9.

1 About the Earth in Space

The earth is the only planet inhabited by man. It is our home in space. It is unique
because if its combination of abundant supply of water, a strong magnetic field, and a
particular atmospheric composition.

The Earth
The earth is one of the eight planets that revolves around the sun once a year. It
is the third planet from the sun, the fifth in mass and diameter, and has the greatest
density as compared to all the planets.

Distance of the Earth from the Sun

The earth on the average is 93 million
miles from the sun. Its orbit around the sun
is elliptical, so that there are times it is 2%
nearer to the sum (perihelion) and 2%
farther from the sun (aphelion). The
diagram on the left shows these distances.

The Size and Shape of Earth

About 2,000 years ago, a Greek philosopher named
Eratosthenes was able to estimate the size of the earth using his
mathematical ingenuity. Basically, modern scientist used the
same method getting such measurement. At sea level, the earth’s
equatorial diameter is 729.6 miles (12,756.3 km) and its polar
diameter is 7,900.1 miles (12,713.6 km). What does this
difference in measurement suggest?
Scientist used the term oblate spheroid to accurately
describe the shape of the earth. An oblate spheroid is a sphere
with flat poles and a bulging equator. This distortion in shape can
be attributed to Earth’s rapid rotation.

Age of the Earth

Radioactive dating technique provided scientists with an accurate estimate of
Earth’s age. The same technique was also used in determining the age of meteorites as
well as the materials from the moon. After subjecting several rock samples to
radioactive dating, scientists found out that the oldest rock on the earth is aged 4.5
billion years old. From all the investigations made and from all the evidence now
available, the earth and the rest of the members of the solar system came into
existence at the same time, that is, 4.5 billion years ago.
Earth’s Volume, Mass, and Density
Using mathematical calculation, very delicate laboratory equipment, and applying
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, the mass of the earth was found to be 6.57dx1024 kg.
Mass is the amount of matter an object contains. Because the shape of the Earth is
known, its volume can also be calculated (from its radius). The known volume of the
earth is 260 billion mi3 .
Since the Earth’s mass and volume are known, average density can be
calculated. Density is the mass of the object per unit volume. To understand what
density is, consider two boxes of shoes both with the same size. Fill one box with sand
and the other with cotton both tightly packed as possible. Cover and lift both boxes.
Which is heavier? The heavier box has more mass in the same amount of volume
(shoebox). Thus, the shoebox filled with sand is denser than the shoebox filled with
cotton. If the earth’s mass is divided by its volume, a density of about 5,500 kg⁄m3 will be
obtained. This value indicates that Earth is 5.5 times denser than water (1,000 kg⁄m3 ).

The Inclination of the Earth’s Axis and Its Effect

The axis is the imaginary line that passes through
the center of the earth. The earth’s axis is not upright but
slightly inclined or tipped compared to the plane of its orbit
by 23.50 (Figure 9.3). This inclination is maintained as the
earth rotates and revolves. As a result, at one time of the
year (in the month of June) the North Pole is tilted toward
the sun, and in another time (in the month of December)
the North Pole is tilted away from the sun. Axial inclination
is due to the combined effects of the gravity of the sun
and the moon. Inclination causes the occurrence of
seasons on Earth.

Albedo
Albedo is defined as the amount of light reflected by a planet. Several materials
in the earth’s surface and atmosphere reflect light coming from the sun. Thus, when
Earth is observed from outer space, it appears bright because of this reflected light.
Albedo plays an important role in the greenhouse effect phenomenon.

Concept Micro
The earth is the only planet inhabited by man. It is our home in space. It is very
from the sun. The Earth is 4.5 billion years old.
9.2 Earth’s Motion
To us on the surface, Earth seems to be steady and immovable. But do you
know that every day for the whole year, we are travelling the distance of 940 million
kilometers at the speed of 107,000 km/hr without leaving our homes and being absent
in work or missing school?

The Different Motions of Earth and How These Motions Affect Us

Planet Earth functions as the spaceship that brings us
around the sun in a counterclockwise direction (west to east).
Such motion is called revolution and one complete journey
around the sun takes 365 1⁄4 days. Because the orbit of planet
Earth is elliptical (refer to Figure 9.1), there are times wherein
Earth is nearer to the sun, about 147 million kilometers away
(perihelion), and farther from the sun, about 152 million
kilometers away (aphelion). Such variations in distance affect
the speed of planet Earth. At perihelion, Earth moves at its
fastest speed in response to the sun’s gravitational force. As it
moves away from the sun, the gravitational force of the sun
retards and Earth’s speed slows down until it reaches
aphelion. The fast and slow motions is a natural rhythm which Earth undergoes as it
revolves around the sun. Revolution causes the changes in seasons.
As we ride this everlasting 940 million kilometers
trip, another simultaneous motion is also taking place. The
earth also spins in its axis like a top, also in a
counterclockwise direction. The spinning motion of Earth in
space is called rotation. Rotation is completed in one day
or in a span of 24 hours. The counterclockwise motion of
the earth is the reason why the sun seems to move across
the sky rising in the East and setting in the West causing
day and night cycles.
The gravity of the moon complicates the earth’s motions. The moon’s gravity
causes the earth to wobble as it revolves around the sun. The wobbling motion of the
earth is called precession. Precession has twofold effects: it makes one year a little
short by four rays of the sun to briefly cross the equator before one revolution is
completed.
Different Seasonal Phenomena
As discussed earlier in this chapter, we learned that the earth is an oblate
spheroid. Because of this, part of the earth that faces the sun receives vertical rays and
the parts that curve away from the sun receive slanting rays. We also learned that the
earth’s axis is not upright. It is inclined by 23.50 from the plane of its orbit. Because of
the tilt of its axis, there is unequal distribution of solar radiation. As the earth revolves
around the sun, the sun’s rays seem to sweep from northward to southward and back
within the year causing seasons to change.
In June of each year, the earth’s axis is tilted towards the sun. At this time of the
year, the Tropic of Cancer (located at 23.50 north) receives vertical rays from the sun.
The rest of the parts of the earth receive slanting or oblique rays. Areas beyond the
Arctic Circle (located at 66.50 north) receive 24 hours of daylight. It is the beginning of
summer in the Northern Hemisphere (people there call this time summer solstice).
Conversely, areas beyond the Antarctic Circle (located at 66.50 south) are in complete
darkness for 24 hours. This is because the southernmost limit of the sun’s rays is at
66.50 south. It is the beginning of winter in the Southern Hemisphere. It is in the month
of June that we experience longer days than night and this is the hottest season of the
year for people living in the Northern Hemisphere.
By the month of September, the vertical rays of the sun sweep from the Tropic of
Cancer to the Equator (00 latitude). The rest of the part of the Earth receives slanting
rays. This month marks the beginning of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and spring
in the Southern Hemisphere. Everywhere on Earth, the length of day and night is equal
(called autumnal or fall equinox).
 By December, the earth reaches half of its path around the sun. The Northern
Hemisphere is now tilted away from the sun. The vertical rays of the sun now strike the
Tropic of Capricorn (located at 23.50 south). The northernmost limit of the sun’s rays is
at 66.50 north (Arctic Circle), so that areas beyond the Arctic Circle experience 24 hours
of darkness. This marks the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere. It is in this
time that we experience longer nights than days (called winter solstice). It is then
summer in the Southern Hemisphere and all the conditions are reversed.
As Earth continues to revolve, it reaches 3⁄4 of its path around the sun in the
month of March. As in the month of September, the vertical rays of the sun are again
directly over the equator. It marks the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere
and autumn or fall in the Southern Hemisphere. Again, everywhere on Earth, the length
of day and night is equal (this time is called vernal or spring equinox). Thus, within a
year, we experience two solstices and two equinoxes. This is attributed to the tilt of the
earth’s axis that changes the sun’s position relative to the earth’s equator, the earth’s
motion around the sun, and the spherical shape of Earth. Do you know now why there is
no winter in the Philippines?

Concept Micro
The earth rotates as it revolves around the sun. As the earth revolves around the
sun, the sun’s rays seem to sweep from northward to southward and back within the
year causing seasons to change.

9.3 About the Moon

Some Properties of the Moon
The moon is about 384,400 kilometers away from Earth.
Its size is only 1⁄4 of the earth’s diameter or about 3,476
kilometers. It revolves around Earth in an elliptical orbit and in a
counterclockwise direction within a period of 27.3 days.
The orbit of the moon is fairly eccentric. There are times
when it is nearer to Earth and at other times farther from Earth.
The shortest distance from the moon to Earth is called perigee,
which is about 356,400 kilometers. The farthest distance from the
moon to Earth is called apogee, which is about 406,700
kilometers.
 As the moon completes its revolution in about a month’s
time, we always see the same side facing us (Figure 9.9). This is
because the moon’s period of rotation is equal to its period of
revolution (scientists call this synchronous rotation). Little did we
know about the far side of the moon until Apollo 16’s expedition in
1969. Photographs taken from the far side of the moon revealed the
presence of large craters, the smallest of which is about 1 kilometer
in diameter.

Galileo, using his telescope, was the

first to explore the moon’s surface. He found
that its surface is covered with craters,
mountains, valleys, and flat plains. Until now,
all these are considered the major features of
the lunar surface.

There are about 30,000 craters of

varying sizes on the moon. Craters are
circular depressions formed by the impact of
meteorites on the surface (called impact cratering). Each crater is named after the
famous scientists and philosophers of the past. The largest are named Grimaldi and
Clavius. The most familiar are named Tycho and Copernicus.

There are also mountain ranges on the moon. They

are named after the mountain ranges on Earth. However,
lunar mountains lack polar caps, there are no signs of
vegetation, and the slopes show no signs of erosion. There
are also valleys on the moon. The most famous is the
Alpine valley, which is a cigar-shaped valley, 120
kilometers long and 10 kilometers wide.

The large, dark areas on the moon’s surface are flat,

low-lying plains. Although there are no bodies of water on
the moon, Galileo called these plains Marias, which means
“seas”. On the moon, Marias are basins that have been
filled with lava.
 The moon’s gravity is only one-sixth than that of
the earth’s gravity. Thus, a 120 lbs person would
weigh only about 20 lbs on the moon. Its mass and
density are both low. This implies that the moon’s
interior contains only a small amount of metallic
minerals. The rocks that compose the surface are
similar in a magnetic field and its atmosphere contains
very small amount of gases that were trapped by the
moon’s weak gravity.

Varied Phases of the Moon

Have you observed the moon at its full size and when it is brightly lit? The light
that we see from the moon is light reflected from the sun as it revolves around Earth. Is
the entire surface of the moon brightly lighted at all times?
The variations in the area of illumination that gives
the moon its varied shapes are attributed to the relative
orientation or position of the moon in relation to Earth and
sun.
When the moon is between the earth and sun, the
side that faces the earth is not lighted. This position,
where the moon is faintly visible on Earth, is the new
moon phase. Two or three days later, a small portion of
the moon’s side becomes lighted in the form of a
crescent whose “horns” are away from the sun, In about
a week’s time after the new moon, the moon has reached about 1⁄4 of its orbit around
the earth. The side of the moon that faces us is half-lighted. This is the first quarter
phase.
As the moon continues to move in its orbit around the earth, the lighted surface
increases. When the moon’s lighted portion becomes more than half, thus, appearing
humped, the moon is in its gibbous phase. About two weeks after the new moon, the
moon has reached 1⁄2 of its orbit around Earth. The side of the moon that faces Earth is
well-lighted. This is the full moon phase.
From the full moon phase, the portion of the moon’s lighted surface begins to
shrink (waning phases) and the phases are repeated from gibbous to last quarter to
crescent (this time, the “horns” are directed towards the sun) to another new moon,
thus, repeating the cycle of phases.
 It takes about 29.5 days for the moon to complete its
phases. Have you noticed something strange? How come that
one complete revolution of the moon takes only about 27.3
days while one complete cycle of phases takes about 29.5
days? The difference of about two days to complete the moon’s
phases is attributed to the relative motion of the earth in its orbit
around the sun. Figure 9.14 would help explain this.
Although the moon may have made a complete orbit
around earth, it has not returned to its original position directly
between the sun and the earth because the moon and the earth
have already orbited farther away from their original position.
The complete return to original position takes almost two days or more.
The revolution of the moon around the earth that causes its various appearances
or phases is only one of the spectacular events that can be observed from our moon.
The next lunar phenomenon that we will discuss would mesmerize us and to a certain
extent will terrify some people who still associate lunar phenomena with superstitions.

Types of Eclipses
The planets and their satellites are opaque bodies in space. As they travel
around the sun, they sometimes block the path of light coming from the sun and their
shadows are cast. This shadow casting happens when the earth or the moon intercepts
the path of light coming from the sun as they revolve in their respective orbits.

Solar Eclipse
The shadow of the moon cannot be noticed until it falls on the earth. When it
does, people in the place where the shadow falls experiences an eclipse of the sun or
a solar eclipse. In areas where the umbra of the moon falls, the eclipse is called total
solar eclipse (Figure 9.16 A). In places where the penumbra falls, the eclipse is called
partial solar eclipse (Figure 9.16 C). There are times when the umbra of the moon’s
shadow fails to reach the earth’s surface fully. This happens when the moon is at
apogee. Consequently, a ring of light (called antumbra) surrounds the umbra. Such
type of eclipse is called an annular eclipse (Figure 9.16 B).
 The effect of the solar eclipse is dramatic. The sky darkens, the temperature
falls, and the wind increases as the umbra races toward the area. Nature responds to
this phenomenon: birds go to nest, crickets chirp, and petals of flowers close as if
evening has arrived.

This wonderful experience lasts only for about 7.5 minutes. Total solar eclipse
does not happen all the time. For it to occur, three conditions must exist:

1. First, the moon must be at perigee so that its umbra will touch the surface of the
earth;
2. Second, the plane of the moon’s orbit should coincide with the plane of the
earth’s orbit; and
3. Last, the moon be in its new moon’s phase.

Lunar Eclipse
An eclipse of the moon or lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes on the
earth’s shadow as it revolves around the earth. Lunar eclipse happens during full
moon. But just like in solar eclipse, it does not happen every full moon because of the
tilting of the moon’s orbit. Total eclipse of the moon happens when the moon crosses
the umbra of the earth’s shadow. The moon frequently passes the earth’s penumbra,
but the shadow cast by the earth on the moon’s surface is hardly visible.

Figure 9.18 shows the shadow of Earth casts on the face of the moon. This is
one proof or evidence indicating that Earth is spherical in shape.

Tides and How Do They Occur?

The regular rise and fall in the level of the ocean water is
called tide. Tides are the chief and the most observable effect
of the moon’s gravitational pull on the earth.

On the side of the earth where the moon is, the gravity of the
moon causes a bulge to occur on the solid part of the earth. The
bulge is only about few inches at the most, but because the
water in the ocean is free to move, it behaves as if it is pulled
away from the Earth. Thus, the level of the water in the region
where the moon rises. A high tide in this region occurs.
 At same the time, a similar high
tide occurs on the other side of the
Earth. Since the moon’s pull on this
side is less, the solid portion of the
earth seems to be thrown off in space
by the earth’s rotation and revolution. A
similar bulge in this area occurs
causing the rise in the level of the
water to occur. The bulge on the side facing the earth is called direct tidal bulge. The
earth’s rotation causes the formation of two high tides and two low tides each day.

Spring Tides
Twice each month, that is, during full moon and new moon, high tides and low
tides are respectively higher and lower than usual. At such times, the sun, the moon,
and the earth are in line with each other. The gravitational pull of the sun, although
weaker (only about 7%) because of its great distance, coordinates with the gravity of the
moon. Tides produced in this case are called spring tides.

Neap Tides
Twice a month also, it happens that there is a small difference between high tide
and low tide. This happens when the sun, moon, and Earth are at right angles with each
other (during the first and last phase). The gravitational pull of the sun and the moon
seem to cancel each other. The tides produced in this case are called neap tides.

The moon’s closeness to the earth also affects the magnitude of the tides. When
the moon is at perigee, the tide-raising force is greater than normal by about 20%.

Concept Micro

The moon is a satellite of the earth and its nearest neighbor in space. Various
phases of the moon appear on Earth as it revolves around the sun.

The gravity of the moon comes the formation to high tides and low tides.