Microbiology & Parasitology

MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!

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EDWARD JENNER
MICROBIOLOGY
● Vaccine for Smallpox
MICROBIOLOGY - The study of microscopic organisms.
MIKROS - The Greek word for “small”. ALEXANDER FLEMING
BIOS - The Greek word for “life”.
LOGOS - The Greek word for “study of” (minute structures).
BACTERIOLOGY- The study of bacteria. ● Discovered the Antibiotic Penicillin
VIROLOGY - The study of viruses. ● And other antibiotics for bacterial diseases like

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MYCOLOGY- The study of fungi. tuberculosis, pneumonia, and meningitis.
PARASITOLOGY- The study that deals with protozoa and
parasitic worms.
IMPORTANCE OF MICROBIOLOGY
PHYCOLOGY- The study of algae.
IMMUNOLOGY- The study of the immune system and
immune response. NORMAL FLORA / INDIGENOUS MICROFLORA -
➢ Skin - The first line of defense and acts as a natural Microorganisms in our body.

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barrier. ➢ H. Pylori - Found inside the stomach.
➢ WBCs - Third line of defense ➢ E-Coli - Found in the large intestine.
YEASTS - Main fermenter and alcohol producer in producing
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK wine, beer, and other alcoholic drinks and sugar
PENICILLIN - Good source of antimicrobial agent derived
from the fungus Penicillium Notatum.
● Father of Microbiology DECOMPOSERS / SAPROPHYTES - Responsible for
● Father of Bacteriology decomposing dead organisms and waste products of living
● Father of Protozoology organisms.
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● He created the magnifying glass
➢ First one to discover microorganisms by
NON-PATHOGENIC
magnifying the lake water and
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discovering tiny organisms.

➢ He believes that microbes are present in ● Do not cause disease, harm, or death to another
our body. organism.
● They are harmless to their hosts. They may be
LOUIS PASTEUR beneficial to their hosts.
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● They may inhibit the growth and reproduction of

harmful bacteria
● He discovered:
➢ AEROBIC - Organisms that need air to STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS - A part of normal skin
survive. flora.
➢ ANAEROBIC - Organisms that do not LACTOBACILLUS ACIDOPHILUS - Normal intestinal flora.
need air to survive. ESCHERICHIA COLI - Normal flora within the large and
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○ Eg. Tetanus small intestines. It aids digestion by breaking down

● Introduces the process of pasteurization undigested sugar.
● Known for his “Germ Theory” BACTEROIDS - Found within the intestines

➢ RESIDENT FLORA - Organisms regularly found in

DR. ROBERT KOCH
a given body area at a given age.
○ It inhibits the growth of pathogenic
● Father of Modern Microbiology microorganisms by priming the immune
● He also discovered cholera, anthrax, and malaria system of a newborn
● TUBERCLE BACILLI / KOCH’S DISEASE - TB for
kids. ➢ NORMAL FLORA - Protects the body’s organs and
systems that are in direct contact with the external
environment. It also prevents pathogenic
JOSEPH LISTER organisms from attacking or penetrating the skin
and other tissues by producing mucin.
● Aseptic Surgery

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Microbiology & Parasitology
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○ Normal flora in the intestines aid/help in
the digestion of food by producing
enzymes such as cellulose,
galactosidase, and glucosidase.
NORMAL FLORA ON BODY
1.) SKIN - Produces enzymes.
➢ LYSOZYMES - An enzyme found in tears, saliva,
● They cause damage to the host.
● This damage allows the pathogen to colonize novel
sites, antagonizes the host immune response, and
facilitates the spread of pathogens.
● The pathogens damage their host by secreting
toxins that act on it.
● Host cell membranes or translocate across the cell
membrane and disrupt normal cellular function.
CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS

sweat, and other body fluids. It destroys bacteria
that attempt to enter our body through these
passageways.
➢ Mucosal linings, such as the nasal cavity, also
contain lysozymes.
○ Eg. Tears protect our eyes from bacterial
invaders.
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● Also known as Etiologic or Causative Agents
VIRUS - Most abundant; smallest of all microorganisms;
usually transmitted through airborne or droplets.
BACTERIA - Can be found everywhere, usually transmitted

➢ Normal flora of the skin consists of bacteria and
fungi.
○ AXILLA, PERINEUM, TOE WEBS - High
moisture, higher temperature, more lipids.
○ HAND, FACE, TRUNK - Dry surface,
mostly staphylococcus
epidermidis/hominis.
PH OF THE SKIN
ACID MANTLE - Thin protective layer of the skin.
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➢ It is made of sebum with lactic and amino acids.
➢ GLANDS - Organs of the body that secretes
particular chemical substances for use in the body
or for discharge into the surroundings.
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through direct or indirect contact.
RICKETTSIA - Transmitted through ticks and fleas.
SPIROCHETE - Spiral shape or screw-like microorganism.
CHLAMYDIA - Transmitted through sexual contact or
kissing.
FUNGI - Can be harmful or beneficial.
PROTOZOA - One-celled organism (Eg. Plasmodia)
PARASITE - Lives at the expense of others.
3 BASIC SHAPES OF BACTERIA

SPHERICAL - It can occur as a single bacterium or be

○ Eg. sebaceous, mammary, pituitary, arranged in a pair, chain, or cluster of bacteria.
thyroid, testes, ovary. ROD - Shaped like cylinders, arranged singly or in chains.
Constant sloughing of the skin. SPIRAL - Move in a rotating manner that allows them to
enter fast into the tissue.
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2.) DIGESTIVE TRACT

➢ HELICOBACTER PYLORI - Survives in the stomach
because of urease that turns HCI to alkaline: the
primary cause of the peptic ulcer.
➢ BOWEL - Inhabited by anaerobes: Bacteroids,
E-coli, and Lactobacilli
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IMPORTANCE OF INTESTINAL FLORA

1. Synthesis of Vitamin B Complex and Vitamin K.

2. Conversion of bile into acids.
3. Production of Toxic Substances that are deterrent
to transient flora.

TRANSIENT FLORA - Non-pathogenic microorganisms that

inhabit the skin and mucous membranes temporarily for ● Microorganisms are so tiny that our naked eye
hours, days, or weeks only and are derived from the cannot see them.
environment. ● They are known to be microscopic, which means
they can only be seen by microscopes.

PATHOGENIC MICROSCOPE - This optical instrument is used to observe

tiny objects that cannot be seen with an unaided human eye.

● Disease-producing microorganisms.

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Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE - This contains only one magnifying
lens. It is used to view tiny objects like bacteria and
protozoa.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE - This contains more than one
magnifying lens. Compound microscopes usually magnify
objects about 1,000 times.
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ELECTRON MICROSCOPE - It is used to observe or to view
extremely small infectious agents, like viruses.
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2 MAJOR TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
1.) EUKARYOTIC - These organisms possess a true
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
➢ They are usually multicellular organisms,
including plants, animals, fungi, parasites,
and algae.
➢ They reproduce either by meiosis or
mitosis.
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MITOSIS - Results in two daughter cells; "the single large
egg cell subdivides by repeated mitosis" (involves one cell
division)
MEIOSIS - Results in four (4) cells, each of which contains
half of the number of chromosomes as the parent cell); it is
a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually
reproducing organisms used to produce the gametes, such
as sperm or egg cells. (involves two successive cell
divisions)
2.) PROKARYOTIC - An organism does not possess a true
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nucleus and cell membrane.
➢ Reproduced by binary fusion, where one
cell splits in half and becomes two
daughter cells.
REPRODUCTION OF MICROORGANISMS
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - A single organism is a sole
parent. It passes copies of all its genes to its offspring. The
genes of the offspring are identical to the parent’s genes.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Two parents give rise to
offspring that have a unique combination of genes inherited
from both parents. Fertilization is common to all organisms
that reproduce sexually.
➢ PLASMODIA - An organism that reproduces
sexually and asexually.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
EPIDEMIOLOGY - Deals with frequency, distribution, and
determinants of health-related diseases, illnesses, or
disabilities in a specific population and the application of this
study to control health problems.
FREQUENCY - Refers to the number of health events that
occur in a population and its relationship to the size of the
population.
➢ How many people were affected?
DISTRIBUTION - Refers to the occurrence of health events
by time, place, and people.
➢ What day? In what places? Who is affected?
DETERMINANTS - Refers to the causes and other factors
that influence the occurrence of disease and other
health-related events.
➢ What are the modes of transportation? What
causes it?
○ Eg. Rainy season + floodings =
leptospirosis
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MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!
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CONTAGIOUS DISEASES - These are easily transmitted

EPIDEMIOLOGIST
from one person to another by direct or indirect means. (Eg.
Measles and chickenpox)
EPIDEMIOLOGIST - The person involved in the ZOONOTIC DISEASES / ZOONOSES - Infection diseases
epidemiology study. humans acquire from animal sources. (Eg. African Swine
Fever, Rabies)
The epidemiologist is concerned with 5W1H of infectious INCIDENCE RATE - The number of new cases of that disease
diseases. in a population over a specific period of time. (Eg. 1,000 new
cases of Covid-19 in NCR alone)

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1. Who becomes infected? PREVALENCE RATE - Refers to the number of cases of a
2. What pathogens are causing the infection? disease in a particular population at a given time.
3. Where does the pathogen come from? ➢ PERIOD PREVALENCE - The number of cases of a
4. When does a certain disease occur? disease in a given population during a specific
5. Why do some infections/diseases occur in certain period (Eg. the Total # of patients that existed in
places but not others? Caloocan in 2020)
6. How are pathogens transmitted?

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➢ POINT PREVALENCE - The number of cases of a
disease existing in a given population at a particular
(Eg. SUBJECT: Leptospirosis) moment in time. (Eg. The # of dengue fever cases
at this moment)
1. Who becomes infected? MORBIDITY RATE - The number of new cases of a particular
-People with wounds who got exposed in the flooded area. disease that occurred during the specific period per specific
2. What pathogens are causing the infection? population. (Eg. per 1,000 population, per 100,000
-Leptospira population, etc.)
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3. Where does the pathogen come from? MORTALITY RATE - Refers to the number of deaths or death
-Rat’s urine rate. This is the ratio of people who died from a particular
4. When does a certain disease occur? disease during a specific period per a specified population.
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-During and after the rainy season (Eg. The # of people who died from Dengue fever in the
5. Why do some infections/diseases occur in certain year 2020 per 10,000 population in NCR)
places but not others?
-It depends on the environment. Some live in flood-prone SPORADIC DISEASES - Diseases that occasionally occur
areas, while others live in highland areas.
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within the population in a particular geographic area.

6. How are pathogens transmitted?
-Rat’s urine → human’s wound → human’s body → human’s
urine
● Epidemiologists also develop ways to prevent,
control, or eradicate diseases in the population.
●
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ENDEMIC - Diseases always present in a specific area within
the country. (Eg. Malaria in Romblon; Schistosomiasis in
Samar and Leyte)
EPIDEMIC - The sudden rise of cases/diseases is more than
what is expected. (Eg. Leptospirosis after the Typhoon

Epidemiologists are concerned with all types of Ondoy)

diseases, not just infectious ones. PANDEMIC - A disease occurring in epidemic proportions in
● Epidemiologist frequently uses terms like: many countries simultaneously, sometimes worldwide. (Eg.
➢ Communicable diseases, contagious diseases, AIDS, SARS, Covid-19)
zoonotic diseases,
➢ Incident rate, prevalence rate, morbidity rate,
mortality rate, and prevalence of a particular
disease,
➢ Epidemic, pandemic, endemic, and sporadic

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES - Diseases that are transmitted

from one person to another by direct or indirect means. (Eg.
flu, coughs, and colds)

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Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
THE TRIAD OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
THE HOST FACTORS
THE PATIENT - A patient is a person, a recipient of care
services performed by a healthcare professional.
THE CARRIER - A person who harbors an organism capable
of transmitting the disease but he does not manifest the
signs and symptoms of a disease.
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THE CONTACT - A person associated with an infected
person, animal, or thing.
THE SUSPECT - A person whose medical history and the
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signs and symptoms suggest a particular disease.
THE AGENT FACTORS
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1. THE VIRUS
● Smallest of all microorganisms
● Some viral infections are self-limiting. (Eg. colds)
● Recovery from viral infections usually incur lifetime
immunity (Eg. measles, chickenpox)
● Needs a host for replication
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● Usually has longer incubation periods.
INCUBATION PERIOD - From the time you acquire the
microorganism up to the appearance of the signs and
symptoms of a disease.
2.) BACTERIA
● Bacteria are thought to be the first microorganism
to appear on Earth.
● Bacteria are single-celled organisms that are
neither plant nor animal.
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CAPSULE - A layer found outside the cell.
CELL WALL - Located outside the plasma membrane.
PLASMA MEMBRANE - Generates energy and transports
chemicals.
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CYTOPLASM - A gelatinous substance inside the plasma
membrane containing genetic materials and ribosomes.
DNA - Contains all genetic instructions.
RIBOSOMES - Where the proteins are made or synthesized.
FLAGELLUM - Used for movement.
PILI - These are hair-like appendages outside the cell that
allow it to stick to surfaces and transfer genetic materials to
other cells. This can contribute to the spread of illness in
humans.
3.) RICKETTSIA - Transmitted by arthropods like ticks,
fleas, lice, and mites. (Eg. Scabies; Pediculosis)
4.) SPIROCHETE - Spiral-shaped organisms. (Eg.
Leptospirosis, syphilis)
5.) PROTOZOA - Single-celled organisms live in various
moist habitats, including freshwater, marine environment,
and soil. (Eg. Malaria)
6.) FUNGI - Eukaryotic organism that includes yeasts, molds,
and mushrooms. (Eg. Ringworm; Tinea Flava or an-an)
7.) CHLAMYDIA - These are sexually transmitted infections
caused by an organism called “Chlamydia Trachomatis” (Eg.
Oral Candidiasis, Vaginal warts)
8.) PARASITES - Lives on or in the host and gets food from
the host. (Eg. Helminths like ascaris, hookworm,
tapeworm, etc.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS
PATHOGENICITY - The organism's potential or ability to
produce a disease.
VIRULENCE - The disease-producing power of an organism;
the degree of pathogenicity.
INVASIVENESS - The ability of the microorganism to invade
the host.
INFECTIVE DOSE - The amount and the number of
organisms that invade the host.
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Microbiology & Parasitology
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ELABORATION OF TOXIN - The amount of toxin the HOW AN INFECTION SPREADS AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE
microorganism releases to produce a disease. HUMAN BODY DEPEND ON THE TYPE OF PATHOGEN.

THE ENVIRONMENT FACTORS
● The environment includes any factors that affect
the spread of the disease but are not directly a part
of the agent and the host
Eg. Temperature, quality of water, and quality of storage.
● Some pathogens have little effect on the human
body.
● Others produce toxins or inflammatory substances
that trigger negative responses from the body.
● This means some infections are mild and barely
noticeable, while others can be severe and

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Pollution. life-threatening.
● Some pathogens are resistant to treatment.
THE INFECTION PROCESS ● The best way to prevent infections is to block
pathogens from entering the body.

INFECTION - The implantation and successful replication of

PATHOGNOMONIC SIGN - Unique sign or trademark of

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microorganisms in the host tissue.
disease/infection.
● An infection may cause no symptoms and be tetanus ; lockdown
subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and be leptospirosis ; red eyes and yellowish,
clinically apparent. encephalitis ; sleepy syndrome
● An infection may remain localized or spread rabies ; fear of water and air
through the blood or lymphatic vessels to become
systemic.
PRIMARY WAYS TO PREVENT INFECTION
● Microorganisms that live naturally in the body are
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not considered infections. For example, bacteria
that normally live within the mouth and intestine GOOD HYGIENE
are not infections.
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● Wash your hands well frequently

COMMON MICROORGANISMS THAT CASES INFECTIONS ● Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you
sneeze or cough, then dispose of it. If no tissue is
handy, cough or sneeze into your elbow rather than
1. Bacteria your hands.
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2. Viruses ● Wash and bandage all cuts. Any serious cut or

3. Fungi animal or human bite should be examined by a
4. Parasites doctor.
● Do not pick at healing wounds or blemishes or
INFECTION CAN BE SPREAD IN SEVERAL WAYS squeeze pimples.
● Don't share dishes, glasses, or eating utensils
● Avoid direct contact with napkins, tissues,
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● Skin contact or through insect or animal bite-

handkerchiefs, or similar items others use.
● Transfer of body fluids
● Contact with feces PRACTICE GOOD FOOD-SAFETY TECHNIQUES TO AVOID
● Ingestion of contaminated food-(vehicular GETTING SICK
transmission)
● Inhalation of airborne particles or droplet nuclei ● Rinse all meat, poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables
under running water before cooking and serving
● Touching a contaminated
them.
particles-FOMITES-inanimate object that can ● Wash your hands with soap and water before and
harbor cannot be considered as reservoir after you handle raw meat.
● Separate raw foods and cooked foods.
*direct contact-skin to skin ● Don't use the same utensils or cutting boards with
*indirect contact cooked meat to prepare the raw meat without
*vector-borne transmission washing between uses.
● Cook foods thoroughly.

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Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!
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VACCINATION/IMMUNIZATION ● Do not consume ice while traveling. Freezing does

The recommended immunization schedule for babies in the
Philippines, as per the Department of Health (DOH), is as
follows:
1. Birth: BCG and Hepatitis B vaccines
2. 6 weeks: 1st dose of pentavalent vaccine
(Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis, Hepatitis B, and
Haemophilus influenzae type B) and oral polio
not kill all water-borne infectious microbes.
● Drink only bottled drinks. Be aware that some fruit
juices may be made with impure local water.
● Use bottled or boiled water to brush your teeth.
● Do not eat uncooked vegetables, including lettuce;
do not eat fruit you haven't peeled yourself.
PREVENT INFECTIONS BY SEXUAL TRANSMISSION

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vaccine (OPV) dose 1 ● The only sure way to prevent sexually transmitted
3. 10 weeks: 2nd dose of pentavalent vaccine and OPV diseases is to avoid sexual intercourse or other
dose 2 sexual contacts. That's not an option for most
4. 14 weeks: 3rd dose of pentavalent vaccine and OPV people, so the next best choice is to follow these
dose 3 safer sex guidelines:
5. 6 months: 1st dose of influenza vaccine and ● Engage in sexual contact only with one partner who
Hepatitis B vaccine booster is having sex only with you.

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6. 9 months: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR)
vaccine and Japanese Encephalitis vaccine dose 1
(for endemic areas only)
7. 12 months: Hepatitis A vaccine dose 1 and Varicella
(Chickenpox) vaccine
8. 15 months: MMR vaccine booster and OPV dose 4
9. 18 months: Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis
vaccine booster (DTP)
10. 2 years and above: Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine
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(TCV) (for endemic areas only)
● Both you and your partner should be tested for HIV
and other sexually transmitted diseases.
● If you do sex with a new partner, make sure the
partner is tested, and take the following
precautions:
● For vaginal sex, use a latex or polyurethane condom
or a female condom.
● For oro-anal sex, use a latex or polyurethane male
condom.

The Department of Health (DOH) in the Philippines CHAIN OF INFECTION

recommends the following immunization/vaccination
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schedule for pregnant women:

1. Influenza vaccine: Pregnant women are

recommended to receive the influenza vaccine
during pregnancy, especially during flu season. The
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vaccine can be given at any stage of pregnancy.

2. 27th-36th weeks: Tetanus, Diphtheria, and
Pertussis vaccine (Tdap):
3. Hepatitis B vaccine
4. COVID-19 vaccine: Pregnant women are
recommended to receive the COVID-19 vaccine
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The Department of Health (DOH) in the Philippines

recommends the following immunization/vaccination CHAIN - The spread of an infection within a community is
schedule for young adults and the elderly: described as a "chain”.
INFECTION CONTROL & CONTACT TRACING - These are
1. Influenza vaccine meant to break the chain, preventing a pathogen from
2. Pneumococcal vaccine spreading.
3. Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis vaccine (Tdap)
4. Hepatitis B vaccine
6 LINKS OF CHAIN
5. Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine
6. COVID-19 vaccine
1. INFECTIOUS AGENTS - The virulence of these
TRAVEL PRECAUTIONS pathogens depends on their number, potency,
ability to enter and survive in the body, and
● If you are traveling to an area where the susceptibility of the host.
insect-borne disease is present, take and use an
insect repellent

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Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
➢ Viruses are intracellular parasites; they
can only reproduce inside a living cell.
Some viruses, such as HIV and hepatitis B
and C, can enter and survive in the body
for years before disease symptoms occur.
Viruses such as influenza and COVID-19
quickly announce their presence through
characteristic symptoms.
2. RESERVOIR - Is any person, animal, arthropod,
plant, soil, or substance (or combination of these) in
which an infectious agent normally lives and
multiplies. The infectious agent depends on the
reservoir for survival, where it can reproduce to be
transmitted to a susceptible host.
➢ ANIMATE reservoirs include people,
insects, birds, and other animals. (living
things)
➢ INANIMATE reservoirs include soil, water,
food, feces, intravenous fluid, and
equipment. (non-living things)
3. PORTAL OF EXIT - This is how a pathogen
exits/leaves from a reservoir to enter another host
and cause disease/infection.
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➢ For a human reservoir, the exit portal can include
blood, respiratory secretions, and anything
exiting from the gastrointestinal or urinary
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tracts.
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4. MODE OF TRANSMISSION - This is accomplished
when the microorganism enters the host through a
receptive portal of entry.
➢ DIRECT CONTACT TRANSMISSION - An infectious
agent is transferred from a reservoir to a
susceptible host. Direct contact also refers to
contact with soil or vegetation harboring infectious
organisms.
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○ Skin-to-skin contact, kissing, and sexual
intercourse.
➢ INDIRECT CONTACT
○ VEHICLE-BORNE - Vehicle or fomite are
objects such as cooking or eating utensils,
handkerchiefs and tissues, soiled laundry
doorknobs and handles, and surgical
instruments, land dressings are common
vehicles that can transmit infection. Blood,
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serum, plasma, water, food, and milk also
serve as vehicles.
○ VECTOR-BORNE / MECHANICAL
TRANSMISSION - Contact is transmission
by an animate intermediary, an animal,
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insect, or parasite that transports the
pathogen from the reservoir to the host.
Transmission occurs when the vector
injects salivary fluid by biting the host or
depositing feces or eggs in a break in the
skin.
○ VERTICAL PASSAGE - Passage of a
disease-causing agent (pathogen) from
mother to baby immediately before and
after birth. Transmission might occur
across the placenta, breast milk, or
through direct contact during or after
birth.
5. PORTAL OF ENTRY - Infectious agents enter the
body through various portals of entry, including the
mucous membranes, non-intact skin, and the
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary
tracts. Pathogens often enter the body of the host
through the same route they exited the reservoir
(e.g., airborne pathogens from one person's sneeze
can enter through the nose of another person.),
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Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
6. SUSCEPTIBLE HOST - The final link in the chain
of infection is someone at risk of infection.
Infection does not occur automatically when the
pathogen enters the body of a person whose
immune system is functioning normally. However,
infection generally follows when a virulent
pathogen enters an immune-compromised person.
Whether exposure to pathogen results in an infection
depends on several factors related to the person exposed,
the pathogen, and the environment. Host factors that
influence the outcome of exposure include the presence or
absence of natural barriers, the functional state of the
immune system, and the presence or absence of an invasive
device
HOST’S / BODY’S DEFENSES
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE / OUTSIDE DEFENSE SYSTEM -
Includes physical and chemical barriers that are always
ready and prepared to defend the body from infection.
➢ skin, tears, mucus, cilia, and gastric acid.
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➢ SKIN - This is the largest organ of our body. It acts
as a barrier between invaders (pathogens) and our
bodies. The skin forms a waterproof mechanical
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barrier. Microorganisms that live all over our skin
can't usually get through our skin unless it is
broken.
➢ However, tears, mucus, and saliva contain an
enzyme that breaks down the cell wall of many
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microorganisms. Those that are not killed
immediately are trapped in mucus and swallowed.
○ Special cells lines protect the nose, throat,
and other passages within our body.
○ The inner lining of our gut and lungs also
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produces mucus to trap invading
pathogens.
Pathogenic microorganisms must pass through this first line
of defense for infection. If this defense is broken, the second
line within our body is activated.
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE - The pathogens can get past
the first line of defense. For example, the second line of
defense becomes active through a cut on the skin, and an
infection develops.
➢ IMMUNE SYSTEM - attacks these pathogens
through a sequence of steps called the immune
response.
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➢ LEUKOCYTES - White blood cells which seek out
and destroy disease-causing organisms or
substances.
TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
NEUTROPHILS - These cells primarily attack bacteria. They
rush to the site of incoming bacteria to fight them but are
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easily killed, but our bone marrow produces more daily.
Some bacteria avoid neutrophils by hiding inside cells.
T HELPER CELLS - These cells are like the bosses. They give
instructions to other cells by producing signals. Each T
helper cell only looks out for one type of pathogen. Many T
helper cells are needed to watch for various diseases or
invaders.
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CYTOTOXIC T-CELLS - These are killer cells. They punch
holes in the walls of the pathogen cell so that the contents
doze out.
MACROPHAGES - This Means “big eater.” These cells ingest
or clean up the mess of dead cells.
DENDRITIC CELLS - These cells are like spies. They notice if
there is an invader and then present evidence of the invader
to T cells in the lymph nodes.
B CELLS - These produce antibodies, which look onto the
antigen of invading bacteria and immobilize them until the
macrophage consumes them. Some B cells become memory
cells after being activated by antigens. These cells can live
for a long time and can respond quickly following a second
exposure to the same antigen.
ILLNESS FOLLOWING AN ENTRANCE OF ORGANISM INTO
THE BODY DEPENDS ON:
1. Age, sex, the genetic constitution of the host
2. Nutritional status, fitness, and environmental
factors
3. General condition: physical, emotional, mental state
4. Absence or abnormal immunoglobin
5. Presence of underlying diseases (diabetes, mellitus,
lymphoma, leukemia, neoplasm, or uremia)
6. Patients treated with certain antimicrobials,
corticosteroids, irradiation, or immune-responsive
drugs