Human Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Objectives
1. Name the organic molecules that make up cell membranes
and state their functions.
2. State the functions of the nucleus and chromosomes.
3. Describe the functions of the cell organelles.
4. Define each of these cellular transport mechanisms and
give an example of the role of each in the body: diffusion,
osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, filtration,
phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.
Learning Objectives
5. Describe the triplet code of DNA.
6. Explain how the triplet code of DNA is transcribed and
translated in the synthesis of proteins.
7. Describe what happens in mitosis and in meiosis.
8. Use examples to explain the importance of mitosis.
9. Explain the importance of meiosis.#
“All living organisms are made of
cells and cell products”

Cells are the smallest living subunits of a

multicellular organisms
A cell is a complex arrangement of the chemicals

Microorganisms are single cells that function

independently

Human cells must work together and function

interdependently
Cell Structure
 • Eukaryotes
• eu (true) and caryo (nucleus) ; they have a true
nucleus because their DNA is enclosed in a
Cells are nuclear membrane.
either…
• Prokaryotes
• organisms with a primitive type of nucleus
because it does not contain nucleoplasm nor a
nuclear membrane.
 EUKARYOTE PROKARYOTE
SIZE 10-30m in diameter (most plants Around 2-10m in diameter; 10
& animals); 10 times larger times smaller

CELL WALL If present, it may contain cellulose Present; contains peptidoglygan

(algae & plants) and chitin (fungi)

GLYCOCALYX absent Present (slime layers and

capsules)
CELL MEMBRANE present present
NUCLEUS Present; enclosed in nuclear Without nuclear
membrane membrane
DNA Linear DNA molecules and Single, long, supercoiled,
proteins circular DNA molecule;
No proteins
MICROTUBULES & Present Absent
ORGANELLES
FLAGELLA / CILIA Has a complex structure if Flagella, when present,
present have a simple, twisted
protein structure; no cilia

RIBOSOMES Larger and bound to Smaller; free swimming in

membranes (80S) the cytoplasm (70S)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS Present (in plants) Present in cyanobacteria

REPRODUCTION Mitosis or meiosis Binary fission

Cell Membrane
• The “skin” of the cell
• Regulates the passage of nutrients, waste products, and secretions
into and out of the cell
• The cell membrane has the property of “selective permeability”
Nucleus
• “True nucleus”
• Controls the functions of the entire cell and can be thought of as the
“command center” of the cell
• Has three components:
• Nucleoplasm – the gelatinous matrix or base material of the nucleus
• Chromosomes – contains the DNA molecules and proteins
• Nuclear membrane - the “skin” of the nucleus
Cytoplasm
• A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix
• Contains various organelles
a. Endoplasmic reticulum – highly convoluted transport network
b. Ribosomes – consists mainly of rRNA and protein; play a role in protein synthesis
a. Consists of two subunits: 60S subunit and 40S subunit
c. Golgi complexes – completes the transformation of newly synthesized proteins to
mature vesicles
d. Mitochondria – referred to as the “powerhouse”, “power plants”, or “energy
factories” of the cells; energy is released from glucose molecules and other
nutrients to drive other cellular functions
e. Centrioles
f. Cytoskeleton – consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments; gives strength, support, and shape of the cell
g. Lysosomes & Peroxisomes – aid in breaking down worn out parts of the cell and is
responsible for cell autolysis
Cell Wall
• Not all eukaryotic cells possess cell wall
• An external structure that provide rigidity, shape, and
protection of the cell
• May contain cellulose, pectin, lignin, chitin, and some
mineral salts
Flagella and Cilia

• Flagella
• The whipping motion of the flagella enables cells to
“swim” through liquid environment
• Flagella are whip-like

• Cilia
• Are also organelles of locomotion
• Tend to be shorter, thinner, and more numerous than
flagella
Cellular Transport
Mechanism
 “Living cells constantly interact with
the blood or tissue fluid around them,
taking in some substances and secreting
or excreting others”
The Genetic Code and
Protein Synthesis
DNA and the Genetic Code
DNA is a double strand of nucleotides in the form of a double
helix

• Each strand consists of nucleotides

• Nucleotides: phosphate, sugar and nitrogenous base

• Nucleoside = combination of a sugar & a nitrogenous base

Base pairing in DNA

• Purines
• adenine (A), guanine (G)

• Pyrimidines
• thymine (T), cytosine (C)

• Pairing:
• A : T (2 bonds)
• C : G (3 bonds)
DNA vs RNA

•DNA •RNA
• Double Helix • Single strand
• Deoxyribose sugar • Ribose sugar
• Adenine pairs with • Uracil replaces
Thymine (A-T) Thymine!
• Stays in nucleus • Leaves nucleus to do
the work
RNA and Protein Synthesis

•Three types of RNA:

• mRNA • tRNA •rRNA
• “messenger” • “transfer” • used in the
RNA building of
RNA
• Carries code ribosome
for proteins • Amino
• machinery for
from DNA Acids synthesizing
• Carries • Anticodon proteins
“codon” • translates
mRNA
Protein Synthesis
Cell Division
1. Karyokinesis – nuclear division; 2 types
leading to cytokinesis

2. Cytokinesis

Types of Karyokinesis
• Mitosis – cell division of somatic cell; stages:
PMAT; only 2 daughter cell with 23 pairs of
chromosomes (diploid)

• Meiosis – cell division of sex cells; stages:

PMAT 1&2; 4 daughter cells; with only 23
chromosomes in cell (haploid)
Functions of Cell Mitosis
1. To ensure that each chromosomal DNA molecule is replicated once
and only once per cycle

2. To ensure that the identical replicas of each chromosome (the sister

chromatids) are distributed equally to the two daughter cells
Cell Cycle
• Orderly sequence of events that occurs from a time when a
cell is first formed until it divides into two new cells

2 Major Periods:
• Interphase – resting phase; highly active (metabolic phase)
• Substages:
a. G1 stage – cell grows; double organelles;
accumulates material for DNA synthesis
b. S stage – synthesis stage; DNA undergoes synthesis
c. G2 stage – protein will be synthesized that are
needed for cell division; entering cell division phase
• Cell Division Phase
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
• Re-check of cell for abnormal cells and prevent errors
• Found during G1 just before S (G1/S checkpoint) and during G2 just
before M (G2/M checkpoint); during M prior (anaphase checkpoint)
to end of cell division

Apoptosis
• programmed cell death of erroneous cells
• during presence of Capsases (initiators and executioners)
 Cell Division Phases
• MITOTIC DIVISION
A. Prophase
• nuclear membrane disappears as well as nucleus
• centrioles move toward each pole (opposite ends)
• formation of spindle fiber which attaches to the
kinetochore of chromosome

B. Metaphase
• alignment of chromosome at the metaphase plate
C. Anaphase
• separation of chromosomes
• pulled at opposite end

D. Telophase
• prominent of cleavage
• reformation of nuclear membrane
• leading to cytokinesis
 Cell Division Phases
• MEIOTIC DIVISION
• Almost similar process in the first set with mitotic division
• Difference: during P1 – chiasma occur
• PMAT2 – almost the same except during Anaphase
• A1- sister chromosomes are pulled apart
• A2 – sister chromatids are pulled apart

23 chromosomes

23 pairs
23 chromosomes
46 pairs PMAT1
PMAT2
23 pairs
Significance of Mitosis

1. Replacement of damaged cell

2. Repair
3. Growth
Significance of Meiosis

• Mother Cell (Diploid) produces a daughter

cell (haploid)
• Non-clonality
• Interphase (doubling) → PMAT1 (no
doubling) → PMAT2 → daughter cells
• P1: chiasma formation – crossing over of
non-sister chromatid of the homologous
chromosome
Significance of Apoptosis
1. As counterpart of mitosis
2. Maintains homeostasis of cells
3. If there is abnormal cell, it will be killed
Spermatogenesis and
Oogenesis
 Spermatogenesis

TAKES PLACE IN THE BEGINS WITH THE ALL SPERM CELLS

TESTES EXPANDED GROWTH OF AN PRODUCED DURING
UNDIFFERENTIATED SPERMATOGENESIS
DIPLOID GERM CELL – RECEIVE EQUAL AMOUNTS
“SPERMATOGONIUM” OF GENETIC MATERIAL AND
CYTOPLASM.
 Twins…

• Identical:
• 1 sperm
• 1 egg

• Fraternal:
• 2 sperm
• 2 eggs
Human Anatomy and Physiology