Microbiology & Parasitology

MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!

Padayon!

IMPORTANCE OF MICROBIOLOGY
MICROBIOLOGY
NORMAL FLORA / INDIGENOUS MICROFLORA -
Microorganisms in our body.
MICROBIOLOGY - The study of microscopic organisms.
➢ H. Pylori - Found inside the stomach.
MIKROS - The Greek word for “small”.
➢ E-Coli - Found in the large intestine.
BIOS - The Greek word for “life”.
YEASTS - Main fermenter and alcohol producer in producing
LOGOS - The Greek word for “study of” (minute structures).
wine, beer, and other alcoholic drinks and sugar
BACTERIOLOGY- The study of bacteria.
PENICILLIN - Good source of antimicrobial agent derived
VIROLOGY - The study of viruses.
from the fungus Penicillium Notatum.
MYCOLOGY- The study of fungi.
DECOMPOSERS / SAPROPHYTES - Responsible for
PARASITOLOGY- The study that deals with protozoa and
decomposing dead organisms and waste products of living
parasitic worms.
organisms.
PHYCOLOGY- The study of algae.
IMMUNOLOGY- The study of the immune system and
immune response. NON-PATHOGENIC
➢ Skin - The first line of defense and acts as a natural

PY
barrier.
➢ WBCs - Third line of defense ● Do not cause disease, harm, or death to another
organism.
● They are harmless to their hosts. They may be
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
beneficial to their hosts.
● They may inhibit the growth and reproduction of
● Father of Microbiology CO harmful bacteria
● Father of Bacteriology
● Father of Protozoology STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS - A part of normal skin
flora.
He created the magnifying glass LACTOBACILLUS ACIDOPHILUS - Normal intestinal flora.
ESCHERICHIA COLI - Normal flora within the large and small
➢ First one to discover microorganisms by intestines. It aids digestion by breaking down undigested
magnifying the lake water and discovering sugar.
tiny organisms. BACTEROIDS - Found within the intestines
➢ He believes that microbes are present in our
S
body. ➢ RESIDENT FLORA - Organisms regularly found in a
given body area at a given age.
○ It inhibits the growth of pathogenic
LOUIS PASTEUR microorganisms by priming the immune
A'

system of a newborn
● He discovered:
➢ NORMAL FLORA - Protects the body’s organs and
➢ AEROBIC - Organisms that need air to
systems that are in direct contact with the external
survive.
environment. It also prevents pathogenic organisms
FR

➢ ANAEROBIC - Organisms that do not need

from attacking or penetrating the skin and other
air to survive.
tissues by producing mucin.
○ Eg. Tetanus
○ Normal flora in the intestines aid/help in the
● Introduces the process of pasteurization
digestion of food by producing enzymes
● Known for his “Germ Theory”
such as cellulose, galactosidase, and
glucosidase.
DR. ROBERT KOCH
ZA

NORMAL FLORA ON BODY

● Father of Modern Microbiology
● He also discovered cholera, anthrax, and malaria
TUBERCLE BACILLI / KOCH’S DISEASE - TB for kids.
JOSEPH LISTER
● Aseptic Surgery
EDWARD JENNER
● Vaccine for Smallpox
ALEXANDER FLEMING
PH OF THE SKIN
ACID MANTLE - Thin protective layer of the skin.
● Discovered the Antibiotic Penicillin
● And other antibiotics for bacterial diseases like
tuberculosis, pneumonia, and meningitis.
1.) SKIN - Produces enzymes.
➢ LYSOZYMES - An enzyme found in tears, saliva,
sweat, and other body fluids. It destroys bacteria
that attempt to enter our body through these
passageways.
➢ Mucosal linings, such as the nasal cavity, also
contain lysozymes.
○ Eg. Tears protect our eyes from bacterial
invaders.
➢ Normal flora of the skin consists of bacteria and
fungi.
○ AXILLA, PERINEUM, TOE WEBS - High
moisture, higher temperature, more lipids.
○ HAND, FACE, TRUNK - Dry surface, mostly
staphylococcus epidermidis/hominis.
➢ It is made of sebum with lactic and amino acids.

1
Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!
Padayon!

➢ GLANDS - Organs of the body that secretes

particular chemical substances for use in the body or
for discharge into the surroundings.
○ Eg. sebaceous, mammary, pituitary,
thyroid, testes, ovary.
Constant sloughing of the skin.
● Microorganisms are so tiny that our naked eye cannot
2.) DIGESTIVE TRACT
see them.
➢ HELICOBACTER PYLORI - Survives in the stomach
because of urease that turns HCI to alkaline: the ● They are known to be microscopic, which means they
primary cause of the peptic ulcer. can only be seen by microscopes.
➢ BOWEL - Inhabited by anaerobes: Bacteroids, E-coli,
and Lactobacilli MICROSCOPE - This optical instrument is used to observe tiny
objects that cannot be seen with an unaided human eye.
IMPORTANCE OF INTESTINAL FLORA

1. Synthesis of Vitamin B Complex and Vitamin K. TYPES OF MICROSCOPE

PY
2. Conversion of bile into acids.
3. Production of Toxic Substances that are deterrent to
transient flora. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE - This contains only one magnifying
lens. It is used to view tiny objects like bacteria and protozoa.
TRANSIENT FLORA - Non-pathogenic microorganisms that
inhabit the skin and mucous membranes temporarily for
hours, days, or weeks only and are derived from the
environment.

PATHOGENIC
CO
● Disease-producing microorganisms.
● They cause damage to the host.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE - This contains more than one
● This damage allows the pathogen to colonize novel magnifying lens. Compound microscopes usually magnify
sites, antagonizes the host immune response, and objects about 1,000 times.
S
facilitates the spread of pathogens.
● The pathogens damage their host by secreting
toxins that act on it.
● Host cell membranes or translocate across the cell
A'

membrane and disrupt normal cellular function.

CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS

FR

● Also known as Etiologic or Causative Agents

VIRUS - Most abundant; smallest of all microorganisms; ELECTRON MICROSCOPE - It is used to observe or to view
usually transmitted through airborne or droplets. extremely small infectious agents, like viruses.
BACTERIA - Can be found everywhere, usually transmitted
through direct or indirect contact.
RICKETTSIA - Transmitted through ticks and fleas.
ZA

SPIROCHETE - Spiral shape or screw-like microorganism.

CHLAMYDIA - Transmitted through sexual contact or kissing.
FUNGI - Can be harmful or beneficial.
PROTOZOA - One-celled organism (Eg. Plasmodia)
PARASITE - Lives at the expense of others.

3 BASIC SHAPES OF BACTERIA

SPHERICAL - It can occur as a single bacterium or be

arranged in a pair, chain, or cluster of bacteria.
ROD - Shaped like cylinders, arranged singly or in chains.
SPIRAL - Move in a rotating manner that allows them to enter
fast into the tissue.
2 MAJOR TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
1.) EUKARYOTIC - These organisms possess a true
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
➢ They are usually multicellular organisms,
including plants, animals, fungi, parasites,
and algae.
➢ They reproduce either by meiosis or
mitosis.

2
Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
MITOSIS - Results in two daughter cells; "the single large egg
cell subdivides by repeated mitosis" (involves one cell division)
MEIOSIS - Results in four (4) cells, each of which contains
half of the number of chromosomes as the parent cell); it is a
special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually
reproducing organisms used to produce the gametes, such as
sperm or egg cells. (involves two successive cell divisions)
2.) PROKARYOTIC - An organism does not possess a true
nucleus and cell membrane.
➢ Reproduced by binary fusion, where one
cell splits in half and becomes two daughter
cells.
REPRODUCTION OF MICROORGANISMS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - A single organism is a sole
parent. It passes copies of all its genes to its offspring. The
genes of the offspring are identical to the parent’s genes.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Two parents give rise to offspring
that have a unique combination of genes inherited from both
parents. Fertilization is common to all organisms that
reproduce sexually.
➢ PLASMODIA - An organism that reproduces sexually
and asexually.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
EPIDEMIOLOGY - Deals with frequency, distribution, and
determinants of health-related diseases, illnesses, or
S
disabilities in a specific population and the application of this
study to control health problems.
FREQUENCY - Refers to the number of health events that
A'
occur in a population and its relationship to the size of the
population.
➢ How many people were affected?
DISTRIBUTION - Refers to the occurrence of health events by
FR
time, place, and people.
➢ What day? In what places? Who is affected?
DETERMINANTS - Refers to the causes and other factors that
influence the occurrence of disease and other health-related
events.
➢ What are the modes of transportation? What causes
ZA
it?
○ Eg. Rainy season + floodings
leptospirosis
EPIDEMIOLOGIST
EPIDEMIOLOGIST - The person involved in the epidemiology
study.
The epidemiologist is concerned with 5W1H of infectious
diseases.
1. Who becomes infected?
2. What pathogens are causing the infection?
3. Where does the pathogen come from?
4. When does a certain disease occur?
5. Why do some infections/diseases occur in certain
places but not others?
6. How are pathogens transmitted?
RN in the making!
Padayon!
(Eg. SUBJECT: Leptospirosis)
1. Who becomes infected?
-People with wounds who got exposed in the flooded area.
2. What pathogens are causing the infection?
-Leptospira
3. Where does the pathogen come from?
-Rat’s urine
4. When does a certain disease occur?
-During and after the rainy season
5. Why do some infections/diseases occur in certain
places but not others?
-It depends on the environment. Some live in flood-prone areas,
PY
while others live in highland areas.
6. How are pathogens transmitted?
-Rat’s urine → human’s wound → human’s body → human’s urine
● Epidemiologists also develop ways to prevent, control,
or eradicate diseases in the population.
CO ●
●
Epidemiologists are concerned with all types of
diseases, not just infectious ones.
Epidemiologist frequently uses terms like:
➢ Communicable diseases, contagious diseases,
zoonotic diseases,
➢ Incident rate, prevalence rate, morbidity rate,
mortality rate, and prevalence of a particular disease,
➢ Epidemic, pandemic, endemic, and sporadic
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES - Diseases that are transmitted
from one person to another by direct or indirect means. (Eg.
flu, coughs, and colds)
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES - These are easily transmitted from
one person to another by direct or indirect means. (Eg.
Measles and chickenpox)
ZOONOTIC DISEASES / ZOONOSES - Infection diseases
humans acquire from animal sources. (Eg. African Swine
Fever, Rabies)
INCIDENCE RATE - The number of new cases of that disease
in a population over a specific period of time. (Eg. 1,000 new
cases of Covid-19 in NCR alone)
PREVALENCE RATE - Refers to the number of cases of a
= disease in a particular population at a given time.
➢ PERIOD PREVALENCE - The number of cases of a
disease in a given population during a specific period
(Eg. the Total # of patients that existed in Caloocan
in 2020)
➢ POINT PREVALENCE - The number of cases of a
disease existing in a given population at a particular
moment in time. (Eg. The # of dengue fever cases at
this moment)
MORBIDITY RATE - The number of new cases of a particular
disease that occurred during the specific period per specific
population. (Eg. per 1,000 population, per 100,000
population, etc.)
MORTALITY RATE - Refers to the number of deaths or death
rate. This is the ratio of people who died from a particular
disease during a specific period per a specified population.
(Eg. The # of people who died from Dengue fever in the year
2020 per 10,000 population in NCR)
3
Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
SPORADIC DISEASES - Diseases that occasionally occur
within the population in a particular geographic area.
ENDEMIC - Diseases always present in a specific area within
the country. (Eg. Malaria in Romblon; Schistosomiasis in
Samar and Leyte)
EPIDEMIC - The sudden rise of cases/diseases is more than
what is expected. (Eg. Leptospirosis after the Typhoon
Ondoy)
PANDEMIC - A disease occurring in epidemic proportions in
many countries simultaneously, sometimes worldwide. (Eg.
AIDS, SARS, Covid-19)
THE TRIAD OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
THE HOST FACTORS
S
THE PATIENT - A patient is a person, a recipient of care
services performed by a healthcare professional.
A'
THE CARRIER - A person who harbors an organism capable of
transmitting the disease but he does not manifest the signs
and symptoms of a disease.
THE CONTACT - A person associated with an infected person,
FR
animal, or thing.
THE SUSPECT - A person whose medical history and the signs
and symptoms suggest a particular disease.
THE AGENT FACTORS
ZA
1. THE VIRUS
● Smallest of all microorganisms
● Some viral infections are self-limiting. (Eg. colds)
● Recovery from viral infections usually incur lifetime
immunity (Eg. measles, chickenpox)
● Needs a host for replication
● Usually has longer incubation periods.
INCUBATION PERIOD - From the time you acquire the
microorganism up to the appearance of the signs and
symptoms of a disease.
2.) BACTERIA
● Bacteria are thought to be the first microorganism to
appear on Earth.
● Bacteria are single-celled organisms that are neither
plant nor animal.
RN in the making!
Padayon!
CAPSULE - A layer found outside the cell.
CELL WALL - Located outside the plasma membrane.
PLASMA MEMBRANE - Generates energy and transports
chemicals.
PY
CYTOPLASM - A gelatinous substance inside the plasma
membrane containing genetic materials and ribosomes.
DNA - Contains all genetic instructions.
RIBOSOMES - Where the proteins are made or synthesized.
FLAGELLUM - Used for movement.
PILI - These are hair-like appendages outside the cell that
CO
allow it to stick to surfaces and transfer genetic materials to
other cells. This can contribute to the spread of illness in
humans.
3.) RICKETTSIA - Transmitted by arthropods like ticks, fleas,
lice, and mites. (Eg. Scabies; Pediculosis)
4.) SPIROCHETE - Spiral-shaped organisms. (Eg.
Leptospirosis, syphilis)
5.) PROTOZOA - Single-celled organisms live in various moist
habitats, including freshwater, marine environment, and soil.
(Eg. Malaria)
6.) FUNGI - Eukaryotic organism that includes yeasts, molds,
and mushrooms. (Eg. Ringworm; Tinea Flava or an-an)
7.) CHLAMYDIA - These are sexually transmitted infections
caused by an organism called “Chlamydia Trachomatis” (Eg.
Oral Candidiasis, Vaginal warts)
8.) PARASITES - Lives on or in the host and gets food from the
host. (Eg. Helminths like ascaris, hookworm, tapeworm, etc.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS
PATHOGENICITY - The organism's potential or ability to
produce a disease.
VIRULENCE - The disease-producing power of an organism;
the degree of pathogenicity.
INVASIVENESS - The ability of the microorganism to invade
the host.
INFECTIVE DOSE - The amount and the number of organisms
that invade the host.
ELABORATION OF TOXIN - The amount of toxin the
microorganism releases to produce a disease.
THE ENVIRONMENT FACTORS
● The environment includes any factors that affect the
spread of the disease but are not directly a part of the
agent and the host
Eg. Temperature, quality of water, and quality of storage.
Pollution.
4
Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!
Padayon!

PRIMARY WAYS TO PREVENT INFECTION

THE INFECTION PROCESS
GOOD HYGIENE
INFECTION - The implantation and successful replication of
microorganisms in the host tissue.
● An infection may cause no symptoms and be
subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and be
clinically apparent.
● An infection may remain localized or spread through
the blood or lymphatic vessels to become systemic.
● Microorganisms that live naturally in the body are not
considered infections. For example, bacteria that
normally live within the mouth and intestine are
● Wash your hands well frequently
● Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you
sneeze or cough, then dispose of it. If no tissue is
handy, cough or sneeze into your elbow rather than
your hands.
● Wash and bandage all cuts. Any serious cut or animal
or human bite should be examined by a doctor.
● Do not pick at healing wounds or blemishes or
squeeze pimples.
● Don't share dishes, glasses, or eating utensils
● Avoid direct contact with napkins, tissues,

PY
not infections.
handkerchiefs, or similar items others use.

COMMON MICROORGANISMS THAT CASES INFECTIONS PRACTICE GOOD FOOD-SAFETY TECHNIQUES TO AVOID
GETTING SICK
1. Bacteria
2. Viruses ● Rinse all meat, poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables
3. Fungi
CO under running water before cooking and serving
them.
4. Parasites
● Wash your hands with soap and water before and
after you handle raw meat.
INFECTION CAN BE SPREAD IN SEVERAL WAYS ● Separate raw foods and cooked foods.
● Don't use the same utensils or cutting boards with
● Skin contact or through insect or animal bite- cooked meat to prepare the raw meat without
● Transfer of body fluids washing between uses.
● Contact with feces ● Cook foods thoroughly.
S
● Ingestion of contaminated food-(vehicular
VACCINATION/IMMUNIZATION
transmission)
● Inhalation of airborne particles or droplet nuclei The recommended immunization schedule for babies in the
A'

● Touching a contaminated Philippines, as per the Department of Health (DOH), is as

particles-FOMITES-inanimate object that can harbor follows:
cannot be considered as reservoir
1. Birth: BCG and Hepatitis B vaccines
2. 6 weeks: 1st dose of pentavalent vaccine (Diphtheria,
*direct contact-skin to skin
FR

Tetanus, Pertussis, Hepatitis B, and Haemophilus

*indirect contact influenzae type B) and oral polio vaccine (OPV) dose 1
*vector-borne transmission 3. 10 weeks: 2nd dose of pentavalent vaccine and OPV
dose 2
HOW AN INFECTION SPREADS AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE 4. 14 weeks: 3rd dose of pentavalent vaccine and OPV
HUMAN BODY DEPEND ON THE TYPE OF PATHOGEN. dose 3
5. 6 months: 1st dose of influenza vaccine and Hepatitis
ZA

B vaccine booster
● Some pathogens have little effect on the human 6. 9 months: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR)
body. vaccine and Japanese Encephalitis vaccine dose 1
● Others produce toxins or inflammatory substances (for endemic areas only)
that trigger negative responses from the body. 7. 12 months: Hepatitis A vaccine dose 1 and Varicella
● This means that some infections are mild and barely (Chickenpox) vaccine
8. 15 months: MMR vaccine booster and OPV dose 4
noticeable, while others can be severe and life
9. 18 months: Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis vaccine
threatening. booster (DTP)
● Some pathogens are resistant to treatment. 10. 2 years and above: Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (TCV)
● The best way to prevent infections is to block (for endemic areas only)
pathogens from entering the body.
The Department of Health (DOH) in the Philippines
recommends the following immunization/vaccination
PATHOGNOMONIC SIGN - Unique sign or trademark of
schedule for pregnant women:
disease/infection.
tetanus ; lockdown 1. Influenza vaccine: Pregnant women are
leptospirosis ; red eyes and yellowish, recommended to receive the influenza vaccine
encephalitis ; sleepy syndrome during pregnancy, especially during flu season. The
rabies ; fear of water and air vaccine can be given at any stage of pregnancy.
2. 27th-36th weeks: Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis
vaccine (Tdap):
3. Hepatitis B vaccine

5
Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester) RN in the making!
Padayon!

4. COVID-19 vaccine: Pregnant women are to enter and survive in the body, and susceptibility of
recommended to receive the COVID-19 vaccine the host.
➢ Viruses are intracellular parasites; they can
The Department of Health (DOH) in the Philippines
only reproduce inside a living cell. Some
recommends the following immunization/vaccination
viruses, such as HIV and hepatitis B and C,
schedule for young adults and the elderly:
can enter and survive in the body for years
1. Influenza vaccine before disease symptoms occur. Viruses
2. Pneumococcal vaccine such as influenza and COVID-19 quickly
3. Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis vaccine (Tdap) announce their presence through
4. Hepatitis B vaccine characteristic symptoms.
5. Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine 2. RESERVOIR - Is any person, animal, arthropod, plant,
6. COVID-19 vaccine
soil, or substance (or combination of these) in which
TRAVEL PRECAUTIONS an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies. The
infectious agent depends on the reservoir for survival,
● If you are traveling to an area where the insect-borne where it can reproduce to be transmitted to a

PY
disease is present, take and use an insect repellent susceptible host.
● Do not consume ice while traveling. Freezing does not ➢ ANIMATE reservoirs include people, insects,
kill all water-borne infectious microbes. birds, and other animals. (living things)
● Drink only bottled drinks. Be aware that some fruit
➢ INANIMATE reservoirs include soil, water,
juices may be made with impure local water.
food, feces, intravenous fluid, and
● Use bottled or boiled water to brush your teeth.
● Do not eat uncooked vegetables, including lettuce; do CO equipment. (non-living things)
not eat fruit you haven't peeled yourself. 3. PORTAL OF EXIT - This is how a pathogen
exits/leaves from a reservoir to enter another host
PREVENT INFECTIONS BY SEXUAL TRANSMISSION and cause disease/infection.
➢ For a human reservoir, the exit portal can include
● The only sure way to prevent sexually transmitted blood, respiratory secretions, and anything exiting
diseases is to avoid sexual intercourse or other sexual
from the gastrointestinal or urinary tracts.
contacts. That's not an option for most people, so the
next best choice is to follow these safer sex
guidelines:
S
● Engage in sexual contact only with one partner who is
having sex only with you.
● Both you and your partner should be tested for HIV
and other sexually transmitted diseases.
A'

● If you do sex with a new partner, make sure the

partner is tested, and take the following precautions:
● For vaginal sex, use a latex or polyurethane condom
or a female condom.
● For oro-anal sex, use a latex or polyurethane male
FR

condom.

CHAIN OF INFECTION
ZA

4. MODE OF TRANSMISSION - This is accomplished

CHAIN - The spread of an infection within a community is
described as a "chain”.
INFECTION CONTROL & CONTACT TRACING - These are
meant to break the chain, preventing a pathogen from
spreading.
6 LINKS OF CHAIN
1. INFECTIOUS AGENTS - The virulence of these
pathogens depends on their number, potency, ability
when the microorganism enters the host through a
receptive portal of entry.
➢ DIRECT CONTACT TRANSMISSION - An infectious
agent is transferred from a reservoir to a susceptible
host. Direct contact also refers to contact with soil or
vegetation harboring infectious organisms.
○ Skin-to-skin contact, kissing, and sexual
intercourse.
➢ INDIRECT CONTACT
○ VEHICLE-BORNE - Vehicle or fomite are
objects such as cooking or eating utensils,
handkerchiefs and tissues, soiled laundry
doorknobs and handles, and surgical
instruments, land dressings are common
vehicles that can transmit infection. Blood,
serum, plasma, water, food, and milk also
serve as vehicles.

6
Microbiology & Parasitology
MIDTERMS REVIEWER (First Year, Second Semester)
○ VECTOR-BORNE / MECHANICAL
TRANSMISSION - Contact is transmission
by an animate intermediary, an animal,
insect, or parasite that transports the
pathogen from the reservoir to the host.
Transmission occurs when the vector injects
salivary fluid by biting the host or depositing
feces or eggs in a break in the skin.
○ VERTICAL PASSAGE - Passage of a
disease-causing agent (pathogen) from
mother to baby immediately before and after
birth. Transmission might occur across the
placenta, breast milk, or through direct
contact during or after birth.
5. PORTAL OF ENTRY - Infectious agents enter the
body through various portals of entry, including the
mucous membranes, non-intact skin, and the
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts.
Pathogens often enter the body of the host through
the same route they exited the reservoir (e.g.,
airborne pathogens from one person's sneeze can
enter through the nose of another person.),
S
A'
FR
6. SUSCEPTIBLE HOST - The final link in the chain of
infection is someone at risk of infection. Infection
ZA
does not occur automatically when the pathogen
enters the body of a person whose immune system is
functioning normally. However, infection generally
follows when a virulent pathogen enters an
immune-compromised person.
Whether exposure to pathogen results in an infection depends
on several factors related to the person exposed, the
pathogen, and the environment. Host factors that influence
the outcome of exposure include the presence or absence of
natural barriers, the functional state of the immune system,
and the presence or absence of an invasive device
HOST’S / BODY’S DEFENSES
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE / OUTSIDE DEFENSE SYSTEM -
Includes physical and chemical barriers that are always ready
and prepared to defend the body from infection.
➢ skin, tears, mucus, cilia, and gastric acid.
RN in the making!
Padayon!
➢ SKIN - This is the largest organ of our body. It acts as
a barrier between invaders (pathogens) and our
bodies. The skin forms a waterproof mechanical
barrier. Microorganisms that live all over our skin
can't usually get through our skin unless it is broken.
➢ However, tears, mucus, and saliva contain an enzyme
that breaks down the cell wall of many
microorganisms. Those that are not killed
immediately are trapped in mucus and swallowed.
○ Special cells lines protect the nose, throat,
and other passages within our body.
○ The inner lining of our gut and lungs also
produces mucus to trap invading pathogens.
Pathogenic microorganisms must pass through this first line of
defense for infection. If this defense is broken, the second line
PY
within our body is activated.
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE - The pathogens can get past the
first line of defense. For example, the second line of defense
becomes active through a cut on the skin, and an infection
develops.
CO
➢ IMMUNE SYSTEM - attacks these pathogens through
a sequence of steps called the immune response.
➢ LEUKOCYTES - White blood cells which seek out and
destroy disease-causing organisms or substances.
TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
NEUTROPHILS - These cells primarily attack bacteria. They
rush to the site of incoming bacteria to fight them but are
easily killed, but our bone marrow produces more daily. Some
bacteria avoid neutrophils by hiding inside cells.
T HELPER CELLS - These cells are like the bosses. They give
instructions to other cells by producing signals. Each T helper
cell only looks out for one type of pathogen. Many T helper
cells are needed to watch for various diseases or invaders.
CYTOTOXIC T-CELLS - These are killer cells. They punch holes
in the walls of the pathogen cell so that the contents doze out.
MACROPHAGES - This Means “big eater.” These cells ingest or
clean up the mess of dead cells.
DENDRITIC CELLS - These cells are like spies. They notice if
there is an invader and then present evidence of the invader to
T cells in the lymph nodes.
B CELLS - These produce antibodies, which look onto the
antigen of invading bacteria and immobilize them until the
macrophage consumes them. Some B cells become memory
cells after being activated by antigens. These cells can live for
a long time and can respond quickly following a second
exposure to the same antigen.
ILLNESS FOLLOWING AN ENTRANCE OF ORGANISM INTO
THE BODY DEPENDS ON:
1. Age, sex, the genetic constitution of the host
2. Nutritional status, fitness, and environmental factors
3. General condition: physical, emotional, mental state
4. Absence or abnormal immunoglobin
5. Presence of underlying diseases (diabetes, mellitus,
lymphoma, leukemia, neoplasm, or uremia)
6. Patients treated with certain antimicrobials,
corticosteroids, irradiation, or immune-responsive
drugs