ALTERNATING CURRENT

INTRODUCTION
Voltages and currents that vary symmetrically in magnitude and direction with time are very com-
mon. The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies like a sine function with time.
Such a voltage is called alternating voltage (ac voltage) and the current driven through the appliances is called
the alternating current (ac current)

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF AC GENERATION:

Alternating voltage is generated by rotating a coil of conducting wire in a strong magnetic field. The
magnetic flux linked with the coil changes with time and an alternating emf is thus induced. Instantaneous flux
linked with coil is
 
  ( A . B )n 

 ABn cos(t  0 )
where A = area of the coil (in m2)
B = magnetic field ( in tesla) B
n = number of turns =t
n̂
2
 = angular frequency   2f (in rad s-1)
T
f = frequency (in hertz)
0 = initial phase angle.
With the change of time cos  t  0  changes consequently an emf V is induced. According to
Farady’s law
d
V 
dt
d
 [ ABn cos(t  0 )]
dt
 ABn  sin(t   0 )
(t)
V  Vm sin(t  0 )
T/2 3/2T
O t
T 2T
Here Vm = voltage amplitude of sinusoidal volt-
age or the peak value of ac voltage
+Vm
where Vm  ABn
The time variation of magnetic flux and the corre- V(t)
T 2T
sponding induced voltage are shown in the following dia- O 3/2T t
T/2
gram. -Vm

Note: that (i) induced, voltage is maximum where the flux linked with the coil is zero and vice versa.
This means that the slope of  t graph is the induced voltage (Faraday’s law).
(ii) Cyclic variation of  and V are identical, consisting of positive and negative half cycles.
AVERAGE VALUES OF ac VOLTAGE AND ac CURRENT:
AC voltage or currrents are commonly sinusoidal (sine or cosine function) and their mean values for
complete cycle is zero. The average values for half cycles are equally positive and negative
(i) Average value for one half cycle (or rectified average value):
V  Vm sin t

T /2

 V dt
0 2
T /2

 (V ) av  T /2
  V sin t dt
0
T 0

0
dt

2
 V0  0.637V0 .


This is also known as the rectified average value of a sinusoidal voltage and is repre-
sented as Vav .
(ii) Root Mean Square Value (Vrms or I rms ) :
Since V or I are equally negative and positive, their squares will always be positive and the
square root of the average of their square will give the rms values.
 V  Vm sin t
T
1
(V 2 ) av   Vm2 sin 2 t dt
T 0

Vm2 T Vm2
   
2T 0
(1 cos 2 t ) dt
2

Vm
Thus Vrms  (V 2 ) av 
2
Im
and I rms  ( I 2 ) av 
2
Peak value
or RMS value =
2

How do we measure sinusoidally varying voltage or current?

Moving coil galvanometer measure steady currents but if we pass sinusoidal current through
them, the needle may wiggle at low fequency but its average deflection is zero. Hot wire
instruments are commonly used to measure the rms values (also known as virtual values).

It must be emphasied here that meters used for ac voltage and current measurement are
always calibrated to read rms values, not peak (or maximum) or rectified average values.
The usual domestic power supply “220 - volt ac” has an rms voltage of 220 V. The voltage
amplitude or peak value is
Vm  2 Vrms  2(220V )  311V .
Illustration: If a domestic appliance draws 2.5 A from a 220-V, 60- Hz power supply, find
(a) the average current
(b) the average of the square of the current
(c) the current amplitude
(d) the supply voltage amplitude.
Solution: (a) The average of sinusoidal AC values over any whole number of cycles is zero.
(b) RMS value of current = Irms = 2.5 A
2 2 2
 ( I ) av  ( I rms )  6.25 A
Im
(c) I rms 
2
 Current amplitude  2 I rms  2(2.5 A)
= 3.5 A
Vm
(d) Vrms  220V 
2
 Supply voltage amplitude
Vm  2(Vrms )  2(220V )
= 311 V.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR :

A resistor connected to a source  of ac voltage as shown in the ciruit digram . The symbol for an ac
source in a circuit diagram is . For simplicity, we consider a source which produces sinusoidally varying
potential difference across its terminals. Let this potential difference, also called ac voltage, be given by
V  Vm sin t …[i]
where Vm is the amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage and  is its angular frequency..

 R

AC voltage applied to a resistor

The instantaneous potential drop across the resistor R is

Vm sin t  IR
Vm
or I sin t
R
Since R is a constant, we can wire this equation as
I  I m sin t …[ii]
where I is the instantaneous current and the current amplitude Im is given by
Vm
Im  …[iii]
R
 Vm V
Equation [iii] is just Ohm’s law which for resistors work equally Im I
well for both ac and dc voltages. The voltage across a pure resistor and the
current through it, given by equation [i] and [ii] are plotted as a function of O   t
time in figure. Note, in particular that both V and I reach zero, minimum and
maximum values at the same time. Clearly, the voltage and current are in
phase for a circuit containing pure resistance. In a pure resistor, the voltage and current
are in phase. The minima with zero and
maxima occur at the same respective times.

We see that, like the applied voltage, the current varies sinusoidally and has corresponding positive
and negative values during each cycle. Thus, the sum of the instantaneous current values over one
complete cycle is zero, and the average current is zero. The fact that the average current is zero,
however, does not mean that the average power is zero and that there is no dissipation of electrical energy. As
you know, joule heating is given by I2 R and depends on I 2 (which is always positive whether I is positive or
negative) and not on I. Thus there is Joule heating and dissipation of electrical energy when an ac current
passes through a resistor.
The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is
P  I 2 R  I 2m R sin 2 t …[iv]
The average value of P over a cycle is
P  I 2 R  I 2m R sin 2 t  …[v (a)]
where the bar over a letter(here, P) denotes its average value and <……> denotes taking average of
the quantity inside the bracket. Since, I2m and R are constants,
P  I 2m R  sin 2 t > … [v (b)]

Using the trigonometric identity, sin 2 t  (1  cos 2t) , we have  sin 2 t 
2
1
 (1  cos 2t ) and since  cos 2t  0 . we have
2
1
 sin 2 t 
2
1
Thus, P  I2m R …[v (c)]
2
To express ac power in the same form as dc power (P  I 2 R) , as special value of current is used. It
is called, root mean square (rms) or effective current and is denoted by I rms . It is defined by

1 2 I
I rms  I 2  Im  m
2 2
 0.707 I m … [vi]
In terms of I rms , the average power is
1
P  I 2m R  I 2rms R …[vii]
2
 I
Im
Irms

O   t

-Im
The rms current Irms is related to the peak current
I
Im by Irms = m = 0.707 Im.
2

Similarly, we define the rms voltage or effective voltage by

Vm
Vrms   0.707 Vm …[viii]
2
From equation [iii], we have
Vm  I m R
Vm Im
or  R
2 2
or Vrms  Irms R …[ix]

Equation [ix] gives the relation between ac current and voltage and is similar to that in the dc case.
This shows the advantage of introducing the concept of rms values. In terms of rms values, the equation for
power and relation between current and voltage in ac circuits are essentially the same as those for the dc
case.
It is customary to measure and specify rms values for ac quantities. For example, the household line
voltage of 220 V is an rms value with a peak voltage of
Vm  2 Vrms  (1.414)(220 V)  311V
In fact, the I rms or rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce the same average
power loss as the alternating current. Equation [vii] can also be written as
2
P  Vrms / R  I rms Vrms (since Vrms  Irms R )

Illustration: A light bulb is rated at 200 W for a 220 V supply. Find

(a) the resistance of the bulb;
(b) the peak voltage of the source; and
(c) the rms current through the bulb.
Solution: (a) We are given P = 100 W and V = 220 V. The resistance of the bulb is
2
Vrms (220V) 2
R   242
P 200W
(b) The peak voltage of the source is
Vm  2Vrms  311V
(c) Since, P  I rms Vrms
P 200W
Irms    0.90A .
Vrms 220V
REPRESENTATION OF AC CURRENT AND VOLTAGE BY ROTATING VECTORS – PHASORS:
In the previous section, we saw that the current through a resistor is in phase with the ac voltage. But
this is not so in the case of an inductor, a capacitor or a combination of these circuit elements. In order to
show phase relationship between voltage and current in an ac circuit. we use the motion of PHASORS. The
analysis of an ac circuit is facilitated by the use of a phasor diagram. A phasor is a vector which rotates about
the origin with angular speed  , as shown in figure. The vertical components of phasors V and I represent
the sinusoidally varying quantities V and I. The magnitudes of phasors V and I represent the amplitudes or the
peak values Vm and Im of these oscillating quantities. Figure (a) shows the voltage and their relationship at
time t1 for the case of an ac source connected to a resistor i.e., corresponding to the circuit show in figure.
The projection of voltage and current phasors on vertical axis, i.e., Vm sin t and I m sin t , respectively
represent the instaneous value of voltage and current at that instant. As they rotate with frequency  , curves
in figure(b) are generated which respresent the sinusoidal variation of voltage and current with time.

Vm sin t1 V
V
I I
t1
O t1   t
Im sin t1

(a) (b)
(a) A phasor diagram for the circuit in figure
(b) Graph of V and I versus t.

From figure (a) we see that phasors V and I for the case of a resistor are in the same phase. This is
so for all times. This means that the phase angle between the voltage and the current is zero.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR:

An ac source connected to an inductor as shown in the circuit below. Usually, inductors have appre-
ciable resistance in their windings, but we shall assume that this ideal inductor has negligible resistance. Thus,
the circuit is a purely inductive ac circuit. Let the voltage across the source be V  Vm sin t . Using the
Kirchhoff’s loop rule.  (t)  0 , and since there is no resistor in the circuit.
dI
VL 0 …[x]
dt

 L

An AC source connected to an inductor

where the second term is the self-induced emf in the inductor; and L is the self-inductance of the coil.
The negative sign follows from Lenz’s law. Combining equation [i] and [x], we have
 dI V Vm
  sin t …[xi]
dt L L

Equation [xi] implies that the equation for I(t), the current as a function of time, must be such that its
slope dI/dt is a sinusoidally varying quantity, with the same phase as the source voltage and an amplitude
Vm dI
given by . To obtain the current, we integrate with respect to time:
L dt
dI Vm
 dt dt  L 
sin(t) dt

Vm
we get, I   cos(t) + constant.
L

The integration constant has the dimension of current and is time-independent. Since the source has
an emf which oscillates symmetrically about zero, the current it sustains also oscillates symmetrically about
zero, so that no constant or time-independent component of the current exists. Therefore, the integration
 
constant is zero. Using  cos(t)  sin  t   , we have
 2

 
i  I m sin  t   …[xii]
 2
Vm
where I m  is the amplitude of the current. The quantity L is analogous to the resistance and
L
is called inductive reactance, denoted by X L :

X L  L  2fL …[xiii]

The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit is ohm () .
The inductive reactance limits the current in a pure inductive circuit in the same way as does the resistance.
In a pure resistive circuit. The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and in the fre-
quency of the voltage source.

A comparison of equation [i] and [ii] for the source voltage and the current in an inductor shows that
 1
the current lags the voltage by or one-quarter   cycle. Figure shows the voltage and the current
2 4

phasors in the present case at instant t 1 . The current phasor I is behind the voltage phasor V. When
2
rotated with frequency  counter-clockwise, they generate the voltage and current given by equation [i] and
[xii], respectively and as shown in figure (b)
 Vm sin t1 V
V I
t1 t1
O   t
I
Im sin (t1-/2)

(a) (b)
(a) A phasor diagram for the circuit in figure
(b) Graph of V and I versus t.

We see that the current reaches its maximum value later than the voltage by one-fourth of a period
T / 2
 4    . You have seen that an inductor has reactance that limits current similar to resistance in a dc
 
circuit. Does it also consume power like a resistance? Let us try to find out.
The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is
 
PL  IV  Im sin  t   Vm sin(t)
 2
Im Vm
  I m Vm cos(t).sin(t)  sin(2t)
2
So, the average power over a complete cycle is
I m Vm
PL   sin(2t)
2
I m Vm
 sin(2t) = 0.
2
since the average of sin(2t) over a complete cycle is zero.
Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.

Physically, this result means the follows. During the first quarter of each current cycle, the flux
through the inductor builds up and sets up a magnetic field and energy is stored in the inductor. In the next
quarter of cycle, as the current decrease, the flux decreases and the stored energy is returned to the source.
Thus, in each half cycle, the energy which is withdrawn from the source is returned to it without any dissipa-
tion of power.

Illustration: A pure inductor of 50.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive
reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz.
Solution: The inductive reactance.
X L  2fL  2  3.14  50  50  103 
 15.7 
The rms current in the circuit is
Vrms 220V
I rms    14.01A .
X L 15.7
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR:
An ac source  connected to a capacitor only, a purely capacitive ac circuit is as shown.

A B

 C

An ac source connected to a capacitor

When a capacitor is connected to a voltage source in a dc circuit, transient current will flow for the
short time required to charge the capacitor. As charge accumulates on the capacitor plates, the voltage
across them increases, opposing the current. That is , a capacitor in a dc circuit will limit or oppose the current
as it charges. When the capacitor is fully charged, the current in the circuit falls to zero.

When the capacitor is connected to an ac source, as in figure, it limits or regulates the current, but
does not completely prevent the flow of charge. The capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the
current reverses each half cycle. Let q(t) be the charge on the capacitor at any time t. The instantaneous
voltage V(t) across the capacitor is
q(t)
V(t)  …[xv]
C
From the Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the voltage across the source and the capacitor are equal,
q
Vm sin t 
C
dq
To find the current, we use the relation I 
dt
d
I (Vm Csin t)  CVm cos(t)
dt
 
Using the relation, cos(t)  sin  t   , we have
 2

 
I  Im sin  t   …[xvi]
 2
where the amplitude of the oscillating current is
Vm
Im 
(1/ C)

Vm
Comparing it to I m  for a purely resistive circuit, we find that (1/ C) plays the role of resis-
R
tance. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc ,
X c  1/ C  1/ 2 fC …[xvii]
so that the amplitude of the current is
 Vm
Im  …[xviii]
Xc
The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit is Ohm () .
The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely capacitive circuit in the same way as
does the resistance in a purely resistive circuit. But it is inversely proportional to the frequency and the
capacitance.


V V

I 
t1 t
O t1  

(a) (b)
(a) Phasor diagram of V and I. (b) Graphs of V and I
versus t for a series LCR circuit where X C > X L.

A comparison of equation [xvii] with the equation of source voltage equation [i] shows that the
current in a capacitor leads the voltage by  / 2 . Figure (a) shows the phasor diagram at an instant t1 . Here

the current phasor I is rad ahead of the voltage phasor V as they rotate counter clockwise. Figure (b)
2
shows the variation of voltage and current with time. We see that the current reaches its maximum value
earlier than the voltage by one-fourth of a period.

The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is

PC  IV  I m cos(t).Vm sin(t)
= I m Vm cos(t)sin(t)
I m Vm
 sin(2t) …[xix]
2
So, as in the case of an inductor, the average power
Im Vm I V
P sin(2t)  m m sin(2t)  0
2 2
since sin(2t)  0 over a complete cycle. As discussed in the case of an inductor, the energy
stored by a capacitor in each quarter period is returned to the source in the next quarter period.

Thus, we see that in the case of an inductor. the current lags the voltage by 90º and in the case of a
capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 90º.

Illustration: 30.0 F capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the capacitive reac-
tance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what
happens to the capacitive reactance and the current.
Solution: The capacitive reactance is
 1
XC   106
2fC
The rms current is
Vrms
I rms   2.08A
XC
The peak current is
Im  2I rms  2.96A
This current oscillates between 2.96A and – 2.96A and is ahead of the voltage by 90º.
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved and consequently, the current
is doubled.

Brain Teaser: A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source through a key as shown
in the figure.

The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the interior of the inductor. The
glow of the light-bulb (a) increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted. Give your
answer with reasons.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT:

Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source . As usual, we take the voltage of the
source to be V  Vm sin t .

 C

A series LCR circuit connected to an ac source

If q is the charge on the capacitor and I the current, at time t, we have, from Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
dI q
L  IR   V …[xx]
dt C
We want to determine the instantaneous current I and its phase relationship to the applied alternating
voltage V. We shall solve this problem by two methods. First, we use the technique of phasors and in the
second method, we solve equation [xx] analytically to obtain the time –dependence of I.
PHASOR-DIAGRAM SOLUTION:
From the circuit shown in figure we see that the resistor, inductor and capacitor are in series. there-
fore, the ac current in each element is the same, having the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
I  Im sin[t  ) … [xxi]
where  is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the circuit. On the
basis of that we construct a phasor diagram for the present case.
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by equation [xxi]. Further, let VL ,VR , VC ,
and V represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source, respectively. From previ-
 
ous section, we know that VR is in phase with I, VC is rad behind I and VL is rad ahead of I. VR ,VC
2 2
and I are shown in figure (a) with appropriate phase-relations.
The length of these phasors or the amplitude of VR ,VC and VL are :
VRm  I m R, VCm  I m X C , VLm  I m X L … [xxii]
The voltage equation (xx) for the circuit can be written as
V = VL + VR + VC … [xxiii]
The phasor relation whose vertical component gives the above equation is
V  VL  VR  VC … [xxiv]

V
I Cm -V
Lm

VR VR
V
Rm
V


VL t+  Vm
t
VC+VL
VC

(a) (b)
(a) Relation between the phasors VL, V R, VC and I. (b)
Relation between the phasors V L, V R and (V L + V C) for
the circuit in

 
This relation is represented in figure (b). Since VC and VL are always along the same line and in
 
opposite direction, they can be combined vectorilly into a single phasor (VC  VL ) which has a magnitude
     
| VCm  VLm | . Since, V is represented as the hypotenuse of a right-triangle whose sides are VR and (VC  VL ) ,
the Pythagorean theorem gives:
Vm2  VRm
2
 (VCm – VLm ) 2
Substituting the values of VRm , VCm , and VLm from equation [xxii] into the above equation, we have
Vm2  (I m R)2  (I m X C – Im X L ) 2
 I 2m [R 2  (X C – X L ) 2 ]
 Vm
or Im  … [xxv (a)]
R  (X C – X L )2
2

By analogy to the resistance in a circuit, we introduce the impedance Z in ac circuit :

Vm
Im  … [xxv (b)]
Z
where Z  R 2  (X C – X L ) 2 … [xxvi]
Since phasor I is always parallel to phasor VR , the phase angle  is the angle between VR and V
and can be determined from figure:
VCm – VLm
tan  
VRm
from the impedance triangle
XC – XL
tan   … [xxvii]
R

Z
XC-XL

R
impedance triangle

Equations [xxvi] and [xxvii] are shown in figure. This is called Impedance triangle which is a right
triangle with Z as its hypotenuse.

Equation [xxv (a)] gives the amplitude of the current and figure gives the phase angle. With these,
equation [xxi] is completely specified.

If X C  X L ,  is positive and the circuit is capacitive. Consequently, the voltage across the source
lags the current.

If X C  X L ,  is negative and the circuit is inductive.

Consequently, the voltage across the source leads the current.

Figure shows the phasor diagram and variation of V and I with t for the case X C  X L .
Thus, we have obtained the amplitude and phase of current for an LCR series circuit using the
technique of phasors. But this method of analyzing ac circuits suffers from certain disadvantages. First, the
phasor diagram states nothing about the initial condition. One can take any arbitrary value of t and draw
different phasors which show the relative angle between different phasors. The solution so obtained is called
the steady-state solution.
 
V V

I 
t1 t
O t1  

(a) (b)
(a) Phasor diagram of V and I. (b) Graphs of V and I
versus t for a series LCR circuit where X C > X L.

ANALYTICAL SOLUTION:
The voltage equation for the circuit is
dI q
L  RI   V
dt C
 Vm sin t
dq dI d 2 q
We know that I  . Therefore, 
dt dt dt 2
Thus, in terms of q, the voltage equation becomes
d 2q dq q
L 2
R   Vm sin t … [xxviii]
dt dt C
Let us assume a solution
q  q m sin(t  ) … [xxix (a)]
dq
so that  q m  cos(t  ) … [xxix (b)]
dt
d2q
and 2
 –q m 2 sin(t  ) … [xxix (c)]
dt
Substituting these values in equation [xxviii], we get
q m [R cos(t  )  (X C – X L ) sin(t  )]
 Vm sin t … [xxx]
1
where we have used the relation X C  , X L  L . Multiplying and dividing equation [xxx] by
C

Z  R 2  (X C – X L ) 2 , we have

R (X C – X L ) 
= q m Z  cos(t  )  sin(t  )   V sin t … [xxxi]
 Z Z  m

R
Now, let  cos 
Z
(X C – X L )
And  sin 
Z
 –1 XC – X L
So that   tan … [xxxii]
R
Substituting this in equation [xxxi] and simplifying, we get:
q m Zcos(t   – )  Vm sin t … [xxxiii]
Comparing the two sides of this equation, we see that
Vm  q m Z  I m Z
where
Im  q m  … [xxxiii (a)]
 
and –– or   –   … [xxxiii (b)]
2 2
therefore, the current in the circuit is
dq
I  q m  cos(t  )
dt
 I m cos(t  )
or I  Im sin(t  ) … [xxxiv]
Vm Vm
where Im  Z  … [xxxiv (a)]
R 2  (X C – X L ) 2

XC – X L
and   tan –1
R
Thus, the analytical solution for the amplitude and phase of the current in the circuit agrees with the
obtained by the technique of phasors.

Illustration: A resistor of 200 and a capacitor of 15.0 F are connected in series to a 220 V, 50
Hz ac source. (a) Calculate the current in the circuit; (b) Calculate the voltage (rms)
across the resistor and the capacitor. Is the algebraic sum of these voltage more than
the source voltage? If yes, resolve the paradox.
Solution: Given
R  200, C  15.0 F  15.0  106 F
Vrms  220 V, f  50Hz
(a) In order to calculate the current, we need the impedance of the circuit. It is
Z  R 2  X C2  R 2  (2 f C) 2

 (200)2  (2  3.14  50  15  10 6 ) 2

 (200)2  (212.3) 2
 291.5 .
Therefore, the current in the circuit is
Vrms 220V
I rms   0.755A
Z 291.5
(b) Since the current is the same throughout the circuit, we have
 VR  Irms R  (0.755A)(200)  151V
VC  Irms X C  (0.755A)(212.3)  160.3V
The algebraic sum of the two voltage, VR and VC is 311.3V which is more than the
source voltage of 220 V. How to resolve this paradox? As you have learnt in the text,
the two voltages are not in the same phase. Therefore, they cannot be added like
ordinary numbers. The two voltages are out of phase by ninety degrees. Therefore, the
total of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem:
VR  C  VR2  VC2
= 220 V
Thus, if the phase difference between two voltage is properly taken into account, the
total voltage across the resistor and the capacitor is equal to the voltage of the source.

RESONANCE:
An interesting characteristic of the series RLC circuit is the phenomenon of resonance. The phe-
nomenon of resonance is common among systems that have a tendency to oscillate at a particular frequency.
This frequency is called the system’s natural frequency. If such a system is driven by an energy source at a
frequency that is near the natural frequency, the amplitude of oscillation is found to be large. A familiar
example of this phenomenon is a child on a swing. The child on the swing has a natural frequency for
swinging back and forth. If the child pulls on the rope at regular intervals and the frequency of the pulls is
almost the same as the frequency of swinging, the amplitude of the swinging will be large.

For an RLC circuit driven with voltage of amplitude Vm and frequency  , we found that the current
amplitude is given by
Vm Vm
Im  
Z R  (X C – X L ) 2
2

1
with X C  and X L  L . So if  is varied, then at a particular frequency 0 , X C  X L , and the
C
impendance is minimum ( Z  R 2  O 2  R) . This frequency is called the resonant frequency :

1
then  0 L
0 C

1
or 0  … [xxxv]
LC
Vm
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum; I m 
R
The variation of Im with  in a RLC series circuit with L = 1.00 mH, C = 1.00 nF for two values of
R: (i) R = 100  and (ii) R = 200  are shown in the figure. For the source applied Vm  100 V . 0 for this

 1  6
case is    1.00  10 rad/s.
 LC 
 1.0

(i)
0.5

Im, A
(ii)

0.0
0.5 1.5 2.0
 . M rad/s
Variation of Im with  for two cases: (i) R = 100, (ii) R
= 200mH. C = 1.00 nF and Vm = 100V for
both cases.
Vm
We see that the current amplitude is maximum at the resonant frequency. Since I m  at resonance
R

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS: THE POWER FACTOR:

We have seen that a voltage V  Vm sin t applied to a series RLC circuit drives a current in the
circuit given by I  Im sin(t  ) where

Vm 1  X C  X L 
Im  and   tan  
Z  R 
Therefore, the instantaneous power P supplied to the source is
P  VI  (Vm sin t)  [I m sin(t  )]
Vm I m
 cos   cos(2t  ) …[xxxvii]
2
The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in R.H.S. of equation
[xxxvii]. It is only the second term which is time dependent. Its average is zero (the positive half of the cosine
cancels the negative half). Therefore,
Vm I m
P cos 
2
Vm Im
 cos 
2 2
 Vrms I rms cos  …[xxxviii (a)]
This can also be written as,
P  I 2rms Zcos  …[xxxviii (b)]
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and current but also on the cosine
of the phase angle  between them. The quantity cos  is called the power factor. Let us discuss the
following cases:

Case (I) Resistive circuit:

If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. In that case   0, cos   1 . There is maxi-
mum power dissipation.
Case (II) Purely Inductive or Capacitive Circuit :
If the circuit contains only an inductor or capacitor, we know that the phase difference between

voltage and current is . Therefore, cos   0 , and no power is dissipated even though a current is flowing
2
in the circuit. This current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.

Case(III) LCR Series Circuit:

1 XC  XL
In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is given by equation [xxxviii] where   tan .
R

So,  may be non-zero (except ) in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated
2
only in the resistor.

Case (IV) Power Dissipated at Resonance in LCR Circuit:

At resonance X C  X L  0 , and   0 . Therefore, cos   1 , and P  I 2m z  I 2m R . That is, maximum
power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.

Illustration: A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series
LCR circuit in which R  3 , L = 25.48 mH, and C = 796 F . Find (a) the impedance
of the circuit; (b) the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the
current; (c) the power dissipated in the circuit; and (d) the power factor.
Solution: (a) To find the impedance of the circuit, we first calculate X L and X C .
X L  2fL
 2  3.14  50  25.48  103   8
1
XC 
2 fC

1
  4
2  3.14  50  796  106
Therefore,
Z  R 2  (X L  X C ) 2  32  (8  4) 2
 5
1 XC  XL
(b) Phase difference,   tan
R
 48
 tan 1    53.1
o

 3 
since  is negative, the current in the circuit lags the voltage across the source.
(c) The power dissipated in the circuit is
P  I 2rms R
 Im 1  283 
Now, I rms      40A
2 2 5 
Therefore, P  (40A) 2  3  4800W
(d) Power factor  cos   cos53.1o  0.6 .

Illustration: Suppose the frequency of the source in the previous example can be varied. (a) What
is the frequency of the source at which reasonance occurs? (b) Calculate the imped-
ance, the current, and the power dissipated at the resonant condition.
Solution:
(a) The frequency at which the resonance occurs is
1 1
0  
LC 25.48  103  796  106
= 222.1 rad/s
0 221.1
fr   Hz  35.4 Hz
2 2  3.14
(b) The impedance Z at resonant condition is equal to the resistance:
Z  R  3
The rms current at resonance is
Vrms Vrms  283  1
     66.7A
Z R  2 3
The power dissipated at resonance is
P  I 2rms  R  (66.7) 2  3  13.35 kW
You can see that in the present case, power dissipated at resonance is more than the
power dissipated in Previous Illustration.

Brain Teaser: At an airport, a person is made to walk through the doorway of a metal detector, for security
reasons. If she/he is carrying anything made of metal, the metal detector emits a sound. On
what principle does this detector work?

TRANSFORMERS :
For long-distance power transmission high voltage with small current is desirable so as to minmise
heat loss (I2R) in the transmission line. This is accomplished with a device called “TRANSFORMER”.

A transformer consists of two of coils or windings insulated from each other. They are wound on the
same soft iron core, either one on top the other as in figure (a) or on separate arms of the core as in figure (b).
One of the coils called the primary coil has N P turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has N s
turns. Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer.
 Soft iron-core

Secondary
Secondary
Primary
Primary

(a) (b)
Two arrangements for winding of primary and secondary coil in a transformer:
(a) two coils on top of each other, (b) two coils on separate limbs of the core.

When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current produces an alternating
magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in it. The value of this emf depends on the
number of turns in the secondary. We consider an ideal transformer in which the primary has negligible
resistance and all the flux in the core links both without primary and secondary windings. Let  be the flux in
each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a voltage Vp is applied to it. Then the
inducted emf or voltage S . in the secondary with N s turns is
d
s   Ns …[xxxxv]
dt
The alternating flux  also induces an emf. called back emf in the primary. This is
d
p   N p …[xxxxvi]
dt
But  p  Vp . If this were not so, the primary current would be infinite since the primary has zero
resistance. If the secondary is an open circuit or the current taken from it is small, then to a good approxima-
tion
S  VS
where Vs is the voltage across the secondary. Therefore, equation [xxxxv] and [xxxxvi] can be
written as
d
VS   NS …[xxxxv (a)]
dt
d
Vp   N p …[xxxxvi (a)]
dt
From equation [xxxxv (a)] and [xxxxv (a)], we have
Vs Ns
 …[xxxxvii]
Vp N p
Note that the above relation has been obtained using three assumptions: (i) the primary resistance
and current are small; (ii) the same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux escapes
from the core, and (iii) the secondary current is small.
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is equal to the
power output, and since P  IV ,
 I p Vp  I s Vs …[xxxxviii]
Although some energy is always lost, this is a good approximation, since a well designed transformer
may have an efficiency of more than 95%. Combining equation [xxxxvii] and [xxxxviii], we have
Ip Vs N s
  …[xxxxix]
Is Vp N p
Now, we can see how a transformer affects the voltage and current. We have:
N  N 
Vs   s  Vp and Is   p  I p …[xxxxx]
 Np 
   Ns 

That is, if the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary (Ns  N p ) , the voltage
is stepped up (Vs  Vp ). This type of arrangement is called a step-up transformer. However, in this arrange-
ment, there is less current in the secondary than in the primary (N p / N s  1 and Is  I p ) . For example, if the
Ns
primary coil of a transformer has 100 turns ad the secondary has 200 turns, the turn ratio  2 and
Np

Np 1
 . Thus, a 220 V input at 10A will step-up to 440 V output at 5.0 A.
Ns 2

If the secondary coil has less number of turns than the primary (Ns  N p ) , we have a step-down
transformer. In this case, Vs  Vp and Is  I p . That is, the voltage is stepped down, or reduced, and the
current is increased.

The equations obtained above apply to an ideal transformers (without any energy losses). But in
actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:

(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to primary
passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core. It can be reduced by winding the
primary and secondary coils one over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so,
energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I 2 R) . In high current, low voltage windings,
these are minimized by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and causes
heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(vi) Hysteresis: The magnetization of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating magnetic
field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears as heat and is kept to a minimum
by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.

The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is done with the
use of transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced and
consequently, the I2 R loss is cut down). It is then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station near
the consumers the voltage sub-station near the consumers. There the voltage at the is stepped down. It is
further stepped down at distributing sub-stations power supplyed at 240 V.
BAND WIDTH AND Q-FACTOR:
Angular frequency variation with power in LCR series circuit.
R2
P  Pm 2 Pm
 2  1  
 R   L   
  C  
Pm A B
2
Graph between P  as shown in the figure.
1/ 2 1/ 2 P
R  2 R2  R  2 R2 
1     r  2  
and 2     r  2  r r r 
2L  4L  2L  4L 

R
Now, 1  2 
L
R R
or (r  )  (r  )  or 2  .
L L
The frequency interval between half maximum power points is known as band width.
The ratio resonance frequency and band width is known as quality factor (Q).
r L
 Q  r .
2 R
Q factor is a measure of the sharpness of resonance. Resonance will be sharp if the value of
bandwidth () is small. This is of course possible only when the power-frequency curve fall steeply
around   r .

Illustration: Obtain the resonant freqency and Q-factor of a series LCR circuit with L = 3.0 H, C =
27F and R  7.4 . It is desired to improve the sharpness of the resonance of the
circuit by reducing its full width at half maximum by a factor of 2. Suggest a suitable
way.
Solution: L = 3 henry, C  27  106 F , R  7.4

1 1
Resonant angular frequency is given by 0   rad s 1
6
LC 3  27  10
1 1000
 3
rad s 1  rad s 1  111 rad s 1
9  10 9
0 L 111 3
Q   45
R 7.4
To double Q without changing 0 , reeduce R to 3.7 .