Edible coating:

Edible coating is a thin layer of material on the product to improve or preserve the
characteristics of the product. Edible coating form translucent film produced from material that
are food grade & add to the naturally present waxes on the fruit surfaces. Edible coatings are
formed from different polymers including polysaccharides, lipids, & protein compounds. Edible
coating has been found to be very effective in maintain the quality and shelf life of the product.
Edible coatings act as a physical barrier between the product and environment and hence
protect the product from the deleterious effect of environment on the commodity.

Application of edible coating lessen the undesirable changes in the minimally processed
products. Edible coatings provide barrier to water vapors and gas exchange, hence prevent the
shrinkage of the products and maintain their fresh look. Coating also act as carrier of additives
like antioxidants, acidulate, fungicides and preservatives (Suyatma et al., 2014). Edible coating
play an important role in preserving the quality of fresh cut products. It act as a semipermeable
membrane which retard the migration of water and solute, respiration and oxidation reaction
rates ((Robles-Sánchez et al., 2013). The main purpose of edible coating is to prevent the
moisture loss, reduce respiration rate, reduced loss of respiration, controlling oxidative
browning, decreasing the growth rate of microflora, extending the shelf life by controlling the
discolor activity and decreasing the physiological disorders (Cakmak et al., 2018).

Fig: main function of edible coating on fruits/vegetables

Methods to apply edible Coatings:
In order for coatings to be effective, they should be applied in a manner that takes into
consideration the purpose of the coating, the nature of the food to be coated, the
characteristics of the surface, and the rheological properties of the solution (Suhag et al., 2020).
Coatings must adhere to food surfaces in order to function properly (Raghav et al., 2016).
Wettability measures the amount of interfacial interaction between the surface of the food and
the coating. Spraying, dipping & hand coating are most commonly used for applying the edible
coatings to the commodity.
Among the most popular methods of coating fruits on a laboratory scale is immersion, primarily
because it is simple, does not require equipment, and provides a uniform film. Food surfaces
are submerged in a film-forming solution at a constant speed with this method, resulting in
complete wetting of the food surface (Valdes et al., 2018). The surplus solution is drained after
application to prevent a film-forming solution overload on the fruit surface. At the end, the
food is dried by evaporating the solvent & liquid from the food surface. After draining the
solution, drying can take place at ambient temperature or in heated air tunnel. This method
allows wide range of viscosity of solution for coating (Senturk et al., 2018). As a drawback of
this technique, the accumulation of residues and microorganisms during the immersion process
can result in cross-contamination between fruits (Suhag et al., 2020). Cleaning and sanitizing
products that will be coated and replacing the coating solution frequently will prevent this
problem (Andrade et al., 2012).

Fig: Methods of applying edible coatings

Next method is the spraying technique that result in uniform and attractive film coating. In
addition, it eliminates the risk of contamination of the coating solution (Dhanapal et al., 2012).
Through the formation of drops, the liquid surface is increased and the drops are evenly
distributed across the food surface. The fruit or vegetable is put on a plate or spinning rollers at
a synchronized speed during spray application, and dispersion nozzles are operated manually or
automatically. This process is continued until the coating thickness desired is attained. An issue
with this technique is that the viscous solutions can’t be used as they will clog the apparatus
(Atieno et al., 2019).
Another method is applying the coating solution with brushing technology. The fruit is passed
through a moving belt to the brushing apparatus. The apparatus brush the coating solution on
the fruit in appropriate amount and belt continue moving.
Application of coating material with hands is another method to apply coating on fruits. Fruits
can be coated by hand, while wearing latex gloves, by putting a homogeneous quantity of
coating solution over them. On a laboratory scale, it is appropriate to minimize waste during
screening of experimental coating solutions and to avoid solution contaminations. It also form a
non-uniform coating on the fruit surface.

Nano composite coatings:

Advanced form of coating is the Nano composite coating which contain edible polymer matrix
filled with Nano particles. Nanotechnology has become an important tool for extending the
storage life of food in recent years. In contrast to particles with a larger size, nanoscale particles
provide unique and improved properties (Nile et al., 2020). When Nano systems are used in
nanocomposite coatings, the most important changes are in the water barrier, the optical and
mechanical properties, and the antibacterial and antioxidant properties. By enabling gradual
and controlled release of antimicrobial or antioxidant compounds over the period when fruit is
stored, sometimes under varying storage conditions, nanoparticles in coatings enhance these
effects, and enhance the bioavailability of these compounds ( Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2018).
Improvements in these properties are critical for maintaining food quality and reducing the
growth of decay microorganisms (bacteria, filamentous fungus, and yeasts) as well as the
activity of free radicals, which damage food and shorten shelf life (Kumar t al., 2020).
Nano systems also possess the advantage that only a small amount of these substances are
needed to obtain good activity, so the use of these compounds at low concentrations does not
adversely affect food taste (Hasan et al., 2020)
One of the most effective inorganic compound to be added into the polymer matrix is the ZnO
nanoparticles. The application of ZnO as nanoparticles into the edible film is found effective for
apples, kiwi and mango (Meindrawan et al., 2018). The use of ZnO is advantageous as it is a safe
chemical substance and can be used for the Zn supplementation and fortification into the
product (Suyatma et al., 2014). The ZnO Nanoparticles also provide the antimicrobial activity to
extend the shelf life of the commodity.

Carboxymethyl cellulose coating with CaCl 2 with ascorbic acid is found effective to suppress the
browning on surface and maintain the quality of fresh cut apples ((Koushesh & Sogvar, 2016).
Chitosan and pullulan based edible coating is excellent for controlling microbial growth in fresh
cut pineapples which leads to improve the quality and prolong the shelf life to 6 days (Treviño-
Garza et al., 2017). Chitosan is a polysaccharide that is obtained from the deacetylation of chitin
in alkali medium & chitosan based edible coating is found really effective to extend the shelf life
of fresh cut fruits/ vegetables. Researches demonstrated that chitosan based edible coatings
inhibit the microbial growth for mold and bacteria on apple slices (Pilon et al., 2015). Nitric
Oxide-NO is a diffusible molecule that is involved in many physiological processes including
senescence, ripening etc. nitric oxide play an important role in maintaining the postharvest life
of peaches & grapes.

Basic properties of Nano composite coatings:

Barrier Properties:
 Moisture barrier
 Oxygen scavengers
 Ethylene scavengers

Antimicrobial properties
Barrier/scavenger properties:
Moisture barrier:
As edible coating are able to prevent the loss of moisture, volatile substances and prevent the
penetration of oxygen into the product/commodity, these coatings are considered as an
effective method to preserve the fruits and vegetables. Hence these coatings prevent the
weight loss of the commodity by acting as barrier to moisture loss. Additionally, edible coating
enhance the appearance of the commodity, improve texture of the product and ultimately
extend the shelf life of commodity by controlling the moisture loss (Duran et al., 2016).
Researchers developed a Nano composite coating containing sodium alginate along with Nano
particle ZnO, and applied it to the strawberries surface ( Emamifar & Bavaisi, 2020). The result of
the research dictates that the NP ZnO improve the moisture retention property of the film and
consequently reduced weigh loss occur in strawberry fruit. On the other hand, the fruits which
were not coated with NP coating found dry due to excessive loss of moisture & hence weight
loss occur.
Chi et al. found that silver (Ag) and titanium (Ti) results in improved water barrier properties of the NP
edible coatings.
Oxygen scavengers:
Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers are added to the packaging material to help remove or
lower the level of oxygen in the packaging. Oxygen can cause oxidation which lead to oxidative
browning of fresh cut products, hence oxygen scavengers should be added in the packaging
material. Furthermore, oxygen can lead to lots of deleterious effect on the product which
include nutrient loss, color change and enhancement of off-flavors (Lee SY et al., 2015). Oxygen
also has major effect on ethylene production and the rate of respiration. As oxygen has many
detrimental effect of the shelf life of product, many researches are focused on removing the
oxygen from the packaging.
Research showed that coating of cellulose Nano fibrils results in reducing oxygen diffusion,
decreased rate of respiration & delay strawberry oxidation by ascorbic acid reaction ( Emamifar
& Bavaisi, 2020). Coating that have higher percentage % of CNF, have high oxygen barrier. As
oxygen spread was reduced on the surface of the fruit, the oxidative stress on its texture was
reduced. As a result, the fresh-cut apple's cell membranes were protected by excluding reactive
oxygen. Researchers reported that incorporating ZnO into sodium alginate edible film improve
its antioxidant activity. The oxygen consumption of enzymes for enzymatic oxidation of
anthocyanin and phenol decreased as a result. In case of uncoated strawberries, there is higher
loss of antioxidant activity at the end of storage period.
Fruits and vegetables rely heavily on oxygen scavengers for their protection. The oxygen
scavenging used for product packaging can prevent the growth of aerobic bacteria, color
degradation, mold growth, and oxidative damage to fruits and vegetables.

Ethylene scavengers:
Control of ethylene production at the time of storage play an important role in extending the
shelf life of fruits & vegetables after harvesting. Ethylene can increase the ripening process,
results in softening of fruits & chlorophyll degradation, hence lead to the spoilage of fruits and
vegetables (Kaewklin et al., 2018). Hence the use of ethylene scavengers are really crucial for
protecting the ethylene sensitive fruits from rapid ripening. Ethylene sensitive fruits include
banana, apple, carrot, onion & mangoes (Siripatrawan & Kaewklin, 2018). Ripening can be
delayed by controlling the ethylene production in fruits by coating the fruit with a semi
permeable material. The coating can limit the spread of CO2 outside the tissue as well as
reduce the amount of oxygen in respiration.   As a possible alternative to disinfectants and
chemical treatments, they may also be a good option (Meindrawan et al., 2018).
Researchers reported that the mix of silica and TiO2 can eliminate ethylene & inhibit the
ripening process of green tomatoes (Chiara et al., 2015). The effect of nanocomposite film
containing Nano-Ag, nano-TiO2 on kiwi fruit was investigated and it was found out that
increasing level of Nanoparticles decrease the oxygen permeability & water vapor permeability.
In accordance with recent researches, the Nano composite coating delay ripening and hence
prevent deterioration of fruits and vegetables. It also helps to extend the shelf life & enhance
the quality of the product.

Antimicrobial properties:
The main reason of contamination for fruits and vegetables is the lack of proper packaging. Due
to their high surface area and antimicrobial properties, nanoparticles with high aspect ratios are
particularly interesting. Strawberries that are coated with 1.5% sodium alginate and 1.25g/L
Nano-ZnO showed lowest microbial growth. By adding nano-ZnO to the coating formulation,
the antimicrobial properties are improved, and the fresh fruits are preserved for up to 20 days
longer. The effect of ZnO Nanoparticles on fresh cut apples stored at 4 degree Celsius was
studied, & it showed the suppression of microbial growth on the product and resulted in
extended shelf life (Li et al., 2017). The impact of chitosan/nano TiO 2 composite coating was
studied, which showed that microbial growth is suppressed and this coating preserve the
natural mango nutrient composition (Xing et al., 2020).

Preparation of edible coating with Nano particles:

Preparation of Edible Coating Films with TiO2 Nano particles:
Researcher prepared Nano particles based edible coating with titanium dioxide incorporated
into polymers by mixing in porcelain mortar for about 15 minutes. In order to avoid TiO2 NP
aggregation, the suspensions were treated in an ultrasonic water bath for 1 h (Yemmireddy et
al., 2015). Potato starch film was also prepared with TiO 2 and sodium montmorillonite (MMT).
First, starch and glycerol were mixed at room temperature (25ᵒC) for five minutes. This
suspension was agitated and heated to 90°C for 30 minutes. MMT and TiO2 were then
sonicated for 60 minutes at room temperature in distilled water before being added to the
aqueous dispersion of starch. Mixture was stirred for 10 minutes. The solution was put onto a
polystyrene tray and dried in an oven at 60°C for 15 hours after being vacuumed to eliminate
air bubbles (Oleyaei et al., 2016).
Preparation of Edible Coating Films with Ag Nano particles:
To begin, EDC (1-ethyl-3-[30-dimethylaminopropyl] carbodiimide)/NHS (N-hydroxysuccinimide)
was added to AgNPs solution with a carboxylate and incubated at 25°C for 4 hours with shaking.
The CS/cellulose film was then immersed in the solution for 24 hours while being shaken. The
carboxyl groups of AgNPs were activated by EDC and NHS during the preparation process, and
then interacted with the amino groups of CS in the composite film. After that, the changed film
was removed and rinsed in deionized water (Lin et al., 2015).
To begin, a film forming solution was made by dissolving agar and banana powder in distilled
water and heating for 20 minutes with stirring at 90 degrees Celsius. The aqueous solution of
AgNO3 was then added to the agar and banana powder (A/B) film solution and heated at 90°C
for 4 hours with stirring after the glycerol was added. The solutions were cast onto levelled
Teflon film covered glass plates and allowed to dry for 48 hours at room temperature ( Orsuwan
et al., 2016).

Preparation of edible coating film with ZnO Nano particles:

Researcher prepared nanocomposite CS/ZnO membrane. In an aqueous acetic acid solution, CS
was added and dissolved. The solution was put onto a glass plate for drying after silica particles
were added with stirring. To create a porous membrane, the dry membrane was soaked in an
aqueous NaOH solution and maintained at 80°C for 2 hours to dissolve the silica particles. The
porous membrane was then rinsed with distilled water before being submerged for 30 minutes
in an aqueous glycerol solution to remove the surplus glycerol solution. Finally, film discs were
sliced and immersed in a suspension of nano ZnO in distilled water for 24 hours while stirring at
28 degrees Celsius. Separated CS/ZnO discs were cleaned in distilled water and air dried ( Malini
et al., 2015).

Nafchi prepared the sago starch films incorporated with nanorod-rich ZnO (ZnO-N). ZnO-N was first
mixed in water and agitated for 1 hour before being sonicated for another 30 minutes. The
aqueous starch dispersion was made with this solution. Sorbitol and glycerol were mixed
together.
For 45 minutes, starch nanocomposites were heated to 85°C. The solution was cooled to room
temperature once starch gelatinization was finished. Finally, the dispersion was cast onto the
plates and dried in a humidity chamber at 25°C and 50% RH.

Nano-silica/chitosan semi-permeable coatings significantly extended shelf life, reduced

browning index, and inhibited weight loss. The peroxidase activity of nanocomposite-coated
longan was also much lower than that of the other treatments. The effect of edible coating
from protein isolate with organo clay MMTon minimally processed papaya was studied that is
stored at 5 degree celcius for 12 days. Lower microbial growth, mass loss, lightness, and pH, as
well as a little drop in hardness, were all seen in the coated papaya, showing excellent
outcomes in the coating of minimally processed papaya ( Cortez-Vega et al., 2014). When
compared to uncoated papaya, studies on ZnO and chitosan NPs in coating fresh-cut papaya
have revealed that including a nanocomposite coating in fresh-cut papaya might greatly reduce
microbial development during storage period. According to this research, nanocomposite
treatment might be an acceptable alternative for preserving and increasing the postharvest
shelf life of fresh-cut papaya (Lavinia et al., 2020).
During 12 days at 8 degrees Celsius, the effect of a bionanocomposite coating including cassava
starch and ZnO-NP on the qualitative features of fresh-cut mango was studied. The
bionanocomposite layer containing 2% ZnO-NP was the most effective in terms of decreasing
mass loss and microbiological development. For use on mango, the researcher created a bio-
nanocomposite layer using carrageenan and ZnO NPs. The produced coating proved successful
in reducing mango quality loss. Bio nanocomposite coating had good antibacterial
characteristics against E. coli, suggesting that it might extend mango shelf life. Finally, rice
straws and MMT clay polyvinyl alcohol were used to make bio nanocomposite films for use on
mangos (Meindrawan et al., 2014). The mango's storability was enhanced, and its shelf life was
prolonged to 19 days with acceptable flavonoid concentration, antioxidant activity, and mass
loss (Perumal et al., 2018).
Red fruits, such as raspberry, blueberry, and strawberry, include a variety of minerals and
vitamins, as well as a wide range of nutritional value. Berries, on the other hand, have a limited
shelf life due to their high metabolic activity, susceptibility to contamination, and thin skin.
Because berries are high-value items with a high price tag, they require advanced technologies
to preserve and extend their shelf life (Barikloo & Ahmadi et al., 2018). Kanikireddy et al.
created a nanocomposite film containing CMC-guar gum and Ag NPs that has antibacterial
action against Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungal microorganisms.
In addition, Sogvar et al. found that nanoZnO treatments reduced microbial activity during
strawberry storage. Treatments also slowed weight loss, preserved fruit firmness, and
maintained higher quantities of anthocyanins, vitamin C, phenolic content, and antioxidant
activity than untreated fruit.

Toxicological aspects, safety, and migration of metal NPs into food products
Because of the potential for NPs to migrate into packaged food during processing and storage,
there has been public concern about their safety when used for food packaging (Jafarzadeh
etal., 2020). Temperature, Nano particles shape, mechanical stress, particle size, aggregation,
surface characteristics, and composition all influence the rate of migration and effect of NPs on
the body. Migration of NPs can reduce the acceptability and organoleptic properties of food
(Emamhadi et al., 2020). Furthermore, since some NPs have toxic properties, if the migration
rate is higher than the limitation rate and legislated values, it can cause health problems.
The entrance of Nano Particles with diameters of 10–100 nm into the body might cause major
health concerns. Nano particles with sizes of 70 and 50 nanometers may enter the lungs and
cells, respectively, while those with sizes of 30 nanometers can even pass through the blood-
brain barrier (Chau C-F et al., 2007). Because of their increased absorption rate and ability to
quickly disseminate throughout the organs, small-sized NPs pose a larger risk to human health
than large-sized NPs. It has been observed that packaging materials, particularly silver NPs, may
migrate into human food items; however, there is little evidence on their toxicity. According to
Yang et al. that the use and disposal of titanium dioxide may have an impact on individuals and
the environment, increasing the risks of potential harm (Yang et al., 2014).
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is in charge of preserving public health and the
security of food contact materials, and it plays a critical role in analyzing food items including
NPs and nanoscale food additives ( Paradise, 2019). The FDA has released various publications on
nanotechnology to assist the industry, including research and analytical advice as well as
regulatory policy recommendations. The use of nanotechnology to deal with nanotechnology-
based items has been approved. Furthermore, nano-size materials (100 nm or less) can only be
used when approved and referenced in the descriptions of Annex I of the rules, and their
migration into food items must be below a defined detection level, according to European
country standards (FDA US. Nanotechnology, 2007).

Because of the Nano metric size of the droplets, Nano emulsions may generally remain intact
after digestion, posing possible safety concerns about the substances utilized in their formation
(such as surfactants). Because of their rapid absorption compared to conventional emulsions,
their ability to increase the bioavailability of bioactive agents to toxic levels, and the possibility
of increased absorption by epithelial cells, which can cause changes in the gastrointestinal
tract's functionality, they can be of concern in metabolic or hormonal disorder ( Wani et al.,
2018). An in vivo model was used to assess the toxicity of Miglyol and egg lecithin Nano
emulsions (male Wistar rats). Rats were given the Nano emulsions orally for 21 days at lipid
concentrations of 200, 400, or 800 mg/kg of body weight. The findings of biochemical,
hematological, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity criteria indicated that Nano emulsions were
safe for oral administration, but that excessive dosages administered via the parenteral route
might be harmful (Hort et al., 2020).
According to the few studies that have been done, Nano emulsions made with GRAS
compounds do not have severe cytotoxic effects. The nanoscale size of the droplets implies that
they are quickly converted into monoglycerides and free fatty acids in the small intestine, which
are typical digestive products with no harmful consequences ( McClements et al., 2012).
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