth noting that ESRI
chose a multi-tier architecture technology including several server components to
design its Web GIS product–ArcIMS. This product consists of three tiers, described as
the presentation tier, the business logic tier, and the data storage tier. These tiers
describe logical groupings of the functionality of the various application components
and do not necessarily correspond to their physical location. The components on the
server include the application server, manager components, and the spatial servers.
The wide variety of supported clients and the server potential are what set ArcIMS
apart from other Internet GIS competitors. As a result, ArcIMS was chosen for this
study and detailed discussion associated with the ArcIMS application will be
presented in the application part below.
3.5. Web-based PPGIS model
The technical achievability, and the design and development of a Web-based PPGIS is
the primary concern of this study. Every stage of the planning process involves design and
analysis, including the process of implementation of a chosen plan or policy. The design of
a Web-based GIS for public participation undergoes an iterative process (Fig. 3). The
model is circular or iterative because Web-based GIS improves in quality with feedback
from the stakeholders, who include citizens as well as planning professionals.
It can be seen from Fig. 3 that the characteristics of each stage are self-explained. It is
necessary to note that the processes of Web-based PPGIS are similar to other system
Concept for W-based System Analysis

PPGIS
Community Involvement
(Feedback for concept in Effective Design of
the next circle) W -based PPGIS
Support for citizen through W-based GIS

workshops and user Development
manuals
System System Integration

Maintenance and & Testing
Management
Fig. 3. The model for web-based PPGIS (modified from Sadagopan, 2000).
development processes. The development of a Web-based GIS for public participation

involves citizen support and citizen feedback. As a result, community involvement
programs would include relevant feedback from the citizen since this will be used as input
to the system for re-conceptualization, which is the first stage for the next life cycle of the
Web-based GIS for the public participation.
CHAPTER 4
Application development
4.1. Introduction
In this chapter, the background to the research problem and to the study area will be
described. In addition, the technical aspects of developing a web-based PPGIS application
will be described using current state-of-the-art technology.
4.2. Research background and study area
Based on a future population of 1.5 million and base scenarios provided by the City of
Calgary (Alberta, Canada) in the 1980s and 1990s, transportation infrastructure in the 37th
Street S.W. Functional Planning Study (Fig. 4) will need updating. At the present time
Calgary is expected to reach a population of 1 million in 2008 and the Figure of 1.5 million
will be reached soon after the year 2035 according to forecasts from the City of Calgary. A
recent study has determined the necessary lane requirements; interchange configurations,
and intersection details that will safely accommodate the expected increase in traffic
volumes. This plan ensures that all phases of the project will feed into a long-term regional
plan both for the City of Calgary and for southern Alberta. Meanwhile, the proposed
transportation infrastructure changes will support growth in population and employment
for the area under study. The functional planning study aims to ensure that public money is
spent wisely by reviewing the required future infrastructure and cost efficiencies and by
minimizing the negative effects on the local community and environment (37th Functional
Planning Study documents, The City of Calgary, 2002). As a result, public participation is
critical for determining the success of 37th street transportation planning. Three
communities will be affected by this plan (Bridlewood, Evergreen and Woodbine).
Therefore, residents of the community are encouraged by the City of Calgary’s
transportation planning department to participate in the planning process so that the
transportation plan will fit more harmoniously within the community.
The 37th Street SW Functional Planning Study (37FPS) is currently underway for the
area of 37th Street SW south of Anderson Road to Spruce Meadows Trail and Anderson
Road SW from 37th Street SW to 24th Street SW (Fig. 4). The immediate plan for the area
is to build a bridge over Fish Creek, widen 37th Street to 4-lanes from 146th Avenue to
Anderson Road and widen Anderson Road to 4-lanes from 37th Street to 24th Street SW.
Council approved this project with a budget of $30.4 million. 37th Street will eventually
be widened to 6-8 lanes at different points in the alignment (The City of Calgary 37th
Functional Planning Study documents, 2002).
The primary purpose of the present chapter is to develop a Website, which helps the
public access transportation planning information including Web-based GIS mapping
functions by using ESRI’s ArcIMS. These functions offer interactive mapping and basic
GIS analysis, such as Zoom in/out, Pan, Identify, Full/Last extent, Buffering, Selection and
Query. In the meantime, the public can conveniently be involved in the planning
Fig. 4. 37th Street SW Functional Planning Study Area.
procedure by submitting their comments, viewing the planning process and getting up-to-
date information on the related functional planning study by using online discussion
forums.
4.3. System architecture
4.3.1. Components outside of ArcIMS

This project was primarily implemented under the ArcIMS environment with other
complex technologies. For ArcIMS to run correctly, supporting components are needed
that are not part of ArcIMS, including a Web server, JavaVM, and a servlet engine, which
is used to communicate between the web browser and web servers. These components,
User Computer
Web Browser (HTML &Java)
37th FPTS Application
Internet
Server Computer
Internet Information Server

(Web Server)
ArcIMS Application & Spatial Server (Map Server)
Tabular Data
Spatial Data
Fig. 5. System Architecture.
along with ArcIMS, provide the foundation for a working ArcIMS site for this research
(Fig. 5). The required software for correctly running ArcIMS are shown below:
† Operating System (Windows 2000 used for this project).

† Java Runtime Environment.
† Web Server (MS IIS used for this project).
† Servlet Engine.
† Web Browser (GIS Education Solutions from ESRI, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2000d).
It can be seen in Fig. 5 that the Web Server is the entry point to the Middleware Layer
(e.g. a Map Server). It is also called the HTTP server and its purpose is to respond to requests
from Web Browsers via HTTP (Peng and Tsou, 2003). In other words, the purpose of the
Middleware Layer is to accept incoming requests and process them, using the resources
provided by the web server which was the server computer on which the web server runs.
The Web Server used for this project is Microsoft’s Internet Information Server (IIS).
Microsoft IIS conveys fast, secure information while servings as a development platform,
thus extending the Internet’s standard communication capabilities (Bergmann, 1995). With
IIS, the application designer can create folders and indicate which folders will be shared to
the Internet. The designer also gives the user rights such as read, write, execution and
directory browsing to access these folders.
4.3.2. Components inside of ArcIMS

The ArcIMS server technology is part of a multi-tier architecture. The ArcIMS
framework consists of clients, services, and data management. The ArcIMS HTML
Viewer and Java Viewer are client-side components, while the ArcIMS Spatial Server,
ArcIMS Application Server and Connectors and the ArcIMS Manager are server-side
components.
The map server is also called a spatial server in ArcIMS (Peng and Tsou, 2003). It
is the backbone of ArcIMS, which is a major workhorse component that fulfills
spatial queries, conducts spatial analysis, and generates and delivers maps to the client
based on requests. It provides the functional capabilities for accessing and bundling
maps and data into the appropriate format before sending the data back to a Web
browser (ERSI, 2002). There are seven kinds of component servers of an ArcIMS
spatial server, including the image server, the feature server, the geocode server, the
query server, the extract server, the metadata server and the ArcMap server. The
Image, Feature, Metadata, and ArcMap Servers are public and can be accessed
through the ArcIMS interface. The Query, Geocode, and Extract Servers are private
and are managed automatically by the Spatial Server when they are needed. There is
no user interface to these servers. For this research, the image server, feature server
and ArcMap server were used.
The application server could include the CGI model or CGI extensions, ASP, Java
servlets, Cold Fusion, among others. In the ArcIMS case, the application server expects
requests to be written in ArcXML. ArcIMS offers four application server connectors
(servlet connector, ColdFusion connector, ActiveX connector and Java connector) in order
to translate requests into ArcXML format before handing them to the application server
translate the response from the ArcIMS spatial server into HTML before returning to Web
server.
The ArcIMS Manager has three modules that enable the site owner to author map
services, design Web pages, publish map services and administer sites locally or remotely.
a. ArcIMS author is the application you use to define the content for a map that you want
to publish on the Internet. You decide what data will be shown and how it will appear
on your map. Authoring a map involves adding data layers, setting layer symbology,
creating stored queries and so on. The final output from Author is a map configuration
file, or AXL file, which is a text file that defines all the map properties, including the
layer symbology. ArcIMS author can access shapefiles, ArcSDE data sets, and some
image formats.
b. ArcIMS designer is used to design Web pages, including the Web page layout,
available toolbox and functionality of the web page.
c. ArcIMS Administrator is used to manage ArcIMS services, servers and folders.
When you use ArcIMS Administrator to manage your application Web site, the main
task that you perform with Administrator is creating and starting ArcIMS Services.
Once you have created a map in Author, you convert the resulting map configuration file
(an AXL file) to an ArcIMS Service in Administrator. The input to a service is a
configuration file, and thus service requests such as adding, starting and stopping should be
passed into the configuration file in the ArcIMS servelet connector (Peng and Tsou, 2003).
4.3.2.1. Client-side components. The ArcIMS viewers offer tools for viewing and querying
spatial and attribute data, and performing spatial analysis tasks such as selecting and
buffering features. These viewer templates define the interface and functionalities to the
user when they are exploring the Web site. ArcIMS viewers include three client viewers:
the HTML Viewer, which is a lightweight viewer that allows you to interact with an image
service using a simple but powerful set of GIS tools, the Java Custom Viewer and the Java
Standard Viewer.
Both of the two Java viewers provide a ‘thicker’ client viewer, as map interaction and
GIS processing occurs primarily on the client computer. ArcIMS supplies two Java
Viewers: the Java Custom Viewer and the Java Standard Viewer. Both Java Viewers can
serve Image and Feature Map Services. Feature Map Services use data streaming, which
means that vector features and attributes can be delivered for integration and analysis.
Simply put, the ArcIMS Java Viewer allows the user to incorporate the feature data
streaming from the server into the local data area and allows the user to perform GIS
analysis. This minimizes the need for multiple server requests. As the Java Viewer uses
Java 2 applets which run on the Client to serve maps and information (Peng and Tsou,
2003), the Client must have the Java Runtime Environment installed.
Conversely, as the HTML Viewer is written in HTML, DHTML and JavaScript, it can
be embedded in any HTML Web site. Therefore, the client-side will not require any plug-
in to be preinstalled or running JavaVM. However, the HTML Viewer supports only
Image Map Services. That means, the HTML Viewer does not support feature streaming to
the client side.
In addition, in ArcIMS 4.0, the functions of the Java Standard Viewer are predefined
and cannot be customized, while the Java Custom Viewer can be customized
through HTML and scripting to the applets using JavaScript. The Java Custom Viewer
will not work in Netscape browsers because Netscape currently does not support applet
scripting.
4.4. Implementation procedure
The implementation procedure of this study is shown as Fig. 6 and is discussed below.
4.4.1. Requirements analysis

Requirements analysis is the process of determining what is required of a system or
project. The design of the system will be based upon the user’s needs. As the discussion
above noted, the primary requirement for this application is the successful information
exchange between the public and the 37th Street SW transportation functional planning
group. A website, including an online interactive mapping function and an online
discussion forum with a graphic user-friendly interface, can achieve this task to some
degree.
Fig. 6. Cartographic model of implementation procedure.

Fig. 6 (continued)
In order to achieve the main objective of this project, the application must be designed
in such a way that its use is easy. Due to the varying degree of computer skills of the users,
the interface should be self-explanatory and help files must be really helpful.
Second, no matter how well the data capture and management capabilities of this
application are designed, if the input into this system is not valuable as a resource to the
associated communities and the public, the application will be deemed a failure. Letting
the people participate and share their opinions is the essential function for this study and
consequently an online public participation discussion forum is embedded in the
application Web site to achieve this goal.
Finally, it should be stated that the primary objective of this project is to develop a Web
site, including GIS mapping, for the successful exchange of information between the 37th
FPS and the public, and not to develop a Web site for performing transportation analysis
over the Internet. Consequently, the major functional requirements include the following:
† Navigation operations such zoom in, zoom out, pan, full extend, among others.
† Browsing spatial data and identifying the associated attributes.
† Querying of street names, traffic volumes.
† Querying of traffic accident based on the number of vehicles, start times, among others.
† Buffer analysis of traffic accident locations.
† Saving GIS files to the local computer.
† Printing maps.
† Submitting the user’s opinions regarding transportation project options through an
online discussion forum.
† Browsing related links of other transportation-planning projects.
These functions were achieved through a website that links online interactive mapping
applications. Many GIS and computer technologies, in particular VBScript, Jscript and
ArcXML, ArcIMS 4.0, MS FrontPage and free, open resources such as Bonfire Studio and
Web Wiz Forums were used to design and implement this Web-based PPGIS application.
4.4.2. Authoring a map configuration file

The data collection component of the 37th FPS is obtained by accessing the City of
Calgary Web site and by contacting the transportation safety department at the City of
Calgary. Once the data is adequately organized and processed for the application, the
creation of map configuration files takes place. Initially, ArcIMS Author was used to
generate the *.axl extension files and, in a subsequent process, these files were modified
using Bonfire software which is one of the XML programming tools.
As mentioned previously, ArcIMS Author defines the content of the map to be
published on the Internet, what the data will look like and what data will be used. That is to
say, when using the ArcIMS applications to create a basic ArcIMS Web site, Author
compiles data (e.g., shapefiles, etc.), chosen by the user, into map layers; it determines
capabilities such as scale dependency, feature rendering characteristics, and geocoding;
and, finally, produces an ArcXML map configuration file. This file is used by the
Administrator to start a Map Service. The ArcIMS Spatial Server parses demands, collects
Fig. 7. Shows the process of generating a map configuration file.
the requested data, and then forwards it to clients based on the specifications set out in the
map configuration file. (Fig. 7).
Basically, two map configuration files were created. One was created for the overview
map of the application that included: referential data as the boundary of the City of
Calgary and community regions. The second map configuration file generated, included
the associated spatial data that had been collected (e.g. traffic accident point data, roadnet
including traffic volume information, community boundaries, Fish Creek Park boundary,
predefined improvement network) for various purposes.
Symbols, layer visibility and scale were assigned to different layers to facilitate the
visualization of attributes on the Internet where users are not able to change or create their
own. This helps users to emphasize and interpret queries and features.
Finally, the visibility of some layers was turned off in order to display just a few layers
when the user first accesses the web site. The goal is not to saturate the site with too much
visible information. The user will be able to turn them on when it becomes necessary.
Conversely with the feature services, the visibility of layers is determined in the definition
of map configuration files. When creating a feature image service and web site, the layer
visibility can be defined at the last stage of the Web mapping process, while the
functionality and appearance are considered using ArcIMS Designer.
In addition, besides the ArcIMS Author, ArcView 3.2 (with a special extension) or
ArcMap can be used to create map configuration files. ArcIMS Author and ArcView
generate *.axl extension files that are understandable by map services, while ArcMap
generates an *.mxd extension file that is understandable by a special map service in
ArcIMS—the ArcMap Image Service.
4.4.3. Extending web sites with ArcXML

While ArcIMS Author offers a wide variety of functionality to add to your Web site,
even more functionality is available through additional ArcXML tags. As was discussed in
Chapter 3, XML is a universal format for exchanging structured data on the Web. The
XML structure is similar to HTML, but the two languages are very different. HTML uses a
fixed element set that defines how to display content in a browser. XML is a custom
element set that defines the content to be displayed.
ArcXML is an XML specification for ArcIMS, which uses an element hierarchy to

define map and viewer configuration files. In other words, all ArcXML statements are
assembled using elements organized in a hierarchical fashion. These elements are
categorized as parent and/or child elements with the latter embedded inside parent
elements (Ho, 2002). It also defines requests and responses between clients, the Web
server, and the ArcIMS spatial server. ArcXML requires a set of rules that must be
followed carefully. All elements must be in uppercase and have both an opening and
closing tag. All attributes must be lowercase, and all attribute values must be placed inside
double quotes. Failure to follow ArcIMS syntax rules may cause an ArcIMS Service not to
refresh.
The map configuration file of the overview map below is used to demonstrate the
element hierarchy of ArcXML (Fig. 8). Although you can add many elements to the map
configuration file by using ArcIMS Author, you cannot add all elements from its interface.
By manually inserting ArcXML elements and appending element attributes to the map
configuration file, additional capabilities such as data subsets, and tabular joins, which are
not available through the ArcIMS Author interface, can be accessed. In this application
study, an acetate layer and callout labels were added.
An acetate layer is generated with Image MapServices to add graphics in a map
separate from the data layers and it is only visible in an HTML Viewer. Objects included
Fig. 8. Portion of a map configuration file showing the ArcXML structure.

Fig. 9. Map of the study area showing the addition of callout labels.
in the default acetate layer include the north arrow, copyright text, and scale bar. A new
LAYER element is added and its type is set to acetate layer. When the user pans or zooms,
the acetate layer will remain static.
The only way to add objects to the acetate layer is by manually editing the map
configuration file. An acetate layer includes an Object element that defines an object to be
drawn in it. The position of the object is set by pixel coordinate values, with the 0,0 origin
at the bottom left corner of the map display. In order to see the new acetate layer object, the
Traffic Accident Image Service must be refreshed. Similarly, the new acetate layer object
was added to the StudyArea.axl file as well.
The custom symbology can be added to a map by adding ArcXML elements to the map
configuration file. In this application, callout boxes were added to label three communities
names that were affected by 37th FPS (Fig. 9).
4.4.4. Publishing ArcIMS services

In the second step, the ArcIMS Administrator was used to take the output from Author
(the.axl file) and to create a Map Service. A Map Service makes the contents of the Map
Configuration file (i.e., the data layer content and symbology) accessible through the Web.
Depending on the approach for retrieving the spatial data, the map services can be an
Image or a Feature. A Feature Service uses the Feature Server. Rather than a map being
rendered on the server, data is bundled and streamed to the requesting client. Since the
client does more of the processing, requests are sent to an ArcIMS Spatial Server only
when additional data is needed. The Image Service uses the Image Server. When a request
is received, a map is generated by the Spatial Server and sent to the client as an image. A
new map image is generated each time the client requests new information. With a Feature
Service, the map server bundles the data as vectors and attributes and sends it to the client
through a process called streaming. Unlike Image Services, Feature Services are locally
cached and the client computer can perform further geoprocessing on the data (cf. ESRI
Virtual Campus-Learning ArcIMS 4.0).
It can be seen from above discussion, that the difference between an Image Service and
a Feature Service is the way in which map content is processed and delivered to the client-
as an image or as stream features. There are guidelines provided by ESRI to determine
which type of service to create (ESRI Document: Using ArcIMS). For example, if required
functionality is limited to simply view and query, and data layers are mainly for reference,
an Image Service will be the best choice. Conversely, when you want a client side solution
and data layers for use in further analysis, a Feature Service will need to be created. Based
on these guidelines, the Image service was chosen for the traffic accident information web
page because data are confidential and mainly used for display. While, the Feature Service
was selected for traffic volume information as some users may want to download traffic
volume data for their own particular analysis.
In addition, any request to change, stop, create and refresh a map service is executed in
the ArcIMS Administrator. Every time changes to a map configuration file are made, the
corresponding map service(s) has to be refreshed. In addition, if the change of the map
configuration file corresponds to a Feature Service, the associated Web site must be rebuilt
to reflect the change.
4.4.5. Designing the web site for GIS mapping

The next step in the online mapping creation stage is the design of the web site using
ArcIMS Designer. The services, functionality and appearance of the site are defined at this
stage.
The services used to create the website were the image services of Overview,
StudyArea, Traffic Accident and the feature service of traffic volume previously started in
ArcIMS Administrator. ArcIMS Designer has a wizard-driven application that helps
identify and include the map elements and functionality on the site. All map services
have to be running constantly in order to create a website using those map services. The
map services are not a physical file created in the web server; they are the bridge that
connects how the data is rendered (the map configuration files), the data itself and how
the data will be transferred to the client (in this case a member of the public wishing to
view the map).
After the Map service is initialized, the website can be designed. This step consists of
creating the HTML pages; defining the type of client viewer to be used (HTML, Java
Standard or Java Custom); and, defining the page elements included in the website such as
the overview map and functional tools. However, ArcIMS Designer cannot create a site
that is flexible enough to meet the exacting specification of all applications. It is certainly
not unreasonable to think that you may want to change the default frame layout; add
custom text, tools, change colors; or provide for dynamic customization solutions for the
end-users. The following sections will address these issues.
4.4.6. Customizing the HTML viewer

When created through ArcIMS Designer, the HTML viewer template is comprised of
several frames; many HTML pages, a JavaScript library, and a parameter file
(ArcIMSparam.js) that allows for customizing the Web page.
The default layout of ArcIMS does not always meet the user’s needs and
application purposes. In this study, which involved supplying traffic accident
information at the website, the title size, colour and background image were changed
to refine the look of the Web site by editing the codes for the top.htm file and
ArcIMSparam.js file. In addition, the toolbar on the left side shows many default tools
provided by ArcIMS—some of them are not useful for the application. Some of the
default tools were removed from the toolbar as they did not fit the purpose of this
application. The layer list is used to turn on and off layers displayed in the map and
switches a layer to active status in order to be able to query that layer. For a user who
has little or no GIS knowledge, the layer list would only add confusion. Therefore, a
truly helpful help file is needed. As a result, a hyperlink was created in the layout for
displaying a help file.
The main purpose of mapping the study area of 37th FPS is to display the area that is
affected by the functional study. Consequently, the layer list and some buttons were
removed to simplify the web site. The toolbar was customized with only one column to fit
a few buttons. However, the default toolbar is patterned in a two-column-wide table by
ArcIMS. In other words, each button in ArcIMS is placed in a cell within an HTML table
(Toolbar.htm) that has two columns. The JavaScript code keeps track of where it is on the
table using the isSecond variable. In addition, a hyperlink was created at the bottom right
of the layout for displaying a help file.
4.4.7. Customizing the java viewer

Before customizing the Java Viewer, it is essential to know the structures and functions
of the Java Viewer files. Similar to the HTML Viewer, after creating a Java viewer Web
site using the ArcIMS Designer application, ArcIMS creates many HTML files. When
opening a Java Custom viewer created by ArcIMS Designer, files are opened in sequence.
The first file to open is the default.htm. Index.htm is a common entry point for many Web
sites pointing to the default.htm, which is also used to check the client browser. If Internet
Explorer is detected, the ie.htm will be loaded and the system will ensure that the correct
version of the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) is already installed on the client
computer. If not, the client is given the opportunity to download it. After that, the
frame.htm, which defines the dimensions and location of frames and related HTML Web
pages, will be loaded. If Netscape is detected, a message appears informing the user that
Netscape is not supported for Java Custom viewers. It is only reachable by the client for
Java Standard viewers.
The toolbar.htm file defines the position of buttons on the toolbar, while the function.js
file is a JavaScript file used to define the functionality of each button in the toolbar.
When a user clicks a button, an assigned request will execute. Toolbar.htm makes calls
to functions.js. Another JavaScript file called default.js is used to define the functionality
created during the ArcIMS Designer process. It is analogous to the ArcIMSparam.js file
used with HTML viewers.
Fig. 10. The layout of the modified Java viewer web page.
As with HTML Viewer, you can customize the look and functionality of the Web site
by editing JavaScript codes of these files to meet the particular application purpose. For
this study, light customization was done by modifying the default.htm, frame.htm,
title.htm, bottom.htm, overovew.htm and toolbar.htm.
Besides the title size, colour and background image also were changed to refine the look
of the average traffic volume Web sites by editing the codes for frame.htm file, title.htm
and default.js file. The overview map was removed as it did not provide a good frame of
reference. In addition, a hyperlink was created at the bottom, right hand side of the layout
for displaying a help file. Fig. 10 shows the layout of the modified web pages. When the
user puts the mouse over the road line, the number in the light yellow box indicates the
volume of the traffic.
4.4.8. Public participation web site design

Two different web sites were designed for the application. The first corresponds to the
Web-based GIS Mapping application, which was discussed above. The other corresponds
to the web site that contains the public participation section and the information related to
the 37th FPS such as the background information for the study, the issues matrix, the
project options and details, and so on. Microsoft FrontPage 2000 was used to create the
web pages. The home page (Fig. 11) is the entrance to the 37th Street SW Functional
Planning Study Web site and introduces the objectives of this study. Fig. 12 shows
Fig. 11. Interface of the home page.
Fig. 12. Interface of the Public Participation web page.

Fig. 13. Interface of the online discussion web page.
the Public Participation web page. Web Wiz Forum 7.6 was used to create the online
discussion forum to which a registered, logged-in user can post messages to related topics
and get replies from other users and to the project group as well (Fig. 13). The detailed
description of each function will be addressed in the following chapter.
CHAPTER 5
Results and discussion
5.1. Introduction
In this penultimate chapter, the online website is described and screen shots from the
website are presented. The strengths and weaknesses of the approach are also discussed. The
chapter begins by describing the various GIS functions that were built into the application.
Selection and Query tools are explained and illustrated. Differences between the Query
Builder tools for different browsers are also clarified. One of the commonest GIS operations
in transportation planning is the buffer operation where points or lines are surrounded by
circles or corridors and the features located within the buffered region are examined and
analysed. The chapter concludes with an illustration of this particular function which is also
built into the application owing to its usefulness and universal appeal.
Fig. 14. Map showing a particular selection and its results.

5.2. Results
The 37th FPS application was created with online GIS mapping functions. It includes
two parts, one is public participation and the other is a direct link to the Interactive Online
GIS Mapping where the user can access four different online mapping functions. These are
the online map of the 37th FPS, traffic location information, traffic volume information
with HTML viewer and traffic volume information with Java Viewer. Only the last one
was created with Java Viewer, while the others were created with HTML Viewer. The
reason traffic volume information was displayed with different viewers and a different
format was because some computers might have problems downloading Java Applets. As
a result, an HTML Viewer of traffic volume information was added to the project.
Besides map navigation functions such as zoom in, zoom out, full extent, and pan, there are
other GIS functions available in this application based on different viewers. Fig. 14 shows that
a rectangular selection that was requested near the intersection between Anderson Road and
Macleod Trail area. As the traffic-accident-from-July-to-September layer is the active layer,
the selection is made on this layer. Notice the traffic accident locations are highlighted in
yellow as a result of the selection and the results are displayed at the bottom of the map
window. Each resulting record of the selection has a link associated that allows the user to
zoom in on the feature. Next to the rectangle selection at the bottom is the clear selection tool.
Query is a powerful tool for any GIS application. In this case, the query builder button
tool is executed on the numerical or string fields of the active layer. The user has to
Fig. 15. Query builder in the HTML viewer of 37th FPS application.
construct the logical expression, confirm the query string and then press the Execute
button. Fig. 15 shows a query that is executing based on the start date of traffic accident
that occurs with TrafficAcc_July_Sep layer, which is the active layer. The numerical and
string fields of the layer are available in the box list under Field title. The user chooses the
field, the operator and the value. If the user does not know the valid values for the field they
can click the GET SAMPLES button to obtain the full list. Only after the EXECUTE button
is clicked, is the query expression evaluated.
Fig. 16 shows a screen print of the Java viewer feature service created initially for the
traffic volume information. Notice that the Query Builder tool in this website has more
functionality than the query builder of HTML viewers. Finally, Fig. 17 shows the buffer
function available in the project. Before doing the buffer analysis, the user has to select the
feature and indicate the layer of the selected feature.
For the Public Participation Web page the user can access much of the information
associated with 37th FPS including map of study area, background information on the
functional planning project information, project options and an online discussion group
which is a forum system for Calgarians to learn about issues and to share opinions
regarding the 37th FPS (Fig. 18). The system administrator is expected to be in charge of
all the various operations for the whole system (e.g. the create, adjust, delete any forum’s
and forum categories, set forum permissions, lock forums, password protect forums, set
Fig. 16. Query builder in the Java viewer of the 37th FPS application
Fig. 17. Buffer analysis of traffic accident locations.
Fig. 18. The online discussion forum entrance page.

permissions on forums, etc.). He/she can also control who uses the forum system (for
security reasons) by banning IP and/or email addresses.
The system administrator and registered users both can add and/or reply to topics that
concern the public in time for online discussion. An MS Access database holds all
information and records input by all users, which could be used for further analysis.
5.3. Conclusion
This chapter has described and illustrated the functionality of a web-based, public
participation tool that has been implemented as an online GIS application. This application
is a first step in involving citizens directly via a browser interface and GIS software in the
transportation planning process. The final chapter in the monograph will summarize the
research finding and provide an indication of where web-based PPGIS research will
proceed in the future.
CHAPTER 6
Summary, suggestions for further research and conclusions
6.1. Introduction
In the final chapter of the monograph the effectiveness of the methodology is assessed
and a set of conclusions from the case study are presented. Questions relating to the so-
called digital divide and concerns over access to this methodology are raised. The related
issues of the reliability and the degree to which input from web-based sources is
representative is also addressed.
6.2. An assessment of the methodology
Web-based GIS applications have a promising future for the GIS community. They
allow users, without GIS software or experience, to visualize, share and manage
geographic data using an Internet connection. Using online mapping application
software such as ArcIMS from ESRI, the 37th FPS application brings to the public a
dynamic and an interactive way to explore transportation planning
information in a functional planning study area. The 37th FPS is a scalable
application because it can be extended by adding more map services and customizing
the web site.
For a successful Web-based PPGIS application, it is important to consider what
kind of Web browsers users are likely to have and what kinds of network connections
they have. Although, it is not easy to predict the actual user profile, the server
configuration needs to account for both the capacity of the Web mapping servers and
the user’s accessibility (Peng and Tsou, 2003). If a user has only a regular 56K
modem connection, the possible choice of client viewers will be limited to an HTML-
based viewer instead of plug-in or Java applets. Therefore, after the Java View of
traffic volume information function was tested and the problem with downloading
Java Applets was discovered, an HTML view of traffic volume information function
was added to the project.
The primary goal of Web-based PPGIS is to provide an ancillary approach in terms of
raising the level of public participation. While it is quite apparent that there are many
advantages of using Web-based technologies for PPGIS and planning (Tsagarousianou
et al., 1998; Kingston et al., 2000; Chua and Wong, 2002). However, there are still some
key issues associated with the success of Web-based PPGIS.
6.3. The digital divide and access to technology
One of the main concerns involves access to technology. It cannot be assumed that
everyone has access to the internet although the majority of people will have access to the
Internet at home or work, school, public libraries, and other public locations. Those people
lacking access to the Internet may remain isolated and even if they do have access it is
unlikely that everyone will have the appropriate computer skills or even a basic knowledge
of GIS operations (Waters, 2002).
Moreover, the design of a Web-based PPGIS should be based on sound principles from
the field of Human Computer Interface research (HCI) (Haklay and Tobon, 2003). There is
a lack of basic computer skills in some socio-economic groups and issues of interface
design need to be addressed. Systems need to be developed which can be set to different
levels of skill depending upon the user’s knowledge. These observations indicate that Web
based PPGIS will be easier to use if they have a user-friendly interface, and are more
flexible, and accommodating to the general public.
Moreover, establishment of trust is another key issue with PPGIS. People want to be
able to make sure that their input is going to be used to make real changes. If users are
doubtful about the use that their input is going to have, the PPGIS system could become
ineffective. It is not easy to get citizens interested in transportation planning when the
results of their input may not be seen for years to come (Chua and Wong, 2002).
Moreover, citizens and commuters often do not think in the same way or using the
same terminology as transportation planners. The concepts that they use commonly
involve “fuzzy entities” that are expressed in vague, poorly defined terms that do not fit
neatly into the transportation planners’ predefined categories. Successful PPGIS
implementation in the future will be those that can adapt to these fuzzy concepts (Lynott
and Keever, 2000). Trust and confidence is developed most effectively through face-to-
face social interaction. Kingston et al., 2000).
6.4. The question of reliability
Finally, there is the question of just how reliable is public opinion when it is acquired
through the Internet? Websites are accessible to all who have the right technology and this
could lead to misuse. Web-based PPGIS administrators must be prepared to monitor the site’s
ongoing traffic (Kingston et al., 2000). Are the comments of an American or an Australian on a
public participation exercise being held in Calgary, Canada, as valid as a Calgarian’s
comments? For this study, the system administrator is able to track and to ban the user’s IP
address. However, the system needs an IP Address Detection System to filter the IP addresses
and associated discussion from other countries. It is important to indicate that traditional
public participation techniques must not be abandoned, since Web-based spatial decision
support systems are not a panacea. The traditional participation techniques must be employed
in addition to Web based spatial decision support systems for public participation.
6.5. Conclusions
The implementation of the 37th FPS project involved the use of technologies. Based on
this development experience, the following conclusions can be obtained:
† The 37th FPS application brings to the public a dynamic and interactive way to explore
transportation planning information in a functional planning study area.
† The 37th FPS is a scalable application because it can be extended by adding more map
services and customizing the web site.
† The capacity of the Web mapping servers and the user’s accessibility is important for a
successful Web-based PPGIS application.
† The knowledge of various GIS/Computer technologies, being familiar with the features
of PPGIS and appropriate needs analyses are all critical in order to select the most
appropriate approaches to implement a WPPGIS application.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Dr Darren Bender and the technicians (Bart Hulshof and Dave Nuell) in the
Department of Geography, University of Calgary, who helped in setting up ESRI ArcIMS
4.0 for this study.
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The internet, GIS and public participation

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1.2. Organization of the monograph

This monograph includes six chapters and references. Chapter 1 presents an

the required analysis and implementation procedures such as the implementation

Public participation, transportation planning and GIS

2.2. The general urban transportation planning process

† Create a map. TransCAD for the Web is based on Caliper’s TransCAD

2.3. Public participation in urban transportation planning

More infill, clustered, higher density development.

involvement component allows residents to understand exactly what it is they are

As the discussion above indicates, public participation is an essential component of

2.4. The theory of public participation in transportation planning

2.4.1. The process of public participation

† Exploring the problem including issues and concerns.

as does the Canadian Federal Government (see http://www.iigr.ca/pdf/documents/

2.4.2. The level of public participation

Fig. 1. The e-participation ladder (based on Kingston, 2002b).

2.4.3. The techniques of public participation in transportation planning

In addition, there are several additional techniques for public participation in

Participation Providing Receiving Interaction Giving Broad cross-sec-

2.5. Public participation with GIS (PPGIS)

As mentioned above, GIS is increasingly employed in planning research and

The theory of web-based PPGIS

3.2. Background of web-based GIS

Fig. 2. GIS, public participation, internet and their integrations.

3.3. Web-based GIS system architectures

3.3.1. Server-side applications

3.3.2. Client-side applications

Server-side solution Client-side solution (Java-based)

3.3.3. A hybrid approach

3.4. Web-based GIS technologies

Web-based GIS is an effective medium for PPGIS. However, Web-based GIS

3.4.1. Mark-up languages

hypermedia information. The hyperlinks in an HTML document define links between a

3.4.2. Server based techniques and extensions

3.4.3. Client-side techniques and extensions

3.4.3.2. ActiveX. Another Internet client programming technique is Microsoft’s

3.5. Web-based PPGIS model

Concept for W-based System Analysis

Support for citizen through W-based GIS

System System Integration

development processes. The development of a Web-based GIS for public participation

4.2. Research background and study area

Fig. 4. 37th Street SW Functional Planning Study Area.

4.3. System architecture

4.3.1. Components outside of ArcIMS

Web Browser (HTML &Java)

37th FPTS Application

Internet Information Server

ArcIMS Application & Spatial Server (Map Server)

Fig. 5. System Architecture.