Dimensional

Analysis
CH 1044 Fluid Dynamics
Mr. Pasindu Perera
pasindudp@uom.lk
0776674593
 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is powerful tool in which the combination of
dimensional variables, nondimensional variables, and dimensional
constants into nondimensional parameters, reduces the number
of necessary independent parameters in a problem.

Purposes:
• To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of
experiments (physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of
experimental results.
• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted
from model performance.
• To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dimensions and Units 01

Non-Dimensionalisation 02
Formal Procedure 03
Similarity 04
 Dimensions and Units

• Dimension - a measure of a physical quantity (without

numerical values).
• Unit - a way to assign a number to that dimension.

• There are 7 primary dimensions. All other dimensions can

be made from the combination of these dimensions.
 Example 1

⯀ Dimensions – m, L, t, T, I, C, N
⯀ Units – m, km, N, mPa, etc.
 Example 2

Find the primary dimensions of surface tension.

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 2 𝑚× 2
𝜎𝑆 = = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
𝑚
= 2
𝑡

The brackets indicate “Dimensions of”

Non-Dimensionalisation of Equations

• Law of Dimensional Homogeneity

Every additive term in an equation must have
the same dimensions.
 1
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ), ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ), ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

Example 3

Check for dimensional homogeneity in total energy

equation, ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸.
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝐿2 𝑡 −2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
∆𝑈 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝐿2 𝑡 −2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ2
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 2
= 𝑚𝐿2 𝑡 −2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
∆𝐸 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝐿2 𝑡 −2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
∴Dimensional homogeneity is preserved.
 Non-Dimensionalisation of Equations
• If we divide each term of a dimensionally homogeneous equation
by a collection of variables and constants whose product has
those same dimensions, the equation is rendered
nondimensional.
• If, in addition, the nondimensional terms in the equation are of
order unity, the equation is called normalized.
 Example 4

Non-dimensionalised Bernoulli equation.

𝑃 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑔𝑧 𝐶
+ + =
𝑃∞ 2𝑃∞ 𝑃∞ 𝑃∞

Each resulting term is dimensionless (Dimensions of {1})

 Important Definitions
• Dimensional variables: Dimensional quantities that change or vary in the problem. Ex:
Velocity of a vehicle, Volume of a liquid tank.
• Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables: Quantities that change or vary in the
problem but have no dimensions. Ex: Angle of rotation, Relative density.
• Dimensional constant: Constants present in the problem, which are dimensional.
Dimensional constants are fixed for a particular problem but may change from a
problem to another. Ex: Gravitational constant (g), Planck’s constant (h).
• Pure constants: Dimensionless constants. Ex: 𝜋, 𝑒, numbers like ½ or 2.
• Parameter: combined set of dimensional variables, nondimensional variables, and
dimensional constants.
 Important Definitions…
• Scaling parameters: Parameters used to non-
dimensionalise parameters in equations. Selected
based on primary dimensions contained in the original
equation.
(In fluid flow problems there are typically at least three
scaling parameters, e.g., 𝐿, 𝑉, and 𝑃0 − 𝑃∞)

One way of conducting non-dimensionalisation (dimensional analysis) is by inspecting the

variables. This is referred to as inspectional analysis, carried out by experienced
practitioners.
 Example 5
Inspectional analysis of equations of motion
𝑑2𝑧
Equation of motion: = −𝑔
𝑑𝑡 2
By integrating this equation twice and applying initial
conditions.
1
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑤0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
Evaluating all the dimensions,
𝑧 = 𝐿 𝑧0 = 𝐿 𝑤0 = 𝐿𝑡 −1
𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑔 = 𝐿𝑡 −2

There are only two primary dimensions involved and thus we are limited to
selecting only two scaling parameters.
 Example 5
Parameters: 𝑔, 𝑡, 𝑧, 𝑧0 , 𝑤0
Independent (primary) dimensions: 𝐿, 𝑡
Dimensional variables: 𝑧, 𝑡
Dimensional constants: 𝑔, 𝑧0 , 𝑤0

𝑧0 and 𝑤0 are selected as the two scaling parameters to non-dimensionalise

the 𝑧 and 𝑡 by inspection. We are welcome to use 𝑔 and 𝑧0 or 𝑔 and 𝑤0 .
𝑧 𝑤 𝑡
𝑧∗ = 𝑡∗ = 0
𝑧0 𝑧0
Now,
Non-dimensionalised variables: 𝑧 ∗ ,𝑡 ∗
 Example 5
∗ 𝑧0 𝑡 ∗
Substituting 𝑧 = 𝑧0 𝑧 and 𝑡 = in the equation of motion,
𝑤0
𝑑 2 𝑧 𝑑 2 (𝑧0 𝑧 ∗ ) 𝑤0 2 𝑑 2 𝑧 ∗ 𝑤0 2 𝑑 2 𝑧 ∗
𝑑𝑡 2
= ∗ 2 = 𝑧 ∗ 2 = −𝑔 → 𝑔𝑧0 𝑑𝑡 ∗ 2
= −1
𝑧0 𝑡 0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑤0
𝑤0 2
The grouping of dimensional constants is the square of a well-known non-
𝑔𝑧0
dimensional parameter or dimensionless group called the Froude number (Fr).
𝑤0
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝑧0
𝑑2𝑧 ∗ 1
∴ Non-dimensionalised equation of motion: ∗2 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝐹𝑟 2
1
Integrating twice, 𝑧∗ = 1 + 𝑡∗ − 2 𝑡 ∗2
2𝐹𝑟
 Purpose of Dimensional Analysis
There are several advantages from non-dimensionalisation,
• Increases our insight about the relationships between key parameters.
Ex: doubling 𝑤0 has the same effect as decreasing 𝑧0 by a factor of 4.
• Reduced the number of parameters in the equation .
Ex: 5 parameters was reduced to 3 parameters.
In more complicated problems, the differential equation (or more generally the coupled set of
differential equations) cannot be integrated analytically, and engineers must either integrate the
equations numerically, or design and conduct physical experiments to obtain the needed results, both
of which can incur considerable time and expense. In such cases, the nondimensional parameters
generated by nondimensionalizing the equations are extremely useful and can save much effort and
expense in the long run.
Read example 7-3 and 7-4 of Fluid Mechanics 3rd Edition (Cengel and Cimbala).
 Formal Procedure for Dimensional Analysis
(Method of Repeating Variables)

Buckingham’s Pi Theorem
• If a problem involves 𝑛 parameters, take 𝑚 guessed reduction (as a first guess, take
m = no. of independent dimensions). Then the problem can be reduced to a
relationship between 𝑛 – 𝑚 non-dimensional parameters;
Π1 , Π2 , … … , Π𝑛−𝑚
• To construct these non-dimensional Π groups:
Choose 𝑚 dimensionally-distinct scaling variables (repeating variables).
For each of the 𝑛 – 𝑚 remaining variables construct a non-dimensional Π of the form
Π = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒1)𝑎 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒2)𝑏 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒3)𝑐 …
where a, b, c, ... are chosen so as to make each Π non-dimensional.
 Example 6

For the example involving equations of motion,

Parameters: 𝑔, 𝑡, 𝑧, 𝑧0 , 𝑤0
Independent (primary) dimensions: 𝐿, 𝑡
𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 2
Therefore, according to the Buckingham’s Pi Theorem, the problem
can be reduced to a relationship between 5 − 2 3 non-
dimensional parameters.

It was observed that the problem was reduced to a relationship

between 3 non-dimensional parameters (𝑧 ∗ ,𝑡 ∗ and 𝐹𝑟).
Most common scaling variables:
• a purely geometric quantity (Example - Length)
• a kinematic (time- but not mass-containing) quantity
(Example - velocity or acceleration)
• a dynamic (mass- or force-containing) quantity
(Example - density).
 Method of Repeating Variables
Step 1 – Identifying 𝑛 parameters.
Step 2 – Identifying primary dimensions of 𝑛 parameters.
Step 3 – Guess the 𝑚 reduction. As a first guess, take m = no. of independent dimensions.
The expected no. of Πs is 𝑛 − 𝑚.
If the analysis doesn’t workout, reduce 𝑚 by 1 and try again.
Step 4 – Choose 𝑚 no. of repeating variables that will be used to construct each Π.
Step 5 – Construct Πs by forcefully non-dimensionalising the remaining variables.
By convention, the first Π (designated as Π1 ) is the dependent Π (one on left side of the
equation). Manipulate Πs as necessary to achieve established dimensionless groups.
Step 6 – Write the final function in the form,
Π1 = 𝑓 Π2 , Π3 , … , Π𝑛−𝑚
 Example 7
Equations of motion – Method of repeating variables
Step 1
𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑔, 𝑡, 𝑧0 , 𝑤0 ∴𝑛=5

Step 2
Evaluating all the dimensions,
𝑧 = 𝐿 𝑧0 = 𝐿 𝑤0 = 𝐿𝑡 −1
𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑔 = 𝐿𝑡 −2
Independent (primary) dimensions: 𝐿, 𝑡

Step 3
𝑚=2
∴The expected no. of Πs is 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 5 − 2 = 3
 Example 7
Step 4
Choosing 2 Dimensionally independent repeating variables;
Geometric variable - 𝑧0 and kinematic/time dependent variable - 𝑤0

Step 5 - Constructing all the Πs

First Π is the dependent Π, made from dependent variable 𝑧.
Π1 = 𝑧𝑧0 𝑎1 𝑤0 𝑏1
Taking dimensions,
Π1 = 𝐿0 𝑡 0 = 𝐿1 𝐿𝑎1 (𝐿1 𝑡 −1 )𝑏1
For t; 𝑡 0 = 𝑡 −𝑏1 ∴ 𝑏1 = 0
0 1+𝑎1 −𝑏1
For L; 𝐿 = 𝐿 ∴ 1 + 𝑎1 − 0 = 0 and 𝑎1 = −1
Therefore,
𝑧
Π1 =
𝑧0
 Example 7
Step 5 - Constructing all the Πs
First independent Π made from independent variable 𝑡.
Π2 = 𝑡𝑧0 𝑎2 𝑤0 𝑏2

Taking dimensions,
Π2 = 𝐿0 𝑡 0 = 𝑡 1 𝐿𝑎2 (𝐿1 𝑡 −1 )𝑏2
For t; 𝑡 0 = 𝑡 1−𝑏2 ∴ 𝑏2 =1
For L; 0 𝑎
𝐿 = 𝐿 2 2 +𝑏 ∴ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 0 and 𝑎2 = −1
Therefore,
𝑤0 𝑡
Π2 =
𝑧0
 Example 7
Step 5 - Constructing all the Πs
Second independent Π made from 𝑔.
Π3 = 𝑔𝑧0 𝑎3 𝑤0 𝑏3

Taking dimensions,
Π3 = 𝐿0 𝑡 0 = 𝐿1 𝑡 −2 𝐿𝑎3 (𝐿1 𝑡 −1 )𝑏3
For t; 𝑡 0 = 𝑡 −2−𝑏3 ∴ 𝑏3 = −2
For L; 0 1+𝑎 +𝑏
𝐿 = 𝐿 3 3 ∴ 1 + 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 = 0 and 𝑎3 = 1
Therefore,
𝑧0 𝑔
Π3 = 2
𝑤0
 Example 7
Step 5 – Manipulating Πs to get established dimensionless groups.
𝑤0
𝐹𝑟 = is an established dimensionless group. Π3 raised to the power of (-1/2) will be
𝑔𝑧0
equal to this.
1
−2
1
−2 𝑧0 𝑔 𝑤0
Π3,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 = Π3 = = = 𝐹𝑟
𝑤0 2 𝑔𝑧0

The unmodified 𝛱3 is not wrong, and there is certainly no mathematical advantage

𝛱3,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 over it. Instead, we like to say that 𝛱3,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 is more “socially acceptable”
than unmodified 𝛱3 , since it is a named, established nondimensional parameter that is
commonly used in the literature.
 Example 7
Step 6
Π1 = 𝑓 Π2 , Π3

We can see that Π1 = 𝑧 ∗ , Π2 = 𝑡 ∗ and Π3 = 𝐹𝑟.

∴ 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑓(𝑡 ∗ , 𝐹𝑟)
1
Comparing this to the exact analytical result, 𝑧 ∗ = 1 + 𝑡 ∗ − 2𝐹𝑟 2 𝑡 ∗ 2 , it is observed that
the method of repeating variables cannot predict the exact form of the mathematical
equation.
This is a fundamental limitation of dimensional analysis and the method of repeating
variables.
 Similarity
Nondimensionalization of an equation by inspection is useful only when we
know the equation to begin with. However, in many cases in real-life
engineering, the equations are either not known or too difficult to solve;
oftentimes experimentation is the only method of obtaining reliable
information.
In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a
geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype.

• Prototype: Full scale system to be tested on.

• Model: Representation of the prototype in smaller scale.
 Similarity…
Similarity between model and prototype must be evaluated for this.
There are 3 necessary conditions for complete similarity between model and prototype.

1. Geometric similarity – the model must be the same shape as the prototype but scaled by
some constant scale factor.
2. Kinematic similarity – the velocity at any point in the model flow must be proportional (by
a constant scale factor) to the velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow.
(Velocity at corresponding points must scale in magnitude and must point in the same
relative direction.)
3. Dynamic similarity – all forces in the model flow scale by a constant factor to
corresponding forces in the prototype flow (force-scale equivalence).
 Similarity in Flow Experiments
For an experiment in which a scale model is tested to simulate the prototype
flow, complete similarity is achieved when the model and the prototype and
geometrically similar and all independent Π groups match between the
model and the prototype. Under these conditions the dependent Π of the
model is guaranteed to also equal the dependent Π of the prototype.
i.e.- If, Π2,𝑚 = Π2,𝑝 , Π3,𝑚 = Π3,𝑝 …, Π𝑛−𝑟,𝑚 = Π𝑛−𝑟,𝑝
(where 𝑚 is for model and 𝑝 is for prototype)

Then, Π1,𝑚 = Π1,𝑝

 Example 8
Similarity between and model and prototype cars
The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at
a speed of 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ at an air temperature of 25°𝐶.
Automotive engineers build a 1/5 scale model of the car to test
in a wind tunnel with a temperature of air at about 5°𝐶.
1. Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind
tunnel in order to achieve similarity between the model
and the prototype.
2. Suppose the engineers run the wind tunnel at 221 𝑘𝑚/ℎ to
achieve similarity between the model and the prototype.
The average aerodynamic drag force on the model is 84 𝑁.
Predict the aerodynamic drag force on the prototype (at
50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ and 25°𝐶).
 Example 8
In the case of aerodynamic drag on an automobile, it turns out that if the flow is
approximated as incompressible, there are only two Πs in the problem.
𝐹 𝜌𝑉𝐿
Π1 = 𝑓(Π2 ) where Π1 = 𝜌𝑉 2𝐷𝐿2 and Π2 = = 𝑅𝑒 (Reynold’s number)
𝜇
Where, 𝐹𝐷 = Magnitude of the aerodynamic drag on the car
𝜌 = Density of air
𝑉 = Speed of the car
𝐿 = Length of the car
𝜇 = Viscosity of air
 Example 8
1. From similarity,
Π2,𝑚 = Π2,𝑝
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝
=
𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑝
𝜇𝑚 𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 0.01754 1.184
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑝 = 50 × × × 5 = 221 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝜇𝑝 𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝑚 0.01849 1.269
1. From similarity,
Π1,𝑚 = Π1,𝑝
𝐹𝐷,𝑚 𝐹𝐷,𝑝
=
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 2 𝐿𝑚 2 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 2 𝐿𝑝 2
2 2 2
𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐿𝑝 1.184 50
𝐹𝐷,𝑝 = 𝐹𝐷,𝑚 = 84 × × × 52 = 100.3 𝑁
𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 1.269 221
QUESTIONS?